AuditingTechniques

Energy Auditing Techniques
2011
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 9/20 9/22 9/24 9/26 9/28 9/30 10/2 10/4
Ryan Stroupe, Pacific Energy Center
The Value of Taking Tests
2011
Energy Auditing Techniques for Small and Medium Commercial Facilities
Components of an Energy Audit

Analysis
Billing data Building documentation and drawings
Facility walk through

During typical operation After hours
Final Report
Recommended Energy Conservation Measures Energy/$ savings analysis Other facility improvements
2011
Catalog Existing Equipment

System configuration Equipment
Type Quantity Efficiency
Controls
Identify schedules (Building Automation System) Locate other sensors and controls Locate zone controls
2011 Energy Auditing Techniques for Small and Medium Commercial Facilities 4
Nameplate Example
Model # Age Voltage/Amperage/kW Other information:

2011
Rated efficiency Other fuels Heating/cooling capacity Air flow rate Liquid flow rate Pressure rise Refrigerant type
Energy Auditing Techniques for Small and Medium Commercial Facilities 5
Preliminary Energy Auditors Toolkit

Five Senses Matrix (spreadsheet) for data entry, site plan, notepad & clipboard Light meter Flicker checker Temperature/humidity probe Calculator Digital Camera Simple tool kit

2011
Measuring tape Screw drivers Allen wrenches Pliers Crescent wrench and/or 5/16th socket Knife Flashlight Small Mirror
Equipment Matrix
Lighting Circuit Area served No. fixtures Lamp type U' tube (fluor) U' tube (fluor) U' tube (fluor) 4' fluor tube 4' fluor tube 4' fluor tube 4' fluor tube 4' fluor tube Lamp/fixture Lamp watts Total watts Control type Switch/s weep off Switch/s weep off Switch/s weep off Switch/s weep off Switch/s weep off Switch/s weep off Switch/s weep off Switch/s weep off 24-hr opp Switch/s weep off Switch/s weep off 24-hr opp Switch/s weep off Switch/s weep off Switch/s weep off Occupancy s ens or Occupancy s ens or Switch Schedule Notes LP-2A,1a Copy room 2x2 LP-2A,1a Emily's office 2x2 LP-2A,1a Jim's office 2x2 LP-2A,1b Copy room cove lighting at wall LP-2A,1b Emily's office cove lighting at wall LP-2A,1b Jim's office cove lighting at wall LP-2A,3c Front office uplighting LP-2A,5d Front office uplighting LP-2A,7a Hallway reces s ed cans LP-2A,7f Maria's office 2x2 LP-2A,7g Maria's office cove lighting at wall LP-2A,8p Reces s ed cans at restroom LP-2A,10m Model s hop LP-2A,12a Tech office circuit #1 LP-2A,12b Tech office circuit #2 LP-2A,29 Men's 2nd floor res trooms LP-2A,29 W omen's 2nd floor res trooms LP-2A,29 Electrical clos et
2 1 2 1 1 1
4 2 1 3 7
comp. fluor. U' tube (fluor) 4' fluor tube comp. fluor. 4' fluor tube 4' fluor tube 4' fluor tube
32
1 1 2
4' fluor tube 4' fluor tube 4' fluor tube
1 1
32 32
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 448 0 0 32 32 0
2011
Site plan should include

Outline of buildings Name and location of each building Year of construction Size (# of floors and square footage) North arrow Location of utility meters Location of mechanical rooms and equipment Location of electrical rooms Room layout with glazing shown
8
2011
Runtime Monitoring
kWh = kW x Runtime
Measures the hours of operation Constant HVAC loads Pumps Fans Boilers Single-stage compressors
2011
Runtime Data
Records only ON and OFF conditions Very effective use of memory Not good for variable power loads
2011
10
Pre-Audit Assessments
Electric Power Sources on a Peak Demand Day
2011
12
Load Profiles, Peak Demand and Rates

60000
P a r t i a l P e a k P e a k P a r t i a l P e a k
50000
Megawatts
40000
30000
20000
10000
12:00 AM
6:00 AM
12:00 PM
6:00 PM
12:00 AM
Consider that utility rates vary by time of day and year

Electrical Energy & Power Concepts

Term
Energy Power (Demand) Voltage Current Power factor Real Power Reactive Power
Definition
Ability to do work Rate at which work is done Electrical potential or charge Electrical flow Measure of real vs. reactive power Energy is used; work is done Energy is stored; work is not done
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Energy & Power Concepts (with units)

Energy Power (Demand) Ability to do work Rate at which work is done
Term
Units
Heat Energy BTU Electrical Energy kWh Natural Gas Energy Therm Power (Demand)
Conversion =1lb H2O 1F =3413 BTUs =100,000 BTUs

1kw =1000 w
watts, kW, Hp
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15
The Energy Savings Equation

kWhsaved = kWhbaseline - kWhpost retrofit
Notes: All values above typically represent annual energy use kWhsaved does not exist and cannot be quantified independently kWhbaseline is what you are comparing to your post retrofit condition kWhbaseline can be measured energy use before retrofit kWhbaseline can be energy use of code compliant equipment kWhpost retrofit is energy use after change is made
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Energy Calculation
Energy = Power * Runtime kWh = kW * hrs
Annual Energy (kWh/yr) = Input Power (kW) * Runtime(hrs/yr) Notes: kW can be taken from tables, calculated or measured with meters Runtime can be estimated or measured with meters
The Energy Savings Equation Revised

kWhsaved = kWhbaseline - kWhpost retrofit kWhsaved = kWbaseline x hrbaselinekWpost retrofit x hrpost retrofit
Notes: Depending on project type some of the variables in the equation above are fixed. For projects where only the power is reduced hrbaseline = hrpost retrofit = hr For projects where only the run-hours are reduced kWbaseline = kWpost retrofit = kW For some projects both power and run-hours vary over time
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Energy & Demand Cost Calculations

Energy Cost
$ = Energy use/billing period(kWh) * Energy cost($/kWh)
Energy cost ($/kWh) may vary vary as usage amounts are exceeded by time of day by time of year
Demand Cost
$ = Peak demand/billing period (kW) * Demand cost($/kW)
Demand cost ($/kW) is based on sustained power for 15 min. This cost may vary vary by time of day by time of year
Sample Utility Bill
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Normalizing Billing Data

Pacific Energy Center kWh/Billing Period
35000 30000 kWh/Billing Period
Pacific Energy Center Average kWh/Day

1200 1000 Average kWh/Day 800 600 400 200 0
25000 20000 15000 10000 5000 0 14-Jul 10-Oct 11-Feb 12-Jun 12-Jan 12-Mar 13-Mar 13-May 12-Nov 11-Dec 11-Sep 12-Aug 11-Apr 14-Apr
14-Jul
10-Oct
11-Feb
12-Jun
12-Jan
12-Mar
13-May
12-Nov
12-Aug
11-Dec
11-Sep
13-Mar
11-Apr
Billing Period End Date
2011
Billing Analysis: Electric Service

2000-2002 Average Daily Energy Use 1400
Average KWH/Day
1200 1000 800 600 400 200 0

Ju n00 Au g00 O ct -0 0 D ec -0 0 Fe b01 Ap r-0 1 Ju n01 Au g01 O ct -0 1 D ec -0 1 Fe b02 Ap r-0 2 Ju n02 Au g02 O ct -0 2
2011
14-Apr
21
22
Billing Analysis: Gas Service

2001-2002 Average Daily Gas Use
A v e ra g e T h e rm s /D a y
50 40 30 20 10 0
t- 0 Oc 1 No v -0 1 De c -0 1 Ja n-0 2 Fe b02 Ma r-0 2 Ap r-0 2 Ma y02 Ju n-0 2 Ju l- 0 2 Au 02 gSe 2 2 02 t- 0 v -0 pOc No
2011
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Electric Billing Data Graph for Beta Building

160000 140000
120000
100000
80000
60000
40000
20000
0 12/24/04
6/24/05
12/24/05
6/24/06
12/24/06
6/25/07
12/24/07
6/24/08
12/23/08
6/24/09
12/24/09
6/24/10
2011
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Gas Billing Data Graph for Alpha Building

10000 9000
8000
7000
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0 11/9/04
5/10/05
11/9/05
5/10/06
11/9/06
5/11/07
11/9/07
5/10/08
11/8/08
5/10/09
11/9/09
5/10/10
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Campus
Cooking 3% Miscellaneous 0%
Air Compressors 0.8% Miscellaneous 5.2% Exterior Lighting 6.5% Office Equipment 4.1%
Cooling 0% Heating 73%
Heating 4.0% Cooling 11.7%
Motors 3.4%
Water Heating 24%
Ventilation 24.2%
Interior Lighting 31.8% Water Heating Cooking 1.3% Refrigeration 2.8% 4.2%
Electric
2011
Natural Gas
26
Lighting Systems
Efficacy
A measure of lamp (and ballast) performance Describes system conversion efficiency of power to light Is light output over input power Units are lumens/watt Varies by lamp (and ballast) type
Light out Power in

Lighting Power Density

A measure of the power intensity of lighting systems Is lighting power over the area of a room or building Units are watts/square foot Energy code provides limits by space use or building type
Light power Area

Incandescent Lamps
Efficacy Kelvin temperature Color Rendering Index Lamp life Lumen depreciation Start to full brightness Re-strike time Dimming ability Strengths
First cost Color rendering Instant on Very good lumen maintenance Ease of dimming Not ambient temperature dependent
6-24 l/w 2700K 100 750-2000 hours <20% immediate immediate Yes
Weaknesses
Low efficacy Short lamp life High lamp surface temperature Limited color
This lamp type is a good candidate for replacement!

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2011
Halogen Lamps
Directional source First cost Color rendering Instant on Excellent lumen maintenance Ease of dimming Not ambient temperature dependent
8-35 l/w 2900K 100 2000-6000 hours <5% immediate immediate Yes
Weaknesses
Low efficacy Relatively short lamp life High lamp surface temperature Limited color
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Fluorescent Lamps
High efficacy Long lamp life Wide range of colors Very good lumen maintenance Cool lamp surface temperature Area source
60-100 l/w 2700-7500K 50-98 7500-30,000 hours 10-30% 0-5 seconds immediate Yes, with proper ballast
Weaknesses
Sophisticated lamp/ballast combination Does not perform well in hot/cold environments Has warm-up time Older technologies hum and flicker
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Ballast Issues
Component that regulates electricity to the lamp
Provides required voltage for lamp start-up Limits current to lamp during operation
Types
Electromagnetic (magnetic)

2011
Steel or iron core 60hz output May hum Older ballasts (before 1973) may have PCBs More energy efficient (10-25% better than magnetic) Solid state components 20-40Khz output Reduced flicker Quiet operation Easier to install Lighter weight
Electronic
Ballast Features
Number of lamps powered (up to 4 lamps on one ballast) Start time
Rapid start Instant start Programmed start
Dimming capabilities Parallel wiring (will still work if one lamp fails in a two lamp fixture) Ballast Factor
Relative luminous output of a lamp(s) operated on a ballast with respect to the same lamp(s) driven on a reference ballast Used to describe ballasts that under- or over-drive lamps
T-12 Fluorescents
About 60 l/w with magnetic ballasts Changing to T-8s with electronic ballasts is a 20-40% improvement in efficacy Larger T-12 lamp prevents light from exiting fixture Still accounts for nearly 50% of all fluorescents in US

High Efficiency, 3rd Gen. or Super T-8s

Excellent efficacy Good lumen maintenance Long lamp life CRI up to 95 l/w at mean life 93% at 12,000 hrs in excess of 18,000 hours 80 or better
This new fluorescent lamp type is the only T-8 linear fluorescent that qualifies for PG&Es Deemed Incentive Program
2011
Identifying Magnetic Ballasts

Use the flicker checker Much easier than opening fixture Under electronic ballasts
Looks like shades of gray rotating in one direction
Under magnetic ballasts

Has color Rotating in both directions
2011
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T-5 Fluorescents
Excellent efficacy Good lumen maintenance Long lamp life CRI Notes: up to 90 l/w at mean life 95% in excess of 20,000 hours 80 or better
Thinner lamp allows light fixture to be more efficient With reflector provides high light output (encroaches on HID market) Metric length and lamp holder size makes retrofits difficult Variety of colors available (3000-4000K) This fluorescent lamp type qualifies for PG&E Incentive
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Compact Fluorescent Lamps

Efficacy Kelvin temperature Color Rendering Index Lamp life Lumen depreciation Start to full brightness Re-strike time Dimming ability Notes: 28-84 l/w 2700-5000K 82-86 10,000-20,000 hours <30% 0-5 minutes immediate Yes, with proper ballast
May come with integrated ballast Ballast must be ventilated; Do not enclose lamp This lamp type qualifies for the PG&E incentives
2011
Mercury Vapor
2011 Long lamp life Only incandescents are more inefficient Poor color rendering Poor lumen maintenance Long strike time and re-strike time New outdoor installations are illegal under some state laws. Mercury lamp ballasts are noisy Lamps are quite voltage sensitive A special dimming ballast is required to dim mercury lamps.
30-65 l/w 5600-7000K 15-40 10,000-16,000 hours 30-50% 3-5 minutes 5 minutes yes, with special ballast
Weaknesses

40
Metal Halide Lamps

2011 High efficacy Long lamp life Good lumen maintenance Good color rendering for HID source Has warm-up time Long re-strike time Color shifts with age Lamp position sensitivity Expensive to dim Energy Auditing Techniques for Small and Medium Commercial Facilities 41
50-110 l/w 3000-6000K 65-92 6000-20,000 hours 10-30% 2-10 minutes 3-20 minutes with difficulty
Weaknesses
High Pressure Sodium Lamps

Efficacy 50-120 l/w Kelvin temperature 2100-2200 Color Rendering Index 21-65 Lamp life 16,000-24,000 hours Lumen depreciation 10-20% Start to full brightness 4-6 minutes Re-strike time 1 minute Dimming ability with difficulty This lamp type qualifies for the PG&E incentives Strengths
High efficacy Long lamp life Good lumen maintenance Universal burning position
Weaknesses
Has warm-up time Re-strike time Poor CRI Expensive to dim Color shifts with age
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Induction Lamps
Efficacy 60-80 l/w Kelvin temperature 3000K-4100K Color Rendering Index 80 Lamp life 100,000 hours Lumen depreciation 20-25% Start to full brightness Some warm up Re-strike time immediate Dimming ability No This lamp type qualifies for the PG&E incentives Strengths
Extremely long lamp life Tolerates varied temperatures On/off cycling does not affect lamp life No color shift over lamp life Not as efficient as high-efficiency fluorescents Have yet to collect enough long-term performance data Lumen depreciation is significant Unable to dim Immediate strike and re-strike High first cost
Weaknesses
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Light Emitting Diodes

Efficacy 20-60 l/w* Kelvin temperature 3000K-4500K Color Rendering Index 20-70 Lamp life 50,000-100,000 hours Lumen depreciation 10-30%? Start to full brightness immediate Re-strike time immediate Dimming ability Yes This lamp type qualifies for PG&E incentives Applications
Exit signs Traffic lights Signage Safety lights (theaters) Replace Neon
* test data in labs is much higher (130 l/w)

Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs)

Strengths
Adequate light at low wattage for some applications LED exit signs require 2-25% of the wattage of incandescent exit signs LED exit signs require 25-50% of the wattage of CFL exit signs Rugged Extremely long lamp life; some claims of up to 25 year life 1/3 the life cycle cost of incandescents over a ten year life
Weaknesses
Low efficacy ( 20-60 L/W) White LEDs have lower efficacy than colored LEDS Not appropriate for all applications Have yet to collect enough long-term performance data Currently-manufactured LEDs are rated for operating temperatures of 25 degrees C; at lower temperatures they produce more light and at higher temperatures, less. Signs should be changed when light levels drop below accepted standards Require DC power
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Lamp Comparison Matrix

Lamp Family Source Type Efficacy (lm/W) Lamp Life (rated hours) LLD Color Temp.1 CRI Dimmable2 Voltage Sensitive2 Temperature Sensitive2 Incandescent Halogen Incandescent Fluorescent Compact Fluorescent Pulse Start Metal Halide Ceramic Metal Halide High Pressure Sodium Induction Lamps White LEDs Point 15 1,000 95% W 100 Y Y N
Point
20
3,000
100%
100
Linear
95
25,000
95%
WMC
86
Area
70
12,000
86%
WMC
86
Point
100
20,000
85%
WM
70
Point
90
20,000
85%
WM
92
Point
110
24,000
90%
21
Area
80
100,000
75%
WM
80
Projection
40
50,000
70%
MC
75
1 - W (Warm), M (Mid-range), C (Cool) 2 - Y (Yes), S (Special Cases), N (No)
Note: Values are representative of lamp family performance
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46
Mean Lamp/Ballast System Efficacy

Halogen PAR38 Incandescent A19 Halogen IR PAR38 White LED CFL PL13 2-pin - Mag CFL 15W Screw-in
Lamp (and Ballast) Type
CFL 26W Double - GEB CFL 42W Triple - GEB MH 400W - Mag MH 100W - Elec, pulse MH 400W - Mag, pulse CMH 400W - Mag, pulse MH 400W - Elec, pulse CMH 400W - Elec, pulse T12 - Mag Biaxial - GEB, prog T5HO - GEB, prog Basic T8 - GEB, ins Super T8 - EE, prog T5 - EE, ins Super T8 - EE, ins
0 20 40 60 80 100
Efficacy [mean lm/W]

*GEB: Generic Electronic Ballast, EE: Extra Efficient Ballast, ins: instant start, prog: programmed start, pulse: pulse start
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Time Clocks
Allows lights to run in a space for a limited time Essentially a timed switch Simple controller Inexpensive Types:
Mechanical Electronic
Applications:
Stock/Storage rooms Laundry rooms Service areas
Occupancy Sensors
Ideal for spaces with irregular use and unoccupied at least operating hours Sensors located in spaces May be tied to BAS Two main sensor types
Infrared Ultrasonic
Applications
Rest rooms Stock rooms Conference rooms Garages
This control equipment qualifies for PG&E Incentive

Passive InfraRed Sensor Attributes
http://www.wattstopper.com/pdf/Sensor_Broch_Final.pdf
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Ultrasonic Sensor Attributes
2011
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Interior Daylight Controls

Ideal for interior spaces with a daylight factor >2% Sensors located in spaces May be tied to BAS Two main strategies
Photocells Photosensors
Applications

2011
Single-story buildings Perimeter office spaces Schools Big-box retail

Exterior Lighting Controls

Sensor typically located above fixture Photocells switch lights off when there is adequate daylight This control equipment qualifies for the PG&E Incentive
2011
53
Summary of Lighting Opportunities

Change out inefficient lighting
Replace incandescent lamps Replace halogens used as ambient sources Replace T-12 fluorescents Replace magnetically ballasted fluorescents Replace mercury vapor lamps Used LED for exit signs and signage
De-lamp in over-illuminated spaces or service areas Add lighting controls

2011
Sweeps Timers Occupancy sensors Daylighting/photosensor controls

Lighting Tools and Resources

Flicker checker Illuminance meter Lighting loggers Occupancy loggers Measuring tape/Disto Lighting fixture wattage tables Recommended illuminance level table
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Heating Ventilating and Air Conditioning (HVAC)
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Why is HVAC Important?

CA Commercial Sector Electricity Use
California Commercial End Use Survey, Itron, CEC-400-2006-005, 2006.
2011
Energy Auditing Techniques for Small and Medium Commercial Facilities Energy Audits
57
Much of the EE Potential is in HVAC

2006 Net Economic Commercial Potential
19%
Packaged units represent cooling for 49% of commercial buildings space - ESOURCE
27%
HVAC Lighting Misc Refrigeration
3%
51%
2006 Potential Study and a Comparison of 2002/2003 and 2006 CA EE Potential Studies, Jean Shelton, Ph.D., Itron, Energy Efficiency Kickoff Workshops, Program Portfolio Planning for 2009-2011 and Beyond, May 3, 2007
2011
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Primary Cooling Technologies

Unitary equipment uses a Direct Expansion (DX) cooling coil Heat removed from a space is rejected to the environment using a condenser, which can be
Air Cooled Water Cooled Rejected to the earth via a ground loop Evaporatively Cooled
en.wikipedia.org
Mechanical cooling energy use can be reduced through the use of Economizers and Evaporative Cooling
2011 Energy Auditing Techniques for Small and Medium Commercial Facilities Energy Audits
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Primary Heating Technologies

Gas Furnaces are the most common source for heat in small commercial applications
Range of efficiencies available Forced & Induced draft
Electric Heat Pumps provide both heating and cooling

Air source Water Source Ground Coupled
highperformancehvac.com
Electric Resistance Heat Strips can be convenient if natural gas is limited or combustion exhaust is an issue, but Heat pumps are more energy efficient Hot water or Steam coils can also be used, but are generally found in larger systems or systems with many zones
2011 Energy Auditing Techniques for Small and Medium Commercial Facilities Energy Audits 60
Unitary HVAC Equipment

Unitary refers to equipment where components are matched and rated together. These components include a compressor, condenser, evaporator and fan. Unitary equipment has two main classes: Packaged and Split-System
Packaged equipment houses all components in the same enclosure Split-Systems have the compressor & condenser in one enclosure and the evaporator and fan in another, connected by refrigeration tubing
Units can be cooling only or cooling with heating All units circulate air, most provide ventilation
Rooftop Equipment Identification

Packaged Unit
All components contained in on location Ventilation is introduced through the unit Heating is supplied by a gas furnace, heat pump, electric resistance or a hot water coil
Split-System
Compressor Component Only No Ventilation provided by unit Only heating is heat pump
http://www.carrier.com
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Packaged With Horizontal Discharge
http://www.carrier.com
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63
Packaged With Vertical Discharge
http://www.carrier.com http://www.carrier.com
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Split-System
www.carrier.com
2011
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Split-System Examples
www.geo4va.vt.edu/A3/A3.htm
2011
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Energy Efficiency Opportunities

Retrofits
High Efficiency Units Evaporative Cooling VFDs
Controls
Scheduling / reduce operating hours Programmable thermostats Economizer operation Demand control ventilation
www.carrier.com
Demand Response Operations

Reduce cooling loads Keep units maintained
High Efficiency Replacements

Package unit replacement isnt generally cost effective on energy savings alone So where are the opportunities?
Older units Early retirement New additions
How do we promote it?

Comfort Reliability Reduced O&M Costs
2011
www.trane.com
68
Unitary HVAC Nameplate

Brand/Model # Age Voltage/Amperage/kW Other information:

2011
Rated efficiency? Heating/cooling capacity Air flow rate Liquid flow rate Pressure rise Refrigerant
Energy Auditing Techniques for Small and Medium Commercial Facilities Energy Audits 69
Its not always easy to get the size
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CA Title 20
Standards for Air-Cooled Air Conditioners and Air-Source Heat Pumps Subject to EPAct
2011
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CA Title 20
Standards for Single Phase Air-Cooled Air Conditioners with Cooling Capacity Less than 65,000 Btu per Hour and Single Phase Air-Source Heat Pumps with Cooling Capacity Less than 65,000 Btu per Hour, Not Subject to EPAct
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CA Title 20
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VFDs for Fans

Many systems use variable flow air distribution Fan power laws dictate that power is roughly proportional to the flow rate cubed VFD quality/reliability have improved greatly over time VFD costs have dropped significantly with wider adoption Now required by code for many applications in new construction
2011
www.abb.com
76
Why Fans with VFDs Save Energy
This relationships between fan energy and fan flow are taken from the California Energy Commission Guide to Preparing Feasibility Studies and the 1998 Nonresidential ACM Approval Manual. Note that a typical system curve, DOE2 default, is assumed and these relationships are not applicable to all systems.
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The Opportunity: Controls

General Concepts Controls are generally the most cost effective of EEMs Whatever doesnt have controls probably needs it Controls reduce opportunity for human enhancements Limit hours of operation Use to maximize system efficiencies
Air-Side Economizer
Damper Control 100% Free Cooling (ex: OA<55F) Partial Free Cooling (ex: 55F < OA< 76F)
Integrated Economizers Only
Minimum Ventilation
(all occupied hours)
EA
OA SA MA
Types
Temperature Enthalpy
RA
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Economizer Offsetting All Cooling

Return Air 10,000 CFM, 75 deg F
Exhaust Air 8,000 CFM 2,000 CFM Outside Air 8,000 CFM, 50 deg F
Cooling Heating Coil Coil Discharge Air 10,000 CFM, 55 deg F Mixed Air 10,000 CFM, 55 deg F
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Reduced Mechanical Cooling

Exhaust Air 10,000 CFM 0 CFM Outside Air 10,000 CFM, 60 deg F
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Non-Integrated Economizer
Exhaust Air 2,000 CFM 8,000 CFM Outside Air 2,000 CFM, 60 deg F
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Demand Control Ventilation (DCV)

Primary purpose of HVAC is to provide adequate ventilation Basic method has been to provide sufficient ventilation for design conditions at all times DCV provides sufficient ventilation based on actual occupancy, rather than worst case Requires continuous monitoring of CO2 as proxy for occupancy
DCV: CO2 and Ventilation Rates
2011
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Demand Control Ventilation (DCV)

Carbon Dioxide sensors can modulate outside air dampers and/or supply fan speed to control ventilation Can also be used with unitary systems to control fan mode: auto vs. on Should not be applied in areas that generate contaminants such as dust, fumes, mists, vapors See Title 24 for ventilation code compliance
85
Telaire / GE Sensing www.gesensing.com
2011
DCV: Implementation
All major controls companies support Best practice is to measure outside air and indoor air CO2 concentrations If only indoor concentrations monitored, typical outside CO2 concentration is 400 ppm Controls typically set to introduce OA when indoor concentration is about 500 ppm higher than outside (T-24 requires 600 or better) DCV should be overridden when system in economizer mode Commission to ensure ventilation rates are not compromised Select equipment that automates building purge for overnight buildup of contaminants Return
Air Exhaust Air
Outside
COLD
HOT
2011
Air Energy Auditing Techniques for Small and Medium Commercial Facilities Energy Audits
86
DCV Savings
www.energy.ca.gov/pier PIER Buildings Program Design Guide: Commercial Buildings Breathe Right with Demand-Controlled Ventilation
2011
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DCV Savings
Case studies show real energy savings with payback periods of 2 years or less
www.energy.ca.gov/pier PIER Buildings Program Design Guide: Commercial Buildings Breathe Right with Demand-Controlled Ventilation
2011
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DCV: Implementation
Pitfalls
Trendy, watch out for proper application in areas where occupancy really varies substantially and a real price is paid for pre-conditioning outside air
Savings
Depend on climate and difference between peak and average occupancy
Non-energy Benefits
Provides continuous monitoring of indoor air quality (IAQ) Potential for documentation of IAQ
Small HVAC: Frequent Issues

www.energy.ca.gov/pier PIER Buildings Program Design Guide: Big Savings on Small HVAC Systems
2011
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Summary of HVAC Opportunities

Change out inefficient equipment
Chillers Boilers Packaged Units Heat pumps Motors
Consider demand ventilation controls (CO2, CO) Use variable speed drives on variable load systems Operations and Maintenance

2011
Limit equipment run time Limit over-cycling of equipment Economizers Filters

HVAC Tools and Resources

Title 24 minimum standards Temp/RH meters Motor dataloggers Temperature dataloggers CO2 loggers CO loggers
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Motor Opportunities
How a Motor Works
http://auto.howstuffworks.com/enlarge-image.htm?terms=motor&page=0
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Nameplate Data Terms

RPM:
Revolutions per minute, the rotational speed of the motor shaft
Full Load Speed:

The RPM of the motor when the output torque is equal to the motors rated load
Rated HP:
The torque the motor can apply when fully loaded
Service Factor:
Service factor is a multiplier that indicates how much a motor can be overloaded under ideal ambient conditions.
Enclosure types Efficiency

ODP: Open Drip Proof TEFC: Totally enclosed fan cooled ratio between the shaft output power and the electrical input power.
Motor Nameplate Example

Find this information:

2011
HP Model # Enclosure type # of phases Full load speed Volts FLA Efficiency Service factor Power Factor
Motor Types: Open Drip Proof (ODP)
www.sea.siemens.com/step/images/motors/acm4/acm4_3_1.gif
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Motor Types: TEFC

Totally Enclosed Fan Cooled
www.sea.siemens.com/step/images/motors/acm4/acm4_3_3.gif
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Motor Power Equations

Using information from the nameplate, motor usage can be estimated as:
kWh = (hp)(0.746kW/hp)(%Loaded)(hours)/Efficiency kWh = (FLA)(Volts)(PF)(%Loaded)(hours)(Phase^)
This estimate can be improved on by:

Measuring Amps Measuring kW with a true power meter Run-time logging operation
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Percent Load Operation

Maximum efficiency is usually near 75% of rated load. A motors efficiency tends to decrease dramatically below about 50% load. Overloaded motors can overheat and lose efficiency. 60-80% load is optimal
Calculating Percent Load: Slip Method

Measure RPM Find nameplate RPM Identify synchronous speed from table Apply equation
The accuracy of the slip method, however, is limited. The largest uncertainty relates to the 20% tolerance that NEMA allows manufacturers in their reporting of nameplate full-load speed.
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Tachometers and Rotational Speed

Used to determine operation of pumps or fans Types
Contacting Reflection Strobe
Output
RPM Hz
1/3 times 1000 RPM
1/2 times 1500 RPM
1 times 3000 RPM
2 times 6000 RPM
3 times 9000 RPM
3 times 12000 RPM
Be careful about readings that may be too low!

CEE Premium-Efficiency Initiative
http://www.cee1.org/ind/motrs/Cee-nema.pdf
2011
103
Relative Motor Efficiencies By Size

Motor Efficiencies tend to increase with motor size EPACT is the Energy Policy Act of 1992 which established what we now consider Standard efficiency motors National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) premium efficiency motors tend to be 1 to 2 percent higher than EPACT motor efficiencies
2011
ODP Motor Efficiencies
100.0% 95.0% Efficiency 90.0% 85.0% 80.0% 75.0% 0 50 100 HP Existing EPACT NEMA Premium Efficiency 150 200 250
TEFC Motor Efficiencies

100.0% 95.0% Efficiency 90.0% 85.0% 80.0% 75.0% 0 50 100 HP Existing EPACT NEMA Premium Efficiency 150 200 250
104
Benefits of Efficient Motors

Save energy, save $
Benefit improves with higher utility rates
Save demand, save $

Benefit improves with higher demand costs
Higher power factors, save $

Benefit improves with PF charge at facilities with PF < 0.85
Runs cooler, save energy, save $

Benefit improves at facilities that are cooled
Withstand voltage fluctuations and harmonics

Benefit important at facilities with old infrastructure Benefit important at facilities with non-sinusoidal load types
Operate quietly
Benefit important at most facilities
Efficient Motors: Selection and Application Considerations, Consortium for Energy Efficiency, 1999
2011
105
Summary of Motor Opportunities

Change out inefficient motors (less than 100 HP) Re-wind inefficient motors (greater than 100 HP) Right-size motors Use variable speed drives on variable load systems Operations and Maintenance
Limit equipment run time Limit over-cycling of equipment Tighten belts Align motors and grout base
2011
106
Motor Tools and Resources

CEE premium efficiency motor standards Strobe tachometer Motor dataloggers
2011
107
Envelope Efficiencies
Envelope Contributions to Electric and Gas Use CA Commercial Gas Use 45% of electric use 38% of gas use
CA Commercial Electric use
2011
109
Envelope Performance Terms

Thermal Resistance (R-value)
Measure of a materials ability to resist conductive heat flow
U-value
Measure of thermal resistance for a window, door or skylight
Emissivity
The ability of an object to radiate heat; a surface property
Low-E glazing
Glass with a coating that slows the transfer of radiated, long-wave (LW) heat This property improves the glazings thermal resistance
Infiltration
Heat transfer from air moving through the cracks and defects of a building envelope
Visible transmittance (VT)

The amount of visible light transmitted through glass VT is expressed as a number between 0 and 1
Solar Heat Gain Coefficient (SHGC)

The SHGC is the fraction of heat from the sun that enters through a window SHGC is expressed as a number between 0 and 1
Spectrally selective glazing

Glass that transmits more light than solar, short wave (SW) heat
Improving Envelope Thermal Resistance

Add insulation
Roof is best location Add to walls if opened during construction
Add radiant barriers

Reflective film Must be next to an airspace Best if facing down
Reduce infiltration
Weather-strip/caulk all exterior openings Air barriers can reduce heating and cooling cost by up to 36%
Change out windows

Double glazing Low-E coating
Add low-E film to existing window surface Greenhouse insulation

Glass Transmission
UV Transmits Clear glass Reflective glass Low-e glass Selective glass Visible light Short wave IR Long wave IR (solar) (earth)
X X
X X X
X X
X*
*Absorbs and re-radiates long-wave relong-
Clear glass
Low-e glass
Reflective glass
Selective glass
Norbert Lechner. Heating, Cooling, Lighting; Design Methods for Architects. John Wiley& Sons, 1991. Pg. 361,362.
2011
112
Adding Solar Film to Windows

Solar film reduces solar heat gain Film allows light transmission Film is applied to inside surface Typically applied to single pane, clear glass Careful installation is critical as bubbles create heat pockets and can cause glass to fracture
2011
113
Add Shading Systems

Add exterior shading on building
Overhangs on south faade Overhangs + fins on east & west
Add trees for shading

Best on east & west faade Deciduous if on south side
Add interior blinds

Louvered blinds are ideal Light colored is best
Adding Skylights
Ideal configuration:
Skylight area is 3-8% of floor area Many small skylights are better that a few large ones Deep wells prevent direct sun in space Diffusers at bottom of skylight help distribute light
Need daylight controls on lighting to save energy

monitor sawtooth skylight
clerestory
2011
115
Summary of Envelope Opportunities

Add insulation Add radiant barriers Replace windows Reduce infiltration Add Low-E coating Add skylights Add shading Replace standard glass with selective glass Cool roofing in AC-dominated buildings
2011
Operations and Maintenance

Add insulation in roof and where is may be sagging. Paint surfaces white around windows. Clean glass, interior blinds, light shelves and cool roofs. Caulk and weather-strip around doors and windows. Plant trees along east and west elevations. Make sure interior blinds are working. Verify that OSA dampers seal at night.
2011
117
Envelope Tools and Resources

Adjacency shading analysis tools Compass Infrared camera Surface temperature meters Blower door Powder puffer gun Low-E glass detector
2011
118
Miscellaneous Efficiencies
Percentage of Energy for Different End Uses
Office Equipment 14% Other 13% Water Heating 1% Outdoor Lighting 6%
Space Heating 2% Space Cooling 14%
Fan/Pumps 15%
Indoor Lighting 35%
Large office building
Lodging
http://www.pge.com/biz/energy_tools_resources/building_survey/index.html
2011
120
Office Plug Loads

2011
Computers Monitors Printers Fax machines Copiers Multifunction devices Scanners Task lighting Heaters Refrigerators Other
Power x Time
kWh
Save energy and reduce cost:
by lowering wattage by reducing run-time run-
121
Computers (CPU)
Power draw: 50-60 watts Energy Star: 25 watts Typical use: active: 4 hours/day off: 14.5 hours/day Should not automatically control to OFF
Monitors
Power draw: 75-120 watts Sleep: 0-10 watts Typical use: active: 4 hours/day off: 14.5 hours/day Can control to OFF
2011
Jade's Computer
160 140 120 100 w tts a 80 60 40 20 0 2-Oct
4-Oct
6-Oct
8-Oct
10-Oct
12-Oct
14-Oct
16-Oct
122
Printers
Power draw: 20-100 watts Sleep: 11-25 watts* Typical use: active: 1.5 hours/day off: 14.5 hours/day *Should stay in stand-by mode
UNITS:
Fax machines
Power draw: 35 watts Sleep: 15 watts* Typical use: active: 1 hours/day off: 0 hours/day *Should stay in stand-by mode
2011
10/03/1995 19:05 10/03/1995 19:10 10/03/1995 19:15 10/03/1995 19:20 10/03/1995 19:25 300 10/03/1995 19:30 10/03/1995 19:35 250 10/03/1995 19:40 10/03/1995 19:45 10/03/1995 19:50 200 10/03/1995 19:55 10/03/1995 20:00 150 10/03/1995 20:05 10/03/1995 20:10 100 10/03/1995 20:15 10/03/1995 20:20 10/03/1995 20:25 50 10/03/1995 20:30 10/03/1995 20:35 0 10/03/1995 20:40 10/03/1995 20:45 02-Oct 04-Oct 10/03/1995 20:50 350
watts W-hrs and Fax machine Printer 179.731 16 148.474 13 131.868 12 199.267 13 45.9096 8 44.9328 8 44.9328 8 115.262 7 81.0744 8 44.9328 7 53.724 8 117.216 8 48.84 7 81.0744 8 105.494 8 81.0744 8 65.4456 7 118.193 8 142.613 8 82.0512 7 78.144 8 06-Oct 08-Oct 10-Oct 79.1208 8
12-Oct
14-Oct
16-Oct
123
Energy Star Equipment

Clothes dryers Clothes washers Computer monitors Copiers Dehumidifiers Dishwashers Fax machines Mailing machines Printers Room air cleaners Scanners Water coolers
2011
Stand-by (Vampire) Loads

10 to 15 watts per device 22 percent of all appliance consumption 10 percent of total residential consumption California's policy on standby power came into effect in 2007, limiting appliance standby power to 0.5 Watts Examples:
Power supplies, transformers and inefficient electronic devices. VCRs, DVD players and some audio systems. Set-top boxes Microwave ovens Computers, digital monitors and printers TVs, if not switched off from the power switch (if they have one). Air conditioning systems with remote control. Devices with "Instant on" functions, with remote control receivers, or waiting for the user to interact. Devices with a stand-by light or clock. Small transformers (such as wall warts) that convert AC electricity into DC electricity, whether or not they are powering any device. Devices that get warm or that have warm transformers when they are off.
Manual Controls
The simplest, cheapest and most error-free method for controlling plug loads Requires conscientious employees Difficult to apply to shared equipment
2011
126
Occupancy Controls
Good for equipment where occupancy correlates to use Assures that loads are not running continuously Not to be used with equipment that must remain on alert (fax machines) or where data can be lost (CPUs)
2011
127
Vending Machine Controller
1. Turns off lights and compressor if no one is there 2. Cycles compressor on if case exceeds a max temperature to insure product is cold
2007 2011 Energy Auditing Techniques for Small and Medium Commercial Facilities 128
Vending Machine Controller Results

Without VendingMiser Daily Wh Daily Operational Cost ($0.15 kWh) Annual kWh Separated Annual Operational Cost ($0.15 kWh) Combined Annual Operational Cost ($0.15 kWh) Percent Savings with the VendingMiser
2007 2011
With VendingMiser Weekdays (261 days) 4,900 $0.73 1,270 $190
With VendingMiser Weekends (104 days) 1,900 $0.29 200 $30
7,900 $1.19 2,885 $435
$435
$220
49%
129
Timer Controls
Isolate timer for individual devices Demand savings (12-6 p.m.) Eliminate waste from loads with consistent usage patterns (coffee machines, irons)
2011
130
Summary of Misc. Opportunities

Change old equipment to Energy Star Connect monitors to CPU Activate sleep/shut-down on computer monitors Use plug-load controllers on non-Energy Star equipment
Vending machines Copiers
Use electronic (email) over paper copies Network printers Use ink-jet over laser printers Unplug chargers with plug-strip
2011
131
Miscellaneous Tools and Resources

Clamp-on amp meters Split extension cords Plug load boxes Temperature loggers Occupancy sensors
2011
132
Refrigerator Data
600 500
400
300
200
100
0 7/10/02
7/17/02
7/24/02
7/31/02
8/7/02
8/14/02
8/21/02
8/28/02
9/4/02
9/11/02
9/18/02
2011
133

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Energy Auditing Techniques

Ryan Stroupe, Pacific Energy Center

The Value of Taking Tests

Energy Auditing Techniques for Small and Medium Commercial Facilities

Components of an Energy Audit

Facility walk through

Energy Auditing Techniques for Small and Medium Commercial Facilities

Catalog Existing Equipment

Preliminary Energy Auditors Toolkit

4' fluor tube 4' fluor tube 4' fluor tube

Energy Auditing Techniques for Small and Medium Commercial Facilities

Site plan should include

Energy Auditing Techniques for Small and Medium Commercial Facilities

Energy Auditing Techniques for Small and Medium Commercial Facilities

Energy Auditing Techniques for Small and Medium Commercial Facilities

Electric Power Sources on a Peak Demand Day

Energy Auditing Techniques for Small and Medium Commercial Facilities

Load Profiles, Peak Demand and Rates

Consider that utility rates vary by time of day and year

Electrical Energy & Power Concepts

Energy Auditing Techniques for Small and Medium Commercial Facilities

Energy & Power Concepts (with units)

Conversion =1lb H2O 1F =3413 BTUs =100,000 BTUs

Energy Auditing Techniques for Small and Medium Commercial Facilities

The Energy Savings Equation

Energy Auditing Techniques for Small and Medium Commercial Facilities

The Energy Savings Equation Revised

Energy Auditing Techniques for Small and Medium Commercial Facilities

Energy & Demand Cost Calculations

Sample Utility Bill

Energy Auditing Techniques for Small and Medium Commercial Facilities

Normalizing Billing Data

Pacific Energy Center Average kWh/Day

Billing Period End Date

Billing Period End Date

Energy Auditing Techniques for Small and Medium Commercial Facilities

Billing Analysis: Electric Service

1200 1000 800 600 400 200 0

Billing Period End Date

Energy Auditing Techniques for Small and Medium Commercial Facilities

Billing Analysis: Gas Service

Billing Period End Date

Energy Auditing Techniques for Small and Medium Commercial Facilities

Electric Billing Data Graph for Beta Building

Energy Auditing Techniques for Small and Medium Commercial Facilities

Gas Billing Data Graph for Alpha Building

Energy Auditing Techniques for Small and Medium Commercial Facilities

Heating 4.0% Cooling 11.7%

Water Heating 24%

Energy Auditing Techniques for Small and Medium Commercial Facilities

Light out Power in

Lighting Power Density

Light power Area

This lamp type is a good candidate for replacement!

Energy Auditing Techniques for Small and Medium Commercial Facilities

Energy Auditing Techniques for Small and Medium Commercial Facilities

Energy Auditing Techniques for Small and Medium Commercial Facilities

This lamp type is a good candidate for replacement!

High Efficiency, 3rd Gen. or Super T-8s

Identifying Magnetic Ballasts

Under magnetic ballasts

Energy Auditing Techniques for Small and Medium Commercial Facilities