(iii) INDEX Pa~e

SAFETY IN THE USE OF EQUIPMENT General Safety Rules THE THERMAL RADIATION UNIT Introduction Receipt of Equipment Description Installation Requirements Commissioning EXPERIMENTS: Radiometer Data Sheet 1. Inverse Square Law for Heat To show that the intensity of radiation on a surface is inversely proportional to the square of the distance of the surface from the radiation source. 2. Stefan-Boltzmann Law To show that the intensity of radiation varies as the fourth power of the source temperature. To determine the emissivity of different surfaces (polished, silver anodised, matt black). 4. Emissivity II
To demonstrate how the emissivity of radiating surfaces in proximity to each other will affect the surface temperatures and the heat emitted.

6 2 6 8 8 9
9."

10
22,

.'.,

24.

. 27

3. EmissivityI

29

32

5.

Kirchoff's Law To detennine the validity of Kirchoff's Law which states that the emissivity of a grey surface is equal to its absorptivity of radiation' received from another surface when in a condition of thermal equilibrium. Area Factors To demonstrate that the exchange of radiant energy from one surface to another is dependent upon their intertOIinecting geometry, i.e. a function of the amount that each surface can 'see' of the other. To show that the illuminance of a surface is inversely proportional to the square of the distance of the surface from the light ~urce. Lambert's Cosine Law To show that the energy radiated in any direction at an angle with a surface is equal to the normal radiation multiplied by the cosine of the angle between the direction of radiation and the normal to the surface.
~..

34

"
36

6.

7. InverseSquareLawfor Light

.
.

39

8.

42

(iv) Page
9. Lambert'sLaw of Absorption
'

45

To show that light passing through non-opaque matter is reduced in intensity in proportion to the thickness and absorptivity of the material.

DIAGRAMS: RCCB Installation 48

rransform~r~o~~~~n~91~V,_~i!S2~___,

7 -~

~-~~-c

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"':; . ,..:~. ,.';.'1'." . "'." .'...;;: .,i ,,--,:.

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d'

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2
GENERAL SAFETY RULES

,<,

1. FollowRelevantInstructions
(a) Before attempting to install, commission or operate equipment, all relevant suppliers/manufacturers insnuctions and local regulations should' be understood and

implemented. warnings. etc.).

"

(b) It is irresponsible and dangerous to misuse equipment or ignore instructions, regulations or

'

(c) Do not exceed specified maximum operating conditions (e.g. temperature, pressure, speed,
,

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2.

Installation

- '. "." ,-..,,' "'.

(a) Use lifting tackle where possible to install heavy equipment Where manual lifting is necessary beware of strained backs and crushed toes. Get help from an assistant if necessary. Wear safety shoes where appropriate. .~,:_.
- ',.

(b) Extreme care should be exercised to avoid damage to the equipment during handling and unpacking. When using slings ,to lift equipment, ensure that the slings are attached'.to ' structural framework and do not foul adjacent pipework, glassware,etc. When using fork lift trucks, position the forks beneath structural framework ensuring that the forks do not foul adjacent pipework, glassware, etc. Damage may go unseen during commissioningcreating a potential hazard to subsequent operators.(c) Where special foundations are required follow the insnuctions providedand do not improvise. Locare heavy equipment at low level. (d) Equipment involving inflammable or corrosive liquids should be sited in a containment area or bund with a capacity of 50% greater than the maximum equipment contents.
.

(e) Ensure that all services are compatible with the equipment and that independent isolators are always provided and labelled. Use reliable connections in all instances, do not improvise. (0 Ensure that all equipment is reliably earthed and connecred to an electrical supply at the correct voltage. The electrical supply must incorporate an Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (ELeB) or Residual Current Circuit Breaker (RCCB) to protect the operator from severe electric shock

in the eventof misuseor accident.

(g) Potential hazards should always be the first consideration when deciding on a suitable location for equipment Leave sufficient space between equipment and between walls and equipment

3. Commissioning

..

(a) Ensure that equipment is commissioned and checked by a compe~ent member-of staff before

pennitting students to operate it.

'

4. OR,eration
(a) Ensure ~t students are fully aware of the potential hazards when operating equipment.

.". .,/

.;;

3
(b) Students should be supervised by a competent member of staff at all times when in the laboratory. No one should operate equipment alone. Do not leave eqUipment running
unattended. (c) Do not allow students to derive their own experimental procedures unless they are competent

to do so. (d) Serious injury can result from touching apparentlystationaryequipmentwhen using a

stroboscope 'freeze'rotarymotion. to S. Maintenance

-~_-~__n~.-

(a) Badlymai~Uilit~d-;quipmentiipotenn81 a nazard~EnsUre thata competentmemberof staff

is responsible for organising maintenance and repairs on a planned basis.
(b) Do not permit faulty equipment to be operated. Ensure that repairs are carried out competently and checked before students are permitted to operate the equipment .

6. UsinllElectricitv
(a) At least once each month, check that ELCB's (RCCB's) are operating correctly by pressing the 1EST button. The circuit breaker must trip. w.!1en button is pressed (failure to trip the means that the operator is not protected and a repair must be effected by a competent electrician before the equipment or electrical supply is used):
(b) Electricity is the commonest cause of accidents in the laboratory. EIisure that all members of staff and students respect it (c) Ensure that the electrical supply has been disconnected from the equipment before attempting

repairs or adjustments.

'

(d) Water and electricity are not compatible and can cause serious injury if they come into contact Never operate portable electrical appliances adjacent to equipment involving water unless some form of constraint or barrier is incorporated to prevent accidental contact.

(e) Always disconnect equipment from the electrical supply when not in use:' /

7. Avoidinll Fires or Explosion

(a) Ensure that the laboratory is provided with adequate flre extinguishers appropriate to the potential hazards.
(b) Where inflammable liquids are used, smoking must be forbidden. Notices should be displayed to enforce this. .. (c) Beware since f1ne powders or dust can spontaneously ignite under certain conditions. Empty
"

vessels having contained inflammable liquids can contain vapour and explode if ignited.

(d) Bulk quantities of inflammable liquids should be stored outside ttle laboratory in accordance with local regulations. (e) Storage tanks on equipment should not be overfilled. All spillages Shbuld be immediately cleaned up, carefully disposing of any contaminated cloths, etc. Beware of slippery floors. '." ?

-'-"

4
<0

When liquids giving off inflammable vapours are handled in the laboratory, the area should
be ventilated by an explosion-proof extraction system. Vents on the equipment should be
. .

connected to the extraction system.

(g) Students should not be allowed to prepare mixtures for analysis or other purpose without competent supervision.

8. HandlingPoisons, Corrosiveor Toxic Materials

(a) Certain liquids essential to the' operation of equipment. for example mercury, are poisonous or can give off poisonous vapours. Wear appropriate protective clothing when handling such 'substances. Clean up any spillage immediately and ventilate areas'thoroughly using extraction equiIJ.lTlent ]3e'!yare of slippery floors.
'-' '-"~,----.-.

(b) Do not allow food to be brought into or conswned in the laboratory. Never use chemical beakers as drinking vessels. (c) Where poisonous vapours are involved, smoking must be forbidden. Notices should be displayed to enforce this. (d) Poisons and very toxic materials must be kept in a locked cupboard or store and checked regularly. Use of such substances should be supervised. (e) When diluting concentrated acids and alkalis, the acid or alkali should be added slowly to water while stining. The reverse should never be attempted. .

. 9.

Avoiding Cuts and Burns

- ...

(a) Take care when handling sharp edged components. Do not exert undue force on glass or fragile items. (b) Hot surfaces cannotin most cases be totally shielded and can produce severebums even when not 'visibly' hot Use common sense and think which parts of the equipmentare likely to be hot

10. Eye Protection

(a) Goggles must be worn whenever there is risk to the eyes. Risk may arise from powders, liqpid splashes, vapours oil splinters. Beware of debris from fast moving air streams. Alkaline solutions are particularly dangerous to the eyes. (b) Never look directly at a strong source of light sucl,1as a laser or Xenon arc lamp. Ensure that equipment using such a source is positioned so that passers-by cannot accidentally view the source or reflected ray. (c) Facilities for eye irrigation should a1\yays be available.

11. Ear Protection

(a) Ear protectors must be' worn when operating noisy equipment

-,-

5
12. Clothing (a) Suitable clothing should be worn in the laboratory. Loose gannents can cause serious injury if caught in rotating machinery. Ties, rings on fingers, etc., should be removed in these situations. (b) Additional protective clothing should be available for all members of staff and students as appropriate.

"

13. Guards and Safe!! Devices

n~

(aL9uards and safetydevic:::sre installedonequipmentto protecttheoperator.The equipment a

must not be operated with such devices removed. ---- - - - ---------(b) Safety valves, cut-outs or other safety devices will have been set to protect the equipment. Interference with these devices may create a potential hazard. (c) It is not possible to guard the,operator against all contingencies. Use common sense at all times when in the laboratory. (d) Before starting a rotating machine, make sure staff are aware how to stop it in an emergency. (e) Ensure that speed control devices are ~ways set at ,zerobefore starting equipment.

14. First Aid

(a) If an accident does occur in the laboratory it is essential that first aid equipment is available and that the supervisor knows how to use it. (b) A notice giving details of a proficient fmt-aider should be prominently displayed. (c) A 'short list' of the antidotes for the chemicals used in a particular laboratory should tX; prominently displayed.

-..

13

11

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FIG.1
InENTIFICATION

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DIAGFlAM

Light Source

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THERMAL

RADIATION UNIT

FIG.2.

8
H960 THERMAL RADIAnON UNIT

INTRODUCTION Thermal radiation 18 a mode of heat transfer which differs significantly from the pther two modes, namely conduction and convection. The fact that radiant energy transfer occurs across a vacuum is often'disturbing to students unless the theory relating to properties of electromagneticwaves has been

presented.

The engineer is not directly concerned with the mechanism by which heat transfer occurs, but a sound knowledge of the properties and laws relating to the topic is required

The Hilton Radiation Unit consists of a pair of electrically heated radiant heat and light sources,

logeilier~with" a'Comprehengivevrange~ohargets" and~measuring1instrumentation, ~U~" -7, . .

~.""

The unit has been desiined to demonstrate the Cundamentallawsrelating to radiation. By perfo'mung -,
a series of simple experiments the student may verify the relevant equations and appreciate the .. behaviour of radiation. '
"

RECEIPT OF EQUIPMENT
r'l( -.,.

Sales in the United Kingdom The apparatus should be carefully unpacked and the components checked against the Packing List.
--- AnY'omissions or breakages should be notified to P.A. Hilton Limited within three days of receipt
""'.'"
~.

Sales Overseas

The apparatus should be carefully unpacked and the components checked against the Packing List.

Ani omissions or breakages should be notified immediately to the Insurance Agent stated on the Insurance Certificate if the goods were!nsured by P.A. Hilton Ltd.
'

Your own insurers should be notified immediately if insurance was arranged by yourselves.

..

-"

.. "

DESCRIPTION (Refer to Fig.2, Page 7)

The unit consists of a horizontal .bench mounted track (1) fitted with a heat-radiation source at one end and a light source at the other. Between the two sources may be placed either a heat radiation detector (13) or a light meter (16). In addition, a number of accessories can be fitted for e~peririlental purposes. These include metal plates with thermocouples attached, (5,6), two vertically orientated metal plates (14) to fonnah' aperture, and a number -of acrylic filters, (10,11,12), The ra~tion detectoJS and the accessories are all clamped to stands (7,8,9,15) which enable them to be positioned at different distances from the appropriate source. Distances are measured with a reversible scale (17) mounted on the front of the track.

Electrical power for the two. radiation sources is supplied from an.instrument console (3) and is controlled by a solid-state regulator. A step down ~sformer (2) provides a low voltage supply for the heat source. TemperatUresof the two metal-plates used in~conjunction with the heat radiation source are displaye(rbff'h..atgitaI~re:ad-()ui;'either"reading7beingselecte4 a change over switch..,Output from~~~__~. by the heat radiation detector is amplified and displayed on a second digital read.out The light meter is self-contained.

INSTALLATION REQUIREMENTS The equipment should be installed on a firm, level work surface ~ indicated below:

~ --~

--,--

--~.-

--------

FIG.

3.

The location should be remote from heaters or other sources of radiation and should preferably be a darkened room for light experiments. If a darkened room is not available, the apparatus should be located 'in subdued lighting away from direct sunlight. / A single phase electrical supply is reqUired. No other services are necessary.

10
COMMISSIONING The unit should be assembled as shown in Figs. 4 to 13, Pages 12 to 21.

220/240V Units

A Residual Current Circuit Breaker is provided to be wall mounted near'to 'where the unit will be located. Connect the 3m length of cable provided to a suitable fixed power supply via a fused isolating outlet for SA which complies with the local electrical installation regulations. Brown cable Blue cable GreenlY ellow'cable LIVE or LINE NEU1RAL EARTH OI"ground
~-

Connect the Live and Neutral of the other end of this cable to ttie top tefminalsof the RCCK The;:
earth wire is connected to the separate terminal strip (see Diagram RCCB 107 at the re& of the manual)..

The power cable will be found emerging from the rear of the unit. This is connected to the lower tenninals of the RCCB and the earth terminal strip.
."" ..,'>:. --", .' ,

llO/120V Units:",> " ' A suitably rated transformer is supplied with the unit and allows input voltages of between 110 'i1nd'130 Volts (in S volt steps) to be connected.

The unit and RCCB are connected in the same manner as described for 220V units above. However; ,the 3m cable is connected to the output of the transfonner and not directly to the supply. :" Before connecting the supply cable to the transfonner, the local mean voltage should be measured. When this has been detennined, the Live input of the supplyshould be connected to the terminal having the nearest voltage label. The Neutral of the supply is connected to the OVterminal and the Earth or (see diagram TRANl00 at the Ground of the supply is connected to the terminal labelled 'E' or
,

-::-

rear of the manual). The supply cable, cable gland and switched and fused outlet should be suitable for supplying lOA and be to a standard corresponding to the local regulations. The transformer should be placed in a protected position, but where air can circulate freely.

The RCCB is operated by use of the ON/OFF lever.

In the event of an earth leakage occurring, the RCCB will switch off, isolating the supply from the RCCB onwar~. However, this will only operate successfully if the unit is connected to a good earth. Should the RCCB. trip, the mains supply to the unit should be disconnected and the cause of the fault determined. The, RCCj3 can then be reset to the "ON" po,sition and the unit operated, Every thr~e months the RCCB should be checked by a competent person:- To do this, switch on both at the mains and the unit. Push the "TEST" button on the RCCB and ensure that the unit is isolated.

If the power remains on, the RCCB is faulty and will need to be replaced by a qualified electrician.
Having connected the apparatus to the electrical supply, correct operation should be checked as follows: Turn the power control on the console fully anti-clockwise (minimum). Connect the"light source supply cable to the power output socket ('C') on the instrument console.

~,' ., < ."

11
Set the ON/OFF switch on the console to the ON position and check the meters are illuminated.
Observe that the illumination of the light source increases as the power control on the console is turned clockwise.

Check the lightrneter ~nds

to the change in illumination of the light source.

Turn the power controLfully anti-clockwise and set the console ON/OFF switch to the OFF position. Disconnect the light source supply cable from the power output socket ('C') on the console.

Connect.the heater supply transformer cable to the power output socket ('C') on the console. Ensure

that the heateris connectedto the socketon the side of the transformer.
,~---

-"-

--

Connect the radiometer cable to the socket ('D') beneath the radi()me;~do~t-on

the console

-'--

Connect the leads from two metal plates to the sockets ('A') and ('B') beneath the thermometer readout on the console.

Set the ON/OFF switch on the console to the ON position and check the meters are illuminated.
Set the thermocouple selector switch to position 'A' then 'B' and check the thermometer indicates the temperature of the metal plates in both positions. (Temperature of the plates should be approximately

equal to the ambient air temperature prior to heating.)

.J'"

R"eir1()v~" plastic protective cover from the front of the radiometer if fitted and check the meter on the
.

.--

."

the console indicates zero. A reading other than zero will be obtained if the walls of the room are at a different temperature to the air.
Turn the power control on the console clockwise and check the front surface of the hearer increases in temperature.

Note: When initially using the heater operate the power control at reduced settings and allow the temperature to increase slowly. This will avoid excessive smell from the element and black front surface finish.' .
As,.the smface temperature of the heat source increases observe increases in the readouts of temperature and radiation. .

Turn the power control on the console fully anti-clockwise and set the ON/OFF switclyto the OFF
.'. - posi~~n.
, . '.,.,

Commissioning is now complete.

.~

12

Fiq 11
Fig 10
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Instrurent Console Fig -13

11
,

--Heater Supply Transfouner

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THERMAL

RADIATION UNIT

FIG. 4.

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13

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Heated Plate (Radiation Source)

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Connect to Socket en Heater Supply- Transfomer

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HEAT RADIATION-SOURCE

FIG.5.

15
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JIll'

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I .~ 'I

...

Variable (Gap)

Apert~e

--- ------

-..'C

Insulation Detector

Tcwards

..

Silvered ,. Towards

surfaceHeat Source

~ I~

,
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.;-@ y:.,.Ape.rture ':7:Stand ..

,; .

Plate

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"DCDTIIRI="

PI ATE ON STANlL

FIG. 7. .

17

Detector 'l'c:1Nards Light Source

~~

NJ Batteries required to cperate this unit

u ~-

Rotary Scale

Travel

Clarrp

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LIGHT METER ON DETECTOR STANO. FIG.9.

18

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Store Filter Plates with care to avoid damage

---

-~ I~" ;~, ----

Do N:Jr ~sition close to Heat Source

--

-~

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Filter

Plates

@ Filter
Stand

Plate

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~--

FILTER

PLATES

ON STANO.

FIG.10.

19

~-~~~-~

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Diffuser (Light Source)

Connect to Soc~et C on Instrurrent Console

Fig 13 ', c.-.

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Rotation

Clamp

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lore

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Note. A: distance from face of

Heat Source and Light Source, to the 50mm.measurement on the

:;:

Scale as indicated.

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Scale

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Scale
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Mains Input

Lead

Bra,.m
IN'\Li ve (Hot)~......

Neutral

, Blue ~~~~~")~'~4

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Connect Mains Lead to rear of Console

J;:arth
,

Green~ellCM ~,'~~

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Fuse Rating

- 5 Arrps

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, Inst.rurent

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P~r Control
N ....

Console

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A
On/Off Switch

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: Selector
, A

or B

Switch

"

32

4.

EMISSIVITY n

Experiment To demonstrate how the emissivity of radiating surfaces in proximity to each other will affect the surface temperatures and the heat emitted.

Equipment Set. Up Temperature reading T

'-~"--

Radiometer reading R

Heat

Metal plates

Set scale to O' ie. normal to track

--.,I I
"-..". I

L , -_.J

The pair of metal plates should be sequentially combined for the tests (A, B, C, D and E as iliown in this diagram, using the black and polished plates provided. Care should be taken to connect each plate thermocouple lead to the corresponding socket on the instrument console.

.. 0
0

1+0
I 2

1+1 0.1 2
2
Summary of Theory The object of Experiment 3 was to detemrine' the emissivity of different surfaces by measurement of the intensity of radiation emitted by the surface at a panicular temperature. This experiment demonstrates the practical aspects C?f missivity by comparing the temperatures of surfaces receiving aDdemitting rad?tion. e Initial Values of Variables to be Used Distance from radiometer to heat source

(X)

Distance from heat source to nearest metal plate <y) Note:

=5Omm

= l30rmn

=11Ormn(1 plate)
(2 plates)

The second metal plate is fixed 2Omm from the flI'Stby the position of the slots in the stand.

,
Readln2s to be taken Record the temperature of each metal plate (I) and the radiometer readings (R) for combinations A. B, C, D and E of the black and polished metal plates. f:or ease of comparison of results it is suggested that the power control on the instrument console is set to maximum for each combination. Anow sufficient time to achieve thermal equilibrium in each test before noting the various readings.

.,

33
Results
Temperature Plate 1 C A TemperatUre Plate 2 C Radiometer Reading (R) Wm-z Plate Combination

TEST.- .

----

Black only
Polished only Black to Polished Black to Black

B
C D
-

---

----

- -

----

Polished to Black

Students should compare the results obtained from each test and explain the differences in terms of the emissivity combinations used.

TYPICAL RESULTS
Temperature
'..

Plate

TemperatUre Plate

Radiometer

Plate Combination

TEST-

1 . C

2 C

Reading (R) Wm-z

197

------44 70 35

451
33 8 69 14

Blackonly
Polished only
Black o Polished

B
C
'.

114
207 197 112

D :E

Black to Black Polished to Black

Experiment 3 detennined approximate values for the emissivity of metal plates having different surface finishes; The above results show the effect of emissivity when different plates are combined

- . In each configurationthe temperatureand radiometerreadings are consistentwith the theory of emissivity . whereby a polished surface (having a low value of emissiVity) does not receive or emit much radiation compared with a black surface which does.

34
5. KIRCHOFF'S LAW

Experiment

To determine the validity of IGrchoff's Law which states that the emissivity of a grey surface is equal to its absorptivity of radiationreceived from another surfacewhen in a condition of thermal equilibrium. EQuipment Set-Up
Heat Radiometer reading (R) Set scale to 0 ie. normal to track
r-""
I I I 1 \ I 1 1

. '.

..- .

-.

'ON' switch

lsetect

thermocouple

with

switch

Place the radiometer on a bench away from the heat source. Set the power to the heat source to maximum and allow the temperature of the metal plate to stabilise. Summary or Theorv For a grey body having area AI' temperature TI' emissivity GI and absorptivity <XIsmrounded by a blaCk enclosure of area Al at the same temperature TI' then for thermal equilibrium the grey body must absorb as much radiation as it emits. Le. <X~ (j TI' At =Et
(j

TI4 Al from which <X E =

Initial Valuesor Variablesto be Used

Distance from radiometer stand to heat source (X)

Distance from black metal plate to heat sowce (Y) = 50mm Readings to be taken Ensure that the equipment has fully stabilised, i.e. temperature of metal plate is steady and radiometer reading is zero when pointed at the walls of the room. ..
Briefly return the radiometer to its stand and record the reading of plate temperature and radiometer. Remove the radiometer from its stand, discoQIlect the connecting cable and place the radiometer in a cold location for several minutes, e.g. refrigerator. Quickly return the radiometer to the equipment and record the radiometer readings for the metal plate and walls of the room.

= llOmm

35
Remove the radiometer again and place it in a warm location for several minutes (e.g.' drying cabinet.

DO NOT EXCEED 70C). -

Note:

Whep the radiometer is returned to the equipment from the cold or warm location it will

gradrially ~tum to room temperatUreausingreadingsto drift c

. ,

This experiment is only a demonstration and accurate, steady readings are not required.

Results
Temperature of metal plate:

.
CONDITION OF RADIOMETER

RADIOMETER READINGS \'IV m-ZJ

x..

==.

,..

;-

-'.

METAL PLATE

WALLS OF ROOM

RADIOMETER AT ROOM TEMPERATURE COLD RADIOMETER HOT RADIOMETER

'

When the walls of the room and the radiometer are at the same temperature the reading on the radiometer is zero, showing that no radiation is received by the radiometer.
However, when the radiometer is colder than the walls, the reading increases and when the radiometer is warmer than the walls, the reading is negative (radiation emitted by the radiometer). Similarly, the reading from the radiometer increases and decreases. when sensing the hot. metal plate.

The only conclusion from these findings is that the reading on the radiometer is the nett value, I.e. radiation is emitted by the radiometer, the walls of the room and the hot metal plate, and the reading is the difference between the radiation received and emitted by/fr()mthe radiometer.
Having established that all bodies continuously emit and receive radiation it is a logical step to qualify

Kirchhoffs uw.

Iia body was capable of emitting more radiation than it received or vice-versa, it would never stabilise at the temperature of its slllTOundings. For stabilisation to occur, the radiation emitted by the body must match the radiation received by the body when its temperature matches the surroundings. This is Kirchhoffs Law. /

TYPICAL RESULTS
Temperature of metal plate: 197C

RADIOMETER READINGS\'IVm-%)
CONDmON OF,RADIOMETER RADIOMETER AT ROOM TEMPERATURE COLD RADIOMETER HOT RADIOMETER METAL I>LATI;. 447 460 423 WALLS OF ROOM 0 35 -12

The above results confinn the statements on Page 35, namely tha! the reading from the radiometer depends on the temperature of the radiometer relative to the object being measured and all bodies must therefore emit and receive radiation.

36

"
~

6. AREA FACTORS

~erbneDt

"

To demonstrate that the exchange of radiant energy from one surface to another is dependent upon their interconnecting geometry, Le. a function of the amount that each surface can 'see' of the other.

EQuipment Set. Up

A~erture plate

~~--.u

Select thermocouple with switch

When using the.. aperture plate make sure the insulation faces the radiometer" and the silvered

surfacefacesthe heatsource.

"

Variable

The power control on the instrument console should be set to maximum for this experiment.

Summary of Theory The heat transfer rate from one radiating black surface to another is dependent on the amount that each surface can 'see' of the other surface. In order to solve radiant heat transfer problems an area factor F is introduced where F is defined by the fraction of energy emitted per unit time by one surface that is intercepted by the other surface. Thus the time rate of radiant heat transfer (Q1~ between two black surfaces of area A1 and A,. at temperatures T1 and T1 respectively, is given by:
Q11

/
(J (T14

=AIFll

T1~)

Area factors are found by analysis,numerical approximation and analogy, and results for common configurations have been published in graphical form..

rDitial Values of Variables to be Used Distance from radiometer to heat source Distance from aperture plate to heat source

(X) = 300mm (Y) =2OOmm

op

",.-

37
Note:

The black plate should be placed in the stand' and moved close to the heat source, i.e. approximately 5Omm.

Readings to be Taken Once the temperature of the black plate (T) has reached a steady value,record the radiometer readings (R) for a range of apertures from 6Ommdown to zero in steps of 5mm. 'Care should be taken when setting the apertures to ensure that the plates are equally disposed either side of the track centre-line. Ensure the plates are both vertical and securely clamped before taking ~ radiometer reading. ResuJts:
m..._.

"~"i~BlaCk'pliUe~tlm'peratille

(T)':::~~o~'~~~~~o,c'~'

Apenuremm Radiometer Reading (R)

60.

55

,50

45

AO
.

3$

30

25

20

15

10

..

Radiometer ,Readirlg
(R)

,,'

.-

A plot of radiometer reading versus aperture will result in a curye similar' to.that shoWn: Students should aCcount for the result in terms. of- the- area factor between the black plate ~d the radiometer.

Aperture Cfnm)

TYPICAL RESULTS
Black plate temperature (T)

= 245C
50
228

/
45 40
210

Aperture mm Radiometer Reading (R)

60
228

55

35

30
171

25

20
114

15

10
68
..

0
8

The resulting graph is shown on Page 38. ..

38
"

--~~

--u-

AREA
,-- -,

FACTORS

300

I
200

I I

I I ! I I
I I I I

1.---

1,-

/" V

./ V
-

I I I
..'

V
'/

'e :t
'" <: :;;

a:

~ 100
~

~ " e 0
:;;

I
r"
0

I I I I I I V V I I I I i 1/ I I I I V1
/

I I I

/'

0 a:

I I/V I Vi I I

I
20 30
'0
"

10

50

60

"'~r1ur.

(mm)

."

39
7. INVERSESQUARELAW FOR UGHT
Experiment To show that the illuminance of a surface is inversely proportional to the square of the distance of the surface from the ligbt source~ EQuipment Set-Up
Set scale to o' ~ to track (E) il. norm Light light meter - -- c source-Detector face

-. -------

--

---

--

Set power control to maximum

I

~._----.

r-l

---!

I I

Reading

It is necessary to set up the equipment in a darkened room in order to eliminate the influence of -ambient light -conditions.
-"

Summary of Theory The luminous flux CPrrom a point light f source is considered to spatially radiate and produce an illwninance"E. on a sphericalsurface at radius r from the light .somce. Since the surface area of the sphere is given by 4m2, the illuminance is inversely
proportional to the square of the distance of, the surface from the light source.

Initial Values of Variablesto be Used

.Distance from light source (X)

= lOOmm to ligh~ meter

Reacfinl!Sto be Taken Reco~ the light meter readings (E) and the distance from the light source (X) for a number of positions of the light meter along the horizontal tIacL '

40
Results

~
~eter
E Reading (mm) X (lux)
I

100

B
I -- ---- .------.

~ ~
----. -.' ---

~ :12.~

-.

.--

- ~--

log 10 e

I I I I I I I I

Slope of line:::: - 2
,

L___-

log 10 X

A log-log plot of light meter reading against distance will result in a straight line having a negative slope of approximately -2 verifying the inverse square relati~nship between distance and illuminance.

TYPICAL RESULTS Distance Light eter Reading X (mm) E (lux) 100 420 200 110 250 70 300 45 350 30 400 20

LoglO LoglO
See graph. Page 41.

X E

2.000 2.623

2.301 2.041

2.398 1.845

2.477 1.653

2.544 1.477

2.602 1.361

41

. INVERSE

SQUARE LAW FOR LIGHT

.....

,.

2.5

i'--..
........

'"
I

""""" ............... """"" _. .-

.......... .

"'"

---

.H

t"........
............. r--.... """"" ...........
...............

0/1

I-

2.0

'"

0'

; IT!
I

..........
.......

1.5

I
0..

.
. 2.2

-- -- --- --- - -- -- -- " -- -- _: K

c
..
I

...........
..............

'..
"' c ,

.-

2.0

2.1

2.) I~,.X

2.'

2.5

2.5

...,

Slope
....

2.2 2.5 -- 2.2 Slope.= ~

'" 1.55

'"

-0.65

0.3 /

..- .:..' ..

42
8. LAMBERT'SCOSINELAW Exneriment To showthat the energyradiatedin,any direction.atan arlglewith a surfaceis equalto the normal radiationmultipliedby thecosineof the anglebetweenthedirection. radiationandthenonna!to the of surface.
EQuioment Set-Up
Light meter (E)
I

Light source

Set power control. to

I I I :';.:01

r-,

J
Readin~-:7

.J

The light source shoUld be rotated. to each desired angle relative to the track and clamped in position before taking measurements.

Track

Angle scale

It~is n~ssar:y to set up the

equipJDent in a darkened room

in order to eliminate the influence of ambient light

conditions.
.

Summary of Theory
Lambert's Law of diffuse radiation states that: IcjI= IN Cos cjI where: IN

=intensity of radiation in normal direction

= intensity
of radiation in a direction at angle cjIto the normal.

IcjI

Initial Valuesof Variables to be Used

Distance from light source to light meter (X)

= lOOmm

Readinl!S to be Taken Record the light meter readings at 100 intervals for each angle of the light source relative to the track between the limits of :1:900 either side of the track centre line.

43
Results
Angle above track centre-line(4))
LiBh Meter

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

Reading

(lux)

centre-lliie

Angle below track (4)) I

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

Light Meter

Reading

(lux)

I I

--------

light meter reading (lux)

When a curve of light meter reading is plotted against the angular.positionof the light source. a typical cosine profile will result. Students should account for any difference between a superimposed theoretical curve and the experimentally observedresults.
Anale (!tI)

90

60

30

30

60

90

TYPICAL RESULTS
.

Angle above track centre-lliie (4)) Light Meter Reading

, ...

0 425

10 420

20 415

30 390

40 360

50 300

60 225

70 40

80 60

90 0

(lux)

'Angle below track centre-lliie (cjl) Light Meter Reading (lux)

0 425

10 420

20 410

30 390

40 360

50 300

60 220

70 150

80 60

90 0

IcjI= IN Cos cjI IN=425 lux :. Theoretical values can be calculated for 14> follows: as Angle .,J. Cos cjl
4>

0 1.0 425

10 0.98 429

20 0.94 399

30 0.87 368

40 0.77 326

50 0.64 273

60 0.50 213

70
0.34 145

80 0.17 74

90 0 0-

INTheoretical

44

".-*

The resulting graphs (actual readings and theoretical values) are plotted below:

LAMBERTS :.-"1 /
350
I

COSINE LAW

~oo

r--.
......,

I
I
rl
I

..

X Exp.riIMntai
<:)

tTti<d

.I
-

..

300

250

/
/
/
1/
.-

\
\
I

I
I

-; 200 :>

~ 150 ..
a: .. ;; :t 100

co c:

\
-I

..

,-

::;
50
.'.. I

:E co

I
I

,\

I
I

I
I

I
I

-S
I !

0 0

/
~

/
~ ro ro ~ w ~ ~ ro 0 ro Angle I ~ ) ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

'. ro ~

I
~

."
.~

.:<:

4S
9. LAMBERT'SLAW OF ABSORPTION Experiment To show that light passing through non-opaquematteris reduced in intensityin proportionto the thicknessand absorptivityof the m~.
Equipment Set-Up
Filter. plates Detector face I I I 1--- I

'-

to track

,,

-.-

--

,~,-,--,--~--

',,

,-,--

Set

power to

control maximum

"--1

Light meter (E)

0
-i

[g"

:
"l'

0 0
0

-:

0
0
0

P.

[Q
, I'

-;:=

, .\ I . :fi

,,:
..

:.

--1

i.

1::lQ

Q
/

, I,

FILTER SEQUENCE FOR VARIABLE ABSORPTIVITY DEMONSTRATION

FILTER SEQUENCE FOR VARIABLE THICKNESS TEST

It is necessary to set up the equipment in a darkened room in order to ellininate the influence of ambient light conditions.

Summary or Theorv

Absorptivity

of materi~1 (0:)

'1x.r

~
(E)

0: I

Illuminance

[J

Light source

~I

:Q~

46
The luminous intensity (I) after having penettated the material to a distance (X) is given by: I where: oc = absorptivity of the material X = thickness of material Iv = original luminous intensity I = luminous intensity after traverse.

=Iv e-x.

Initial Values of Variables to be Used Distance from light source to filter plate Distance from light source to light meter

X)
(Y)

=lOOmm

= 200mm

~~Readlngs to be Taken Record the light meter readmgsT1!Sfwith~n(J{"llters~inosition and then with each of the filters of increasing p optical density in succession. Repeat this procedure, but using instead increasing thicknesses of filters having the same optical density, i.e. the medium density material.
."-'

Results ...

(a) Variable Optical Density Demonstration FILTER TYPE Light Meter Reading
..f

No FIlter (lux)

Pale

Medium

Dark.-..

.-.

(b) Variable Filter Thickness Test

FILTER THICKNESS (mm) .Light Meter Reading (lux)
.,

The results of the variable optical density test will clearly indicate that luminous intensity is reduced as the absorptivity of the filter material increases. It is suggested that students evaluate the various absorptivities using the equation given, although these values cannot be verified. However, the results of the variable meer thickness test will deinonstrate that luminous intensity is reduced in proportion to the thickness of filter material. It is suggested that students evaluate the absorptivity from each measurement and verify that this is constant for the filter material. /

47
TYPICAL RESULTS (a) Variabie Optical Density Demonstration FILTER TYPE Light Meter Reading (lux) No Filter 11.5
-.-;r

::.

Pale 110

Medium 68

Dark 10

= I" e

... ... =
' -_H' '",,"", ", .c~ ~ '-~-..

-1n(!II) wh8re:c = 3 xlO-3m

:c
~' n~-.~--

From the above readings:

c<:

(pale)

14.8

c<:

(M~um) (Dark)

c<:

= 175.1 = 814.1
.

i.e. as the absorptivity of the filter material increases (filter becomes darker) the luminous intensity after

the filter is reduced.

-,'

(b) Variable Filter Thickness Test FIL1ER THICKNESS (mm) Light Meter Reading (lux) 0 115 3 68 6 40 9 22

I
. '., .

I"e

-oo;r

-:. ... =

-In(II!) where:c = :c
/

,.

For: -.: x= 3mm c<:(Medium) = 175.1

.

x=6mm

c<:(Medium) = 176.0
ex (Medium) = 183.8

x = 9mm

i.e. the absorptivity of the filter material is constant, the luminous intensity after the filter falling with increasing thickness of filter. ' .

"

"
'ii.:;..."

Amendments'

FROM SUPPLY 240V

)'

(VI/!. TRANSFORMER WHEN 110V SUPPLY)

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ENCLOSURE

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1 ENSURE EOUIPMENTIS DISCONNECTED FROM ELECTRICALSUPPLY 2 3 4 5 6 6 LOCATE SUITABLE POSITIONFOR RCCB NEAR TO EOUIPMENT REMOVECOVERFROMENCLOSURE POSITONMOUNTING BASE. HARK OFF DRILL THROUGH2 HOLES FIX BASE AT LOCATIONUSING SUITABLE SCREWS. CLIP RCCB TO BASE
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7 RE~OVE LENGTH OF OUTER Sf:!EA ON BOTH EOUIPMENTCABLE AND LOOSE CABLE TH

CONNECTLIVE AND NEUTRAL CABLt::S TO RCCBTERMINALS CONNECTEARTH CABLES TO EARTH TERMINAL ON"BASE 9

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10 FIT ENCLOSURECOVERTO BASE & RCCB 11 RECOt~NECT MAIN POWERSUPPLY 12 SWITCHRCCBTO 'ON' POSITION(1)

I
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-- ----i

II

.
TITLE: RCCB INSTALLATlm,1 TO BE USE ONUNIT
Oale: 22.2.90 DRG. No.

(, u

TO EQUIPtPENT 240V ",

Scale. -

RCCB107

j I

SERIALo.--"=- I ~ - - - OI~L no/rig. -~--_u N Y ------P.A~H:LTOr~ HORSEBRIDGE MILL. HAMPSHIRE. EI~GLAHD

"
2 3 4

5 Amendments

130V

@
125V

@ @
HAINS INPUT
I'll
,

120V 115V

t .,.TO TERMINAL OF INPUT VOLTAGE

240V

@
OV NEUTRAL

110V

@
110V

EARTH

'

@
'I I, J

OUTPUT TO UNIT 240V

N en I

:111 @ IIII @
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- - -.

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The IUpplletI. reqwed 10 deliver good. strldty occorcnng 10 l1-o\it!p. ~poruinl "".pecllor1 Ie the 'lJPpUer. eepon.lblIny, r .
ReDlO~eall 8harp edge. ,and bLIT',

Drawn by: GJF Checked Dimensions:mm by:

ProJection:

,.

'~"'l

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"<.

Llml!s untess"olherwlse
,

slaled;
',: 'i

Fracl/ons

1/64'

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Decimals. 0.25 mm
110/120V UNITS

Issue: 1 Da'e: 19,10.89

Scola.

,-,

, , ,.-.,

TITLE, ~ITI.:

TRANSFORMER COtMEdTIONS

,,: \.