3 Lifting Devices

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Engineering Studies
HSC Course Stage 6
Lifting devices
ES/S6 HSC 41094
P0022158
Acknowledgments
This publication is copyright Learning Materials Production, Open Training and Education Network Distance Education, NSW Department of Education and Training, however it may contain material from other sources which is not owned by Learning Materials Production. Learning Materials Production would like to acknowledge the following people and organisations whose material has been used. Board of Studies NSW
All reasonable efforts have been made to obtain copyright permissions. All claims will be settled in good faith. Development: Revision: Coordination: Edit: Illustrations: DTP: David Jackson, John Shirm, Ian Webster Josephine Wilms Jeff Appleby John Cook, Jeff Appleby, Stephen Russell Tom Brown, David Evans Nick Loutkovsky , Carolina Barbieri
Copyright in this material is reserved to the Crown in the right of the State of New South Wales. Reproduction or transmittal in whole, or in part, other than in accordance with provisions of the Copyright Act is prohibited without the written authority of Learning Materials Production. , Learning Materials Production, Open Training and Education Network Distance Education, NSW Department of Education and Training, 2001. 51 Wentworth Rd. Strathfield NSW 2135. Revised 2002
Module contents
Subject overview ................................................................................ iii Module overview................................................................................vii Module components.......................................................................... vii

Module outcomes ..................................................................... ix Indicative time ........................................................................... x Resource requirements............................................................. xi
Icons
..............................................................................................xiii
Glossary............................................................................................. xv Directive terms................................................................................. xxi Part 1: Lifting devices developments ................................................................ 145 Part 2: Lifting devices mechanics/hydraulics ................................................... 155 Part 3: Lifting devices materials ......................................................................... 145 Part 4: Lifting devices electricity/electronics .................................................... 143 Part 5: Lifting devices communication ............................................................. 135 Part 6: Lifting devices engineering report......................................................... 124
Bibliography.......................................................................................25 Module evaluation.............................................................................27
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Subject overview
Engineering Studies Preliminary Course

Household appliances examines common appliances found in the home. Simple appliances are analysed to identify materials and their applications. Electrical principles, researching methods and techniques to communicate technical information are introduced. The first student engineering report is completed undertaking an investigation of materials used in a household appliance. Landscape products investigates engineering principles by focusing on common products, such as lawnmowers and clothes hoists. The historical development of these types of products demonstrates the effect materials development and technological advancements have on the design of products. Engineering techniques of force analysis are described. Orthogonal drawing methods are explained. An engineering report is completed that analyses lawnmower components. Braking systems uses braking components and systems to describe engineering principles. The historical changes in materials and design are investigated. The relationship between internal structure of iron and steel and the resulting engineering properties of those materials is detailed. Hydraulic principles are described and examples provided in braking systems. Orthogonal drawing techniques are further developed. An engineering report is completed that requires an analysis of a braking system component.
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Bio-engineering investigate both engineering principles and also the scope of the bio-engineering profession. Careers and current issues in this field are explored. Engineers as managers and ethical issues confronted by the bio engineer are considered. An engineering report is completed that investigates a current bio-engineered product and describes the related issues that the bio-engineer would need to consider before, during and after this product development. Irrigation systems is the elective topic for the preliminary modules. The historical development of irrigation systems is described and the impact of these systems on society discussed. Hydraulic analysis effect of irrigation systems is explained. The effect on the range of irrigation products that has occurred with the introduction of new materials is detailed. An engineering report on an irrigation system is completed.
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HSC Engineering Studies modules

Civil structures examines engineering principles as they relate to civil structures, such as bridges and buildings. The historical influences of engineering, the impact of engineering innovation, and environmental implications are discussed with reference to bridges. Mechanical analysis of bridges is used to introduce concepts of truss analysis and stress/strain. Material properties and application are explained with reference to a variety of civil structures. Technical communication skills described in this module include assembly drawing. The engineering report requires a comparison of two engineering solutions to solve the same engineering situation. Personal and public transport uses bicycles, motor vehicles and trains as examples to explain engineering concepts. The historical development of cars is used to demonstrate the developing material list available to the engineer. The impact on society of these developments is discussed. The mechanical analysis of mechanisms involves the effect of friction. Energy and power relationships are explained. Methods of testing materials, and modifying material properties are examined. A series of industrial manufacturing processes is described. Electrical concepts, such as power distribution, are introduced. The use of freehand technical sketches is developed. Lifting devices investigates the social impact that devices ranging from complex cranes to simple car jacks, have had on our society. The mechanical concepts are explained, including the hydraulic concepts often used in lifting apparatus. The industrial processes used to form metals and the methods used to control physical properties are explained. Electrical requirements for many devices are detailed. The technical rules for sectioned orthogonal drawings are demonstrated. The engineering report is based on a comparison of two lifting devices.
Aeronautical engineering explores the scope of the aeronautical engineering profession. Career opportunities are considered, as well as ethical issues related to the profession. Technologies unique to this engineering field are described. Mechanical analyses includes aeronautical flight principles and fluid mechanics. Materials and material processes sections concentrate on their application to aeronautics. The corrosion process is explained and preventative techniques listed. Communicating technical information using both freehand and computer-aided drawing is required. The engineering report is based on the aeronautical profession, current projects and issues. Telecommunications engineering examines the history and impact on society of this field. Ethical issues and current technologies are introduced. The materials section concentrates on specialised testing, copper and its alloys, semiconductors and optical fibres. Electronic systems such as analogue and digital are explained and an overview of a variety of other technologies in this field is presented. Analysis, related to telecommunication products, is used to reinforce mechanical concepts. Communicating technical information using both freehand and computer-aided drawing is required. The engineering report is based on the telecommunication profession, current projects and issues.
Figure 0.1 Modules
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Module overview
Lifting devices investigates the social impact that these devices, from complex cranes to simple car jacks, have had on our society. The mechanical concepts are explained, including the hydraulic concepts often used in lifting apparatus. The industrial processes used to form metals and the processes used to control physical properties are explained. Electrical requirements for many devices are detailed. The technical rules for sectioned orthogonal drawings are demonstrated. The engineering report is based on lifting devices.
Module components
Each module contains three components, the preliminary pages, the teaching/learning section and additional resources. The preliminary pages include: module contents subject overview module overview icons glossary directive terms.
Figure 0.2 Preliminary pages
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The teaching/learning parts may include: part contents introduction teaching/learning text and tasks exercises check list.
Figure 0.3 Teaching/learning section
The additional information may include: module appendix bibliography module evaluation.
Additional resources
Figure 0.4 Additional materials
Support materials such as audio tapes, video cassettes and computer disks will sometimes accompany a module.
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Module outcomes
At the end of this module, you should be working towards being able to: differentiate between properties of materials and justify the selection of materials, components and processes in engineering (H1.2) determine suitable properties, uses and applications of materials in engineering (H2.1) demonstrate proficiency in the use of mathematical, scientific and graphical methods to analyse and solve problems of engineering practice (H3.1) use appropriate written, oral and presentation skills in the preparation of detailed engineering reports (H3.2) investigate the extent of technological change in engineering (H4.1) apply a knowedge of history and technological change to engineering-based problems (H4.2) appreciate social, environmental and cultural implications of technological change in engineering and apply them to the anlaysis of specific problems (H4.3) work individually and in teams to solve specific engineering problems and in the preparation of engineering reports (H5.1) demonstrate skills in analysis, synthesis and experimentation related to engineering (H6.2).
Extract from Stage 6 Engineering Studies Syllabus, Board of Studies, NSW, 1999. Refer to <http://www.boardofstudies.nsw.edu.au> for original and current documents.
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Indicative time
The Preliminary course is 120 hours (indicative time) and the HSC course is 120 hours (indicative time). The following table shows the approximate amount of time you should spend on this module.
Preliminary modules Percentage of time Approximate number of hours 24 hr 24 hr 24 hr 24 hr 24 hr
Household appliances Landscape products Braking systems Bio-engineering Elective: Irrigation systems
20% 20% 20% 20% 20%
HSC modules
Percentage of time
Approximate number of hours 24 hr 24 hr 24 hr 24 hr 24 hr
Civil structures Personal and public transport Lifting devices Aeronautical engineering Telecommunications engineering
20% 20% 20% 20% 20%
There are five parts in Lifting devices. Each part will require about four to five hours of work. You should aim to complete the module within 20 to 25 hours.
Resource requirements
During this module you will need to access a range of resources including: actual lifting devices to analyse technical drawing equipment drawing board, tee square, set squares (3060, 45), protractor, pencils (0.5 mm mechanical pencil with B lead), eraser, pair of compasses, pair of dividers
calculator rule.
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Icons
As you work through this module you will see symbols known as icons. The purpose of these icons is to gain your attention and to indicate particular types of tasks you need to complete in this module. The list below shows the icons and outlines the types of tasks for Stage 6 Engineering studies. Computer This icon indicates tasks such as researching using an electronic database or calculating using a spreadsheet. Danger This icon indicates tasks which may present a danger and to proceed with care. Discuss This icon indicates tasks such as discussing a point or debating an issue. Examine This icon indicates tasks such as reading an article or watching a video. Hands on This icon indicates tasks such as collecting data or conducting experiments. Respond This icon indicates the need to write a response or draw an object. Think This icon indicates tasks such as reflecting on your experience or picturing yourself in a situation.
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Return This icon indicates exercises for you to return to your teacher when you have completed the part. (OTEN OLP students will need to refer to their Learner's Guide for instructions on which exercises to return).
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Glossary
As you work through the module you will encounter a range of terms that have specific meanings. The first time a term occurs in the text it will appear in bold. The list below explains the terms you will encounter in this module. apparent weight austempering difference between actual weight and buoyancy force; weight it appears to be when submerged heat treatment process where the austenitised steel is soaked till the structure changes to ferrite and finely dispersed carbide particles the product of austempering; ferrite with finely dispersed carbide particles formation of a shape often found in a ductile specimen that has been subjected to a compressive load large block of metal used as a start for the rolling process telescopic member hinged to a revolving superstructure that can extend in length labeling of spaces between applied forces on a nonconcurrent force system type of hardness test that uses steel sphere indentors and two different loads a material that doesn't show much plastic deformation is seen to be rigid and brittle; the stress/strain graphs for some ceramic materials are only a straight line with no curve at all upthrust force exerted by a fluid on a body equal to the weight of the displaced fluid the centre of mass of the displaced fluid. The buoyancy force acts through this point a term used to describe the point that is the centre for the mass of an object
bainite barelling
billet boom (telescopic) bows notation brinell brittleness
buoyancy force centre of buoyancy centre of gravity
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cherry picker
a specialised crane consisting of an enclosed bucket in which workers are lifted to carry out tasks such as changing street lights etc occurs under the extreme pressure of powder forming when adjacent particles are forced to join together metal plate under the bonnet indicating details such as the mass of a vehicle A measure of the extent a fluid volume may be reduced by an increase in pressure a shortened and easier method of drawing some part or feature, based upon AS 1100 drawing standards solid mixture of sand and resin used to create shaped cavities inside cast structures. occurs in alloys, under non equilibrium cooling, when the centre of the grain is richer in the higher melting point metal weight used to supplement the weight of the machine in providing stability for lifting working loads usually attached to the rear of a revolving super-structure mass per unit volume small, simple, fixed cranes consisting of a boom and lifting tackle angular movement of crane main jib/boom in a vertical plane, also called luffing rotating cylinder with side flanges on which the rope, used in the machine operation, is wrapped any stress/strain graph that shows a large area of plastic deformation and possibly a failure point that is below the ultimate tensile strength (uts) is representattive of a ductile material the angle of the straight-line section of the stressstrain graph indicates elasticity; the steeper the line, the stiffer the material a moving cage or car used to lift people or cargo from one level in a building to another a continuous, inclined moving walkway the margin included in all calculations to ensure materials are not stressed beyond their elastic limit curve used in the design of cast and forged components to reduce stress concentration at corners
cold welding
compliance plate compressibility conventional representation core coring
counterweight
density derrick cranes derricking drum ductility
elasticity
elevators escalator factor of safety fillet curve
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fine pearlite
thin bands of ferrite and cementite formed under faster than equilibrium cooling often found in normalising liquid or a gas extension attached by pins and ropes to the boom head to provide additional length for handling specified loads, it may also be offset from the line of the boom small motorised vehicles with two prongs or forks at the front designed to lift pallets method of finding the line of action by adding strings to a space diagram safety device, found on elevators, that operates under centrifugal force to activate emergency brakes the depth to which steel hardens operated by or employing water or other fluid study of pressurised liquid systems a number assigned to a component on an assembly drawing, used to identify components referred to in a materials or parts list the use of numbers or upper case letters to identify components on an assembly drawing thin dark continuous lines drawn from an itemizing circle or number to the component on an assembly drawing motion of raising or lowering of load in a vertical direction a machine that makes it easier to raise something either by reducing the force required or raising the heights achievable a line used to locate the point of contact of touching circles by joining the centres of the two circles
fluid fly jib
forklifts funicular polygon governor
hardenability hydraulic hydraulics item number
itemizing leader
lifting lifting device
line of centres
low carbon steel luffing machinability
an alloy of iron with between 0.15% and 0.35% carbon angular movement of crane main jib/boom in a vertical plane. Also called derricking the ability of a material to be shaped with various machine tools and cutting tips
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manometer martempering
gauge for measuring fluid pressure of gases or liquids heat treatment process where the austenitised steel is held till it is a constant temperature throughout then quenched in water quantity of matter in a substance a materials or parts list used on assembly drawings to show item or part number, the name or description of the parts, the quantity required and the material specification forces whose lines of action do not pass through a common point extendable or fixed arms attached to a mounting base (chassis) which rest on supports at the outer ends to increase stability heat treatment process where the austenitised steel is cooled in molten lead gauge for measuring fluid pressure of liquids any of a range of lifting devices consisting of a flat surface on which a worker stands, and that may be raised or lowered study of pressurised air systems surface finish, such as Colorbonding, that is plated on the surface before rolling the piston that lifts on a hydraulic jack a radial line from a pole point drawn to the end points of force vectors drawn on a force diagram how heavy or light a substance is when compared with water a regular pattern of features, such as holes or slots, in a component this is the area under the straight-line section of the stress/strain graph; it is a measure of the amount of energy which can be absorbed by a material without causing plastic deformation single force having the same effect as the original force system type of hardness test that uses three different loads and three different indentors
mass materials list
non-concurrent forces outrigger
patenting piezometer platform lifts
pneumatics prefinished ram ray
relative density repeated features resilience
resultant force Rockwell
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ropes
twisted, multi strand steel cables used in elevators and cranes; also refers to twisted cables of natural or synthetic fibres rotating wheel with an angled groove for carrying the rope to operating position rotary motion of a crane about its vertical axis a scaled drawing showing spaces between forces acting on a body ratio of the density of the substance to the density of water volume per unit mass the amount of force needed to plastically deform the material is called the proof or yield strength while the 'high point' of the stress/strain graph shows the ultimate tensile strength lines drawn on funicular polygon to determine line of action of resultant/equilibrant force. Drawn parallel to rays on a force diagram cohesive force that occurs at the surface of a liquid circles or arcs in contact with or touching a straight line a straight line which touches a circle or arc a crane in which the boom can be extended or shortened by retracting within itself the area under the total curve of the stress/strain graph; it is a measure of the amount of energy required to cause failure a crane where the operators cabin, boom and lifting gear are supported at the top of a very tall tower gauge pressure below atmospheric pressure type of hardness test that uses a standard load and a diamond pyramid indentor. resistance to flow
sheave slewing space diagram specific gravity specific volume strength
string
surface tension tangency tangent telescopic extension crane toughness
tower crane
vacuum Vickers viscosity
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Directive terms
The list below explains key words you will encounter in assessment tasks and examination questions. account account for; state reasons for, report on; give an account of; narrate a series of events or transactions identify components and the relationship between the; draw out and relate implications use, utilise, employ in a particular situation make a judgement about the value of make a judgement of value, quality, outcomes, results or size ascertain/determine from given facts, figures or information make clear or plain arrange or include in classes/categories show how things are similar or different make, build, put together items or arguments show how things are different or opposite add a degree or level of accuracy, depth, knowledge and understanding, logic, questioning, reflection and quality to analysis/evaluation draw conclusions state the meaning and identify essential qualities show by example
analyse apply appreciate assess calculate clarify classify compare construct contrast critically analyse/evaluate deduce define demonstrate
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describe discuss distinguish evaluate examine explain extract extrapolate identify interpret investigate justify outline predict propose recall recommend recount summarise synthesise
provide characteristics and features identify issues and provide points for and/or against recognise or note/indicate as being distinct or different from; to note differences between make a judgement based on criteria; determine the value of inquire into relate cause and effect; make the relationships between things evident; provide why and/or how choose relevant and/or appropriate details infer from what is known recognise and name draw meaning from plan, inquire into and draw conclusions about support an argument or conclusion sketch in general terms; indicate the main features of suggest what may happen based on available information put forward (for example a point of view, idea, argument, suggestion) for consideration or action present remembered ideas, facts or experiences provide reasons in favour retell a series of events express, concisely, the relevant details putting together various elements to make a whole
Extract from The New Higher School Certificate Assessment Support Document, Board of Studies, NSW, 1999. Refer to <http://www.boardofstudies.nsw.edu.au> for original and current documents.
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Lifting devices
Part 1: Lifting devices developments
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Part 1 contents
Introduction .........................................................................................2
What will you learn?.................................................................... 2
Lifting devices.....................................................................................3
Common lifting devices.............................................................. 5 Impact of lifting devices on construction methods......................26
Exercises...........................................................................................35 Progress check.................................................................................43 Exercise cover sheet.......................................................................45
Introduction
Welcome to the module on lifting devices. Lifting devices are machines that have been designed to address two of the major shortcomings of the human body that of lack of strength and lack of reach. In this part you will look at the historical background behind the development of a modern lifting device as well as considering the function of a number of other common lifting devices. Finally you will examine the influence lifting devices have had on the construction industry.
What will you learn?

You will learn about: the historical development of lifting devices engineering innovation in lifting devices and their effect on peoples lives.
You will learn to: research the history of technological change in lifting devices examine the impact of lifting devices on engineering construction methods.
Lifting devices
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Lifting devices
What do you do if you need to lift something that is too heavy for you to lift on your own? You could get a group of friends together to give you a hand. Thats exactly the technique used in many ancient civilisations except the friends were called slaves. When blocks of stone weighing 2.5 tonnes each had to be moved into position during the construction of the great pyramids of Egypt, large teams of people using little more than brute force were called upon for the job. A more modern solution is to use a machine, some sort of lifting device, to help. Machines are devices that help you do work. You would have learnt about simple machines during the landscape and bio-engineering modules in the preliminary year. Some machines such as bicycles are speed magnifiers however the majority of machines are force magnifiers. That is, they have a mechanical advantage of greater than one. The effort we apply at one part of the machine is not as great as the load we can lift at another part of the machine. Pulley systems, levers, hydraulic systems and screw threads are all examples of simple machines that are used every day to magnify our force and have been put to use in common lifting devices. A lifting device is a machine that makes it easier for you to raise something that is difficult to lift either because it is too heavy or too awkward to lift or in other cases because the heights involved are beyond your physical capabilities. Examples of common lifting devices include: corkscrews cranes car jacks and hoists elevators and escalators conveyor belts dry docks for ships forklifts pulley systems.
Look at the three common corkscrews in Figure 1.1. They all do the same job removing corks from wine bottles. They all have a screw thread that winds down to get a good grip on the cork but after that they all work in slightly different ways. The corkscrew on the left works on brute force but the other two are simple machines operating as force magnifiers.
Figure 1.1
Three types of corkscrew
Explain how the middle and right hand corkscrews magnify the force being applied to them. ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________
Did you answer? Once the corkscrew has been wound into the cork the force applied by the user is magnified by a first order lever arrangement. The right-hand one is larger but easier to use because two hands can apply the effort.
When you are looking at any lifting device for this module it is important to keep in mind a number of important questions. What is being lifted and where? How is it doing it what simple machine systems are being used? What materials have been used in the construction of the lifting device and why?
Lifting devices
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What is the power source? What would you do if the lifting device was not available?
You will now go on to look at the development of a common lifting device the crane. The crane has been chosen because of its long history and the wide variety of designs that have been produced.
Common lifting devices

Cranes
Cranes are one of the bigger lifting devices you may see especially around large construction sites. Scaled down cranes are mounted on the back of tow trucks to lift one end of a vehicle so it can be towed away after an accident. However, most cranes are used to lift things high off the ground, such as for lifting materials to the upper floors of a building under construction. All cranes are designed to lift a suspended load from one place to another.
Early cranes
The ancient Greeks developed a hoist system that was the forerunner to later cranes. This basic hoist consisted of a timber pole or jib, a pulley and rope. The rope was passed over the pulley and attached to the load. Human power, often lots of it, was used to pull on the rope to raise the load.
Figure 1.2
An early Greek hoist
The Romans developed the crane further by adding more complex pulley systems, larger capstans or winding drums for winding the rope around, and human powered treadmills. The purpose of these innovations was to increase the lifting capacity of the crane by raising its mechanical advantage. However, the strength of the timber and natural fibre ropes used in the construction of the cranes was still a limiting factor in the overall lifting capacity.
Figure 1.3
A Roman crane with a human-powered treadmill (viewed from the front and the side)
NSW Department of Education
As with many other areas of engineering there was little technological change from the Roman era through to the start of the industrial revolution in the 18th century. The crane in figure 1.4 was built some 1300 years after the Roman era but still used timber in its construction and had a human powered treadmill as the source of motion.
Figure 1.4
A timber-framed crane from the 1300s
Lifting devices
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Stronger materials increase the lifting capacity

By the 1800s new steam powered engines and higher strength materials, such as cast iron and wrought iron, were introduced, which greatly increased the lifting capacity of the cranes of the time.
Figure 1.5
An early steam powered, metal framed crane from 1879
With the rapid development of the rail and shipbuilding industries heavy, steam powered, rail mounted cranes began to be used extensively. The materials and construction techniques used on cranes mirrored the construction of bridges of the time, with jibs made from either a truss design or a solid box girder design. Note the solid construction of the crane in figure 1.6.
Figure 1.6
A heavy lift crane from the late 1800s
Mobile cranes
The development of the internal combustion engine and lighter, stronger steels at the start of the 1900s led to a dramatic reduction in the size and weight of cranes. This in turn improved the cranes versatility. The crane from 1922 in figure 1.7 was mounted on the back of a truck to provide increased mobility.
Figure 1.7
A truck mounted crane from 1922
By 1932 cranes that could move under their own power were developed. Mass production techniques pioneered in the automotive industry lead to a reduction in the price of cranes opening the way for even wider use in industry and greater experimentation with new materials such as high tensile steels.
Figure 1.8
A mobile crane from 1932
Lifting devices
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In 1945 even the largest mobile cranes were capable of lifting only 5 tonnes. By 1950 mobile cranes were capable of lifting 20 tonnes and by 1963 that figure had risen to 100 tonnes.
Figure 1.9
The first mobile crane to break the 100 tonne barrier
To increase lift capacity yet maintain mobility lighter high tensile, structural steels and aluminium alloys have been used in increasing amounts in modern mobile cranes. A mobile crane will typically be powered by a diesel engine. The diesel engine provides the power directly for the lifting motions but will power a hydraulic pump to provide the luffing motion. Luffing is when the boom or jib of the crane pivots up or down as seen in figure 1.10. In some cases an electric motor is used for the lifting operations. In this system a generator powered by the diesel engine powers the electric motor. The advantage of using an electric motor is that the rate of lift can be easily varied without having to use a gearing system or varying the speed of the diesel motor.
Figure 1.10 A telescopic crane demonstrating luffing NSW Department of Education
Special purpose cranes

To this stage most cranes had developed along fairly similar lines but in the 1960s two new developments appeared. First was the development of special purpose cranes. One of the first purpose built cranes was designed to lift the inter-continental ballistic missiles of the USA defence force. Purpose built cranes are not as common as multi-purpose machines because the more jobs a crane can do, the more valuable it is to its owner/operator.
Figure 1.11 A special purpose crane designed to lift missiles NSW Department of Education
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Lifting devices
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What are the advantages of using a special purpose built crane for a lifting operation? ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________
Did you answer? It will do the job more quickly, more efficiently, more safely. These factors may combine to make its use less expensive also.
Two common examples of purpose built cranes are shown in figure 1.12 and figure 1.13. Mobile container cranes are found at ports around Australia and are capable of lifting 35 tonnes.
Figure 1.12 A special purpose crane designed to lift shipping containers NSW Department of Education
A crane designed to lift pallets of bricks from the back of a truck is another example of a purpose built crane.
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Figure 1.13 A special purpose crane designed to lift pallets of bricks NSW Department of Education
Telescopic extension cranes

The second major innovation in crane design from the 1960s was the telescopic extension crane. Telescopic cranes have the advantage of being able to work in confined spaces with the boom extending only as far as needed. An early example from 1966 is seen in figure 1.14. Telescopic cranes rely largely on the advantages of hydraulics for their effectiveness. As you would already know from earlier modules, hydraulic systems can smoothly transfer forces from one part of a machine to another and can be designed to act as force magnifiers. They also have high efficiency ratings because there are few moving parts and friction is reduced by using oil-based fluids. Modern telescopic cranes can reach to heights of about 60 metres or further if a trussed jib is attached to the final boom extension.
Figure 1.14 An early telescopic crane from 1966 NSW Department of Education
Turn to the exercise section and complete exercise 1.1
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Lifting devices
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Tower cranes
A recent innovation is the self-erecting tower crane, as shown in figure 1.15. Tower cranes have very high towers or masts reaching unsupported heights of 80 metres. Greater heights can be achieved if the mast is tied to the frame of the building at regular intervals.
Figure 1.15 A tower crane tied to the building Tom Brown
Pretend youre a self-erecting tower crane. Sit down on a chair. Place your hands by your side onto the seat of the chair. Lift yourself up off the seat and have someone place a book on the seat of the chair. When you drop back down onto the chair you will be one book thickness higher than you were before. Tower cranes operate in a similar fashion. A climbing frame just below the cabin uses large hydraulic rams to lift the cabin and jib one mast section higher. The new mast section is lifted by the crane itself into the position opened up by the climbing frame. Once the new section is bolted to the lower portion of the mast the whole operation can continue upwards. When the crane is no longer required it simply reverses the procedure to dismantle itself. Figure 1.16 shows the horizontal boom of a tower crane. On the left is the hook and sling controlled by the trolley that moves back and forth along the boom. On the right-hand side of the boom are heavy concrete blocks that act as counterweights to the load. On the mast below the boom is the operators cabin. Below the cabin is the climbing frame.
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Figure 1.16 A self-supporting tower crane
Tower cranes do not have a high capacity with 20 tonnes being about the maximum lift rating. Their main function is to move building materials around the construction site especially to the upper floors of tall buildings. Some tower cranes have horizontal jibs, which may reach 75 metres or more. This enables then to reach from one side of a building site to the other even though the crane base remains stationary. When working at the extreme end of the jib the lifting capacity is reduced by at least half due to the greater turning effect placed on the crane by the load. The use of modern radio telecommunication systems is vital to the operation of a tower crane since in many cases the crane operator is not in direct visual contact with the loading or unloading area. Their height and reach may even allow them to lift materials over the top of a building under construction and down the other side. This would not have been possible in the days prior to two-way radio when a system of hand signals and whistles was used to pass on messages to the crane operator. You may even have seen old photos or film footage of workers, nicknamed monkeys, riding up with the load so they could communicate more clearly with the crane operator. This unsafe practice is no longer considered acceptable under current Occupational Health and Safety regulations. Most tower cranes use high capacity electric motors for their lifting power source. As the cranes are fixed in position until they are dismantled they can be wired into the electricity grid of the building. A typical tower crane with a lift capacity of 20 tonnes would be powered by a 415 volt, 190 kilowatt motor.
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High capacity cranes

It has been pointed out that a mobile crane is generally more versatile than a fixed or stationary crane but there are times when there is no substitute for outright strength. Due to the high stresses involved, high capacity cranes are extremely large in size, fixed in position and require large counterweights to balance the load. The use of high capacity cranes is limited because of their high cost and lack of mobility. The hammerhead crane in figure 1.17 was capable of lifting 250 tonnes thats about 160 family-size cars in one go. This crane was used at the Garden Island naval dockyards in Sydney to lift major machinery components, missile launchers, ship superstructures and even complete ships out of the water. Due to its age it requires expensive maintenance work and has not been used since the early 1990s.
Figure 1.17 The Hammerhead crane at Sydneys Garden Island dockyards NSW Department of Education
Lifting materials twenty storeys to the top of a building with a tower crane is a different problem from lifting people twenty storeys to the top of a building. You will now look briefly at a number of other common lifting devices.
Turn to the exercise section and complete exercise 1.2
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Car jacks and hoists

In Personal and public transport you discovered how important the motorcar is to everyday living for many people. The engine lift, trolley jack, car hoist, block and tackle and the simple car jack are all lifting devices that are associated with the motorcar. There are scissor type-jacks, screw thread jacks, ratchet type jacks and multi-lift hydraulic jacks. A jack for off road vehicles has been developed to allow the vehicle to be lifted out of bogs, or lifted over uneven territory which uses a PVC coated cushion that is inflated by connecting a tube to the exhaust pipe. Modern racing cars have a jack built into the frame that is activated by compressed air in the pits to achieve speed in the lifting operation. The simple car jack is designed to raise one corner of a car when changing a wheel. All cars come with their own jack and extreme care must be taken if using a jack borrowed from another vehicle, as the head of the jack will need to mate with the designated jacking point under the car. Always use a jack on firm, level ground and never work under a car supported only on a car jack. Since they rely on human effort for the power source car jacks are designed to have a very high mechanical advantage provided by the screw thread. Mechanical jacks such as these deliberately have low efficiency ratings so that the weight of the vehicle wont force the jack to unwind once the effort has stopped.
Figure 1.18 A typical car jack from a small modern car
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Figure 1.18 shows a common car jack from a small car rated to lift 850 kilograms. Due to its design, this jack has a variable mechanical advantage. When first raising the jack, the mechanical advantage is low meaning the jack will gain height quickly. By the time it is at the height where the load would normally be applied the mechanical advantage has increased, reducing the rate at which the jack gains height but also reducing the effort required to lift the car. Look at a car jack and see it differs to the one in figure 1.18.
How could you work out its velocity ratio, mechanical advantage and efficiency? A trolley jack is a hydraulically operated jack of high capacity capable of lifting one end of a vehicle off the ground. It is used by mechanics to make quick inspections under a vehicle. Again never work under a vehicle supported only by a trolley jack. The engine lift is a mobile block and tackle system that can be wheeled over to the vehicle to enable the motor to be lifted and removed from the engine bay. Most auto workshops will also have a fixed block and tackle mounted to a strong roofing beam for the same purpose. To work under a vehicle safely the car hoist is used. The hoist in figure 1.19 is an electrically operated hydraulic system capable of lifting 2 500 kg.
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Figure 1.19
Car hoists enable mechanics to work safely under vehicles
Turn to the exercise section and complete exercise 1.3.
Lifting people
When lifting machinery, vehicles or building materials a certain degree of disregard for the cargo is acceptable but when lifting live cargo, such as people, the rules change dramatically. Much greater emphasis must be placed on the needs of the cargo particularly the need for a quick, safe and comfortable journey. There are four general types of people lifts: elevators escalators moving ramps and walkways specialised working platforms.
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Elevators
Elevators, more commonly known in Australia as lifts, are small rooms, called cars, which travel up and down an elevator shaft. Elevators are designed to move people and materials from floor to floor in multi-storey buildings. Buildings over three storeys are required to have at least one elevator. Large buildings will have banks of elevators with some being dedicated to special tasks. In hospitals for example, some elevators are dedicated to moving patients between the hospital wards and the operating theatres while others are reserved for the cleaning staff for waste disposal and linen transfer. Why would a hospital have a system of dedicated elevators for specific tasks? Can you think of any other specialised or dedicated elevators you may have seen or heard about in other types of buildings? When designing an elevator system a number of factors need to be taken into account such as the: type of building number of floors to be serviced floor to floor distance number of people using each floor maximum peak demand load to be moved.
There are two general types of elevator systems: electric hydraulic.
Electric lifts are the most common type and can be adapted to be used in all situations. The motors for an electric lift are usually: two speed AC motors for car speeds up to 1.0 m/s variable speed AC or DC geared motors for speeds up to 2.5 m/s direct drive DC or variable speed AC gearless motors for speeds greater than 2.5 m/s.
Despite common fears of being trapped in an elevator or of the elevator cables snapping, statistically it is safer to use a lift than to take the stairs. Elevators have more than one cable to provide greater safety and all have emergency brakes to slow the car if the cables suddenly snapped. The first elevators to have an emergency brake were designed by Elisha Otis way back in 1853. The early elevators designed by Otis were built to carry freight but in 1856 he developed a vertical railway passenger lift.
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Around the early 1890s multi-strand steel cables replaced hemp rope for the elevator cables improving their safety and efficiency. Early elevators used a top mounted electric motor turning a winding drum with the elevator cable simply wound around the drum. As the height of the buildings increased, so did the length of the cable required. This lead to problems with the cable not winding neatly onto the drum. Have you had the same problem with your garden hose?
The solution that was developed, and which is still used today, was to have the electric motor winding a number of high tensile cables to raise and lower the elevator. One end of each cable is attached to the top of the elevator car and is then wrapped around the drive shaft a grooved pulley. The other ends are attached to a counterweight that slides up and down the shaft on its own rails. The counterweight, equal to the weight of the car with a half load of passengers, reduces the effort required from the motor and provides enough friction at the drive shaft for the cables not to slip. Sailors use a similar principle on the winch systems on sailing ships.
Winding drum
Electric motor
Elevator car
Counterweight Elevator shaft
Figure 1.20
Components of a typical electric elevator
Hydraulic elevators are used extensively in low-rise buildings up to five storeys and where elevator speeds do not exceed 0.75 m/s. The elevator is pushed up the elevator shaft by a hydraulically controlled piston. To save space a telescopic piston may be used. Hydraulic elevators do not require any overhead mounted lifting gear. The pumping unit can be located up to 15 metres away from the shaft and the overall installation and running costs are less than for an electric drive system.
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Elevator car
Hydraulically operated telescopic lifting ram Elevator shaft
Figure 1.21
Components of a hydraulic elevator
Escalators
For over 60 years the term escalator was an Otis Elevator Company trademark. However, now it has become the standard term for any continuous moving stairway. Escalators are particularly useful in moving a large number of people travelling in the same direction. Their main disadvantage is that they generally only operate to a height equal to one or two storeys. This can be overcome by placing escalators in series so that the passengers move from one escalator to another. This also provides get on / get off points for the passengers. A typical application for escalators is in large multi-storey shopping centres where elevators could not cope with the large volumes of people moving throughout the centre. Turn to the exercise section and complete exercise 1.5.
Moving walkways and ramps

While escalators are limited to an incline of 30 from the horizontal, moving ramps are restricted to a maximum incline of only 12 meaning they have to be a lot longer to reach the same vertical height. Their main advantage over escalators is that prams and shopping trolleys can safely be taken on the ramps. This is a major issue for customers in shopping centres.
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Specialised working platforms

When carrying out work high above the ground workers face two major problems: getting up to the operating height quickly and with minimum effort being able to move freely and work safely while high off the ground.
Devices such as cherry pickers and scissor lifts provide much greater safety than using older technology such as working from a ladder. Ladder work is considered so dangerous that there are now strict guidelines relating to their use in the workplace. A cherry picker can also be considered as another example of a specialised crane. An example of a specialised working platform is shown in figure 1.22
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Figure 1.22
An elevating work platform
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Dry dock
Up until now you have been looking at the lifting of small to medium sized objects but how could you lift a large ocean-going ship out of the water to carry out repairs. One solution is to use a floating dock such as the one at Newcastle, shown in figure 1.23. The floating dock is a long U shaped channel structure, which is partially sunk by flooding the ballast tanks in its hold. The ship to be repaired is sailed into position inside the dock and propped against the sides to stop it from falling over. The floating dock is then raised by pumping out the tanks and filling them with air. The ship is lifted out of the water at the same time as the dock is raised. The floating dock in Newcastle can handle ships weighing up to 45 000 tonne.
Figure 1.23
The floating dock at Newcastle
Helicopters
Using helicopters as a lifting device is an example of a new application being found for an existing machine. Basically thought of as a form of air transport, helicopters play a small but increasing role in the lifting and transferring of cargo. Helicopters have a significant advantage over other forms of lifting device. They are fast, highly mobile and most importantly can access areas inaccessible by other forms of transport. Some heavy lift models such as the Russian MI-26 have a lifting capacity of up to 20 tonnes.
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Some of the varying lifting applications helicopters have been used for include : winching bushwalkers hurt or trapped in rugged bushland rescuing sailors at sea water bombing bush fires lifting and transporting cargo to remote locations moving large animals, such as an elephant or rhinoceros out of inaccessible terrain for the purpose of relocation.
CH53 Sea Stallion heavy lift helicopters are used by the armed forces of the United States to lug 6 000 litre fuel bladders and 10 tonne equipment containers to troops in remote combat areas. Australias CH47 Chinook medium lift helicopters are capable of cruising at a speed of over 200 kilometres per hour with a 5 tonne slung payload. Helicopters have been used by the construction industry but usually only for special one-off jobs where it would not be economical or possible to erect a crane to do the job. Such jobs include placing air conditioner cooling towers onto high-rise buildings or placing telecommunication equipment onto high structures or inaccessible mountains. One problem that limits their use in the construction industry is the turbulence below the blades. The downdraft produced by a hovering helicopter exceeds 160 kilometres per hour. This poses special safety problems for those working below the helicopter.
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Impact of lifting devices on construction methods

In this section of the module it is important to consider a number of issues. Has a change in lifting device impacted on the type of buildings being constructed? Has the building style remained the same but the method of construction changed due to the use of new lifting devices? How have lifting devices improved safety and productivity in the construction industry?
In 1871 a huge fire devastated much of the central business district of the large American city of Chicago. The building boom that followed resulted in the price of land skyrocketing. The best way to make use of the valuable land was to build as tall a building as possible. At this same time a new innovative building system was being trialled utilising the increased strength of a new material steel. The new system relied on the weight of the building being supported by a steel skeleton instead of the outer masonry walls. These early skyscrapers quickly exceeded the height of the buildings they replaced. One New York building constructed at the time using the old technique of load bearing walls required walls three metres thick at the base to support the fourteen-storey structure. There were two problems that needed to be overcome before architects could take full advantage of the steel frame building system. How to get the materials to the upper floors of the building under construction. How to move people through the building once it had been constructed.
The role of cranes in multi-storey construction

There has always been a need for lifting devices on construction sites. The challenge for engineers now is how to cope with the increased heights of modern buildings while at the same time maintaining safe working procedures and reducing construction times. On modern multi-storey buildings that use a steel frame, curtain wall construction method, the steel frame is constructed as soon as the foundation work is complete. Tall tower cranes and derrick cranes are used to lift the steel beams and hold them in place until secured. Derrick cranes are small, fixed, basic cranes similar to the simple Egyptian hoist with safe working loads of approximately 5 tonnes. They may be assembled on the top floor of a building under construction. The derrick crane can jack itself
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up to the next level as the building grows in height in a manner similar to that used by tower cranes. Tower cranes working at extreme heights are tied to the frame of the building to stop the mast from buckling by increasing the rigidity of the mast. The walls of steel-framed buildings take very little of the load with their main function being to close in and protect the building. This is one reason why modern buildings can have such large expanses of glass windows the outer skin is not required to take any weight. It also means that the walls and windows can be fitted out anytime during the construction process. The walls of the lower levels dont need to be in place before work can begin on the upper levels. Lightweight, pre-fabricated panels are lifted into position by crane to be bolted or clipped to the supporting frame. Sections of the walls are deliberately left unfilled to allow the loading and unloading of materials to the various levels of the building under construction. Loading decks fitted into the vacant spots have been designed to improve productivity and safety by providing secure platforms for the cranes to load to, while also providing overhead protection to those working below. The decks can be retracted when not required so that they dont obstruct the rope and load of cranes working in the area.
Figure 1.24 Loading from a crane to a retractable deck Preston Australia P/L
When construction has finished, tower cranes can simply disassemble their mast one section at a time to lower themselves back to street level. A second method is to use a derrick crane on top of the building to lower the tower crane. The derrick crane is then completely dismantled and may be lowered by a temporary block and tackle system.
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The role of elevators in multi-storey buildings

Without elevators the popularity of multi-storey buildings would be severely threatened. This was clearly demonstrated in 1937 when lift operators in New York went on strike. Prior to automation in the 1960s elevators required a trained lift operator to operate them. The lift operator strike caused chaos in the high-rise areas of Manhattan with workers refusing to go to work, deliveries ceasing and so on. How many floors would you be prepared to walk up every day if you were working or living in a tall multi-storey building that did not have an elevator? With taller, larger buildings comes the need for more elevators and faster elevators. A general rule of thumb is that one elevator is required for every ten storeys of building height otherwise the waiting time for an elevator is unacceptably long. This creates a problem for tall buildings which require multiple elevators. Each elevator requires its own shaft which occupies valuable floor space. Faster elevators reduce the waiting time by shortening the travelling time. However, there is a limit to how fast we can accelerate an elevator and still make it comfortable for the passengers inside. Australia accepts one of the fastest acceleration rates in the world with elevators reaching velocities of 7 metres per second after an acceleration period of about ten storeys. If a lift were to accelerate faster than this, the heavy-legged feeling when accelerating upwards would be uncomfortable and may even cause people to fall over. High-speed elevators in tall buildings pose another health problem for passengers. The air pressure difference experienced when using these types of elevators results in an annoying or even painful popping of the ears. One solution used in some tall buildings is to have transfer floors where passengers must get off one elevator and wait for another one with the waiting time allowing the pressure in the inner ear to match that of the air. Large commercial buildings face further elevator-based problems. Many commercial buildings house thousands of workers who start and finish work at roughly the same time. Human traffic jams at peak hour inside the building can lead to delays when waiting for an elevator. Double and tripledecker elevator cars are one solution to this problem without reducing the available floor space caused by putting in extra elevator shafts. Without the availability of an efficient elevator system the focus of our construction methods would possibly change from constructing tall buildings in areas where land is scarce and expensive to a system of low rise buildings constructed on less expensive land. This would have the effect of increasing the urban sprawl as cities spread outwards in search of suitable building sites.
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Safety considerations
Lifting devices contribute to improved safety in a number of ways. On a simplistic level, by reducing the human effort required, they greatly reduce the chance of back injury, one of the biggest forms of injury amongst construction workers. Lifting devices such as cherry pickers and platform hoists provide a more secure working environment for people working high off the ground.
Figure 1.25
A worker using a cherry picker to inspect street lighting
Also, the curtain wall system of modern multi-storey buildings allows sections of the wall to remain unfilled during construction to allow access to the building for delivery of materials and for personnel elevators. These temporary elevators are a quicker and safer way of moving workers, light materials and equipment up and down the building during construction. They free up the cranes for tasks requiring greater lifting capacity. Properly designed guards and barriers reduce the chance of building materials falling or being dropped to the ground when using temporary elevators improving the safety for those working below on the construction site. As
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with tower cranes the temporary elevators are tied to the framework of the building to provide greater rigidity. The blank portions of wall are filled in once the elevator is dismantled. The lower levels of multi-storey buildings are now usually surrounded by scaffolding and a shade cloth type material to improve the conditions inside the building under construction by stopping swirling wind from stirring up dust reducing the chance of tools, equipment and materials being dropped to lower levels providing a visual barrier to stop workers from walking off the upper levels of the building.
The design and construction of this scaffolding needs to be co-ordinated with the operating requirements of the cranes, their loading decks and the temporary elevators that will be working on the site. Turn to the exercise section and complete exercise 1.7.
Storage of building materials

An ever-increasing range of building materials are being bundled together to enable them to be stored on pallets or specialised racks. By using forklifts and platform lifts, hardware and building supply companies can stack their materials as high as 10 metres off the ground yet still be able to retrieve them quickly when required. For hardware stores and their customers this has led to a number of improvements such as: a greater range of items can be stored materials can be retrieved more quickly less waiting time a warehouse space can hold a greater amount of stored material.
Forklifts and walk-behind pallet lifts are designed to work in narrow warehouse aisles. One innovation allows a machine to pivot on its own footprint using a system whereby the driving wheels are controlled independently to the point where they turn in opposite directions when maximum manoeuvrability is required.
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Wheel direction
Direction of motion
Figure 1.26 Varying the direction of travel of the driving wheels of a forklift
To reduce the levels of harmful exhaust gases and noise most indoor-based forklift models operate using battery powered electric motors. Outdoor forklifts are likely to use Liquid Petroleum Gas (LPG) or small traditional petrol engines.
Figure 1.27 A modern petrol powered forklift
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Safety features common on most modern forklifts include: very low centre of gravity to increase stability guards to protect the operator from falling objects reduced noise levels from the motor ergonomically designed controls and seats to reduce operator fatigue sprung floors on operator stand-up models warning buzzer when reversing.
Lifting devices found on domestic construction sites

On a domestic building site a number of lifting devices are commonly used. Forklifts are used to unload palletised materials from the delivery trucks to a convenient location on site. Bobcats and front-end loaders are used to lift and carry loose materials such as sand, soil and gravel. Pallet cranes are specialised truck mounted cranes used to unload palletised materials off the truck. Conveyor belts are used in situations such as to carry tiles to the roof. With one person loading and two others unloading on the roof the complete roof of a typical house can be stacked in about two hours. The same job without the conveyor belts would take the same workers about eight hours. It would also be significantly more dangerous and demanding, as the workers would have to carry the tiles up ladders or ramps to the roof.
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Figure 1.28
Delivering tiles to the roof via a conveyor belt
Builders are increasingly using the just in time ordering method taking advantage of the improved tracking of deliveries now possible. With proper timing and sufficient access to the building site, truck mounted cranes can deliver pre-fabricated roof trusses directly onto the top plates of walls eliminating the double handling of the trusses. Turn to the exercise section and complete exercise 1.8 to 1.10.
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Exercises
Exercise 1.1 Explain how each of the following developments in crane design from the 1960s has had a positive impact on lifting efficiency and/or safety. a Specialised cranes _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ b Telescopic extension cranes _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________
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Exercise 1.2 Over the past 100 years the relative size and weight of cranes has decreased compared to their lifting capacity. List four reasons for this decrease in relative size. a b c d _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________
Exercise 1.3 Compare two different lifting devices by completing the table below.
Lifting device No.1 Type of lifting device (Name of device) Purpose (What does the device have to lift) Lifting capacity (What is the maximum load it can lift) Power source (Human power, electric, petrol, or something else specify) Safety features (Load limiting sensors, guards, Government regulation) Who would use it (Builder, car mechanic, etc) Simple machine systems used (screw thread, pulleys, levers, hydraulics) Lifting device No. 2
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Exercise 1.4 The elevator system for a public building such as a hospital would be different to the elevator system in a similar sized commercial building. Identify and describe two main features in the elevator systems in the two buildings. a Hospital i ii b ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ Commercial building i ii ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ Exercise 1.5 a Explain why escalators are more efficient than elevators in moving people from floor to floor in large shopping centres. _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ b Explain why escalators arent used more widely in other types of buildings by highlighting two of the main restrictions of escalators. _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________
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Exercise 1.6 Tall multi-storey buildings could not exist without the elevator. Explain this statement making reference to the ways that elevators have made multi-storey buildings more accessible. __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ Exercise 1.7 Describe three ways in which modern lifting devices have improved safety on construction sites. 1 _________________________________________________________ 2 _________________________________________________________ 3 _________________________________________________________ Exercise 1.8 List five criteria you would use when deciding on the appropriateness of a lifting device for a particular task. __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________
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Exercise 1.9 Describe the impact lifting devices have had on construction time and building height on modern building sites. Give examples to support your answer. a Construction time _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ b Building height _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ Exercise 1.10 Select the alternative a, b, c, or d that best completes the statement. Circle the letter. 1 Lifting devices usually have: a b c d 2 a velocity ratio greater than one and a mechanical advantage less than one a velocity ratio less than one and a mechanical advantage greater than one a velocity ratio and mechanical advantage both greater than one a velocity ratio and mechanical advantage both less than one.
People use lifting devices because: a b c d the human body is not very strong or tall it saves time and money they might hurt their back if they dont use one all of the above
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The only power source not still commonly used in lifting devices today is: a b c d human power electric power petrol power steam power.
In the period after the Roman era the development of lifting devices did not progress greatly because: a b c d the power source did not change the materials technology did not improve there was no need for an improved lifting device until multi-storey buildings were designed slaves were available to do all the lifting.
A specific advantage of telescopic cranes is that: a b c d they can lift large loads they can work in restricted spaces they can reach high off the ground they are very mobile.
Car jacks have low efficiencies because: a b c d it stops them from winding down under load it stops them from costing too much they are only small they are human powered.
The maximum acceleration rate of an elevator is limited by: a b c d the strength of the elevator cables the power of the driving motor the effect on the human body the stopping power of the elevator braking system.
Tower cranes do not have a high lifting capacity because: a b c d the mast is too thin to support a large load electric motors cant lift large loads the counter-weights required to balance the load would be too large there is not the demand to lift high capacity loads on a building site.
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Tower cranes have long booms because: a b c d it increases the cranes reach across a building site it acts as a balance against the load it increases the height to which the crane can lift the load it allows the boom to luff further.
10 Helicopters have an advantage over other forms of lifting devices because they: a b c d can hover in one spot enabling them to winch people to safety they can travel at high speeds so they can reach the destination quickly they are highly manoeuvrable they can reach places inaccessible to other lifting devices.
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Progress check
During this part you examined the development of the crane as a lifting device and were introduced to other common lifting devices such as corkscrews, elevators and forklifts. Take a few moments to reflect on your learning then tick the box which best represents your level of achievement.
Agree well done Agree Disagree revise your work Uncertain contact your teacher Uncertain
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I have learnt about: the historical development of lifting devices engineering innovation in lifting devices and their effect on peoples lives.
I have learnt to: research the history of technological change in lifting devices examine the impact of lifting devices on engineering construction methods.
During the next part you will investigate how engineering mechanics and hydraulics can be used to solve problems relating to some lifting devices.
Disagree
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Exercise cover sheet
Exercises 1.1 to 1.10
Name: ______________________________
Check!
Have you have completed the following exercises? Exercise 1.1 Exercise 1.2 Exercise 1.3 Exercise 1.4 Exercise 1.5 Exercise 1.6 Exercise 1.7 Exercise 1.8 Exercise 1.9 Exercise 1.10 Locate and complete any outstanding exercises then attach your responses to this sheet. If you study Stage 6 Engineering Studies through a Distance Education Centre/School (DEC) you will need to return the exercise sheet and your responses as you complete each part of the module. If you study Stage 6 Engineering Studies through the OTEN Open Learning Program (OLP) refer to the Learners Guide to determine which exercises you need to return to your teacher along with the Mark Record Slip.
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Lifting devices
Part 2: Lifting devices mechanics/hydraulics
Part 2 contents
Introduction..........................................................................................2
What will you learn?................................................................... 2
Non-concurrent co-planar forces .....................................................3

Types of non-concurrent force systems....................................... 4
Fluid mechanics................................................................................19 Exercises ...........................................................................................39 Progress check .................................................................................53 Exercise cover sheet........................................................................55
Introduction
Engineers use lifting devices in many varied ways. Examples include levers, lifts, block and tackle pulley systems, cranes, hydraulic rams and jacks. Lifting devices are designed to incorporate a mechanical advantage to make it easier to lift heavy loads. Hydraulics, the use of fluids under pressure, is a convenient way to minimize the effort required. The floating dry dock employs this method to lift ships. Hoists on cranes can be pneumatic, hydraulic, electrical or chain driven. In this part you will investigate mathematical and graphical methods to solve engineering problems related to lifting devices. You will also apply concepts of hydraulics in the solution of problems.

You will learn about: engineering mechanics and hydraulics as applied to lifting devices: conditions of equilibrium for non-concurrent coplanar forces fluid mechanics Archimedes and Pascals principles hydrostatic pressure applications to lifting devices.
You will learn to: use mathematical and/or graphical methods to solve problems related to lifting devices apply concepts of hydraulics in the solution of problems relating to types of lifting devices.
Lifting devices
Non-concurrent co-planar forces
You will recall that concurrent force systems were studied in an earlier module. Concurrent force systems are those where the lines of action, of all the forces acting, pass through a common point. You solved these systems using both analytical and graphical methods to find resultant, or equilibrant forces. The resultant force passes through the same common point. This point is known as the point of concurrency. The practical nature of many engineering applications means that forces will not always act through a single point. They often act over many different positions on the body being considered. These forces are known as a non-concurrent force system. The lines of action of these forces do not intersect at a common point. When a crane is used as a lifting device, it will be reasonably common for the loads to be non-concurrent. When this is the case, it is important that the resultant force of the non-concurrent force system is found. Then if a single cable is attached from the crane, the force in it would be equal and opposite to the resultant force. You will recall that this force is called the equilibrant force. As with concurrent force systems, non-concurrent systems can be solved either graphically or analytically. However, the line of action of the resultant force is more difficult to locate since there is no common point for all the forces. In some cases the resultant of a series of forces acting on a body may not touch the body at all.
Types of non-concurrent force systems

Non-concurrent systems may be divided into type 1 and type 2.
Type 1
A body, acted upon by a number of forces, is supported at two points. You will recall that these points are known as supports and two different kinds of supports, the pin joint and the roller joint, are commonly used in engineering applications. The reactions at the supports are unknown. The point of application of the reactions is known, but not the magnitude or direction of the reaction at the pin joint, nor the magnitude of the reaction at the roller support. You will recall that the direction of this reaction is always perpendicular to the surface the rollers move along.
F1 F2
R1 Figure 2.1 Two supports for a non-concurrent force system
R2
Type 2
A number of forces act on a body. The resultant force is unknown. This one unknown force will need to have its magnitude, direction of its line of action, sense and point of application determined.
F1 F2 F3
E Figure 2.2 Resultant or equilibrant of a non-concurrent force system
To find the resultant and equilibrant of a non-concurrent force system, equilibrium must be assumed.
Lifting devices
Conditions of equilibrium
You will recall that there are three equations of equilibrium that need to be satisfied. These equations are also applicable to non-concurrent systems. SH = 0 SV = 0 SM = 0 For a graphical solution, the force polygon must close.
Resultant of non-concurrent forces

Type 1 Two support reactions
20 N 3m 3m 80 N 4m
RA Figure 2.3 Two support reactions
RB
A beam is loaded with two vertical forces. Determine the reactions (RA and RB) Solution:
RA
=0
This line states that moment calculations are going to be performed around the point on the left hand end of the beam and that the sum of all the moments will equal zero.
Note: In this example, both of the applied forces are vertical, so both reactions must be vertical. The sum of the forces up must equal the sum of the forces down. It is standard procedure to begin moment calculations about the pin joint.
MRA
= =
(F1 d1 )
+ ( F2 d 2 ) + ( F3 d 3 )
( 20 3) + ( 80 6) + ( + R B 10)
( +60 + 480) 10 54 N
RB = = MRB = = RB = =
(F1 d1 )
+ ( F2 d 2 ) + ( F3 d 3 )
(80 4) + (20 7) + ( R A 10)

(320 + 140) 10 46 N
Note: the two reactions add to 100 N. This confirms the result, as there is 100 N due to the applied forces. Often the moment calculation is not completed about each end of the beam. Instead, once moment calculations have determined the roller support reaction, a simple 'sum of forces' calculation can be made. Example:
+
SFv = = = = RA =
0 F1 + F2 + F3 + F4 20 + 80 + R A + R B 20 + 80 + R A + 54 46 N
The advantage of this technique is its speed. The disadvantage is that an error in the moment calculation of the roller support reaction will lead to an error in the calculation of the other reaction. Therefore, it is often advisable to do both moment calculations, and then calculate the 'sum of forces' as a check. Worked example 2 The truss lifting frame shown in figure 2.4 is acted on by three forces. The 8 kN force acts vertically down and the other two forces act at right angles to the top chord members. The height of the truss is 2 metres. Determine the reactions at the two supports at X and Y.
Lifting devices
Space diagram 5 kN
8 kN 2 kN 2m
ch top
X Figure 2. 4 30
ord
top
ch
ord
30 Y
Space diagram lifting frame
Solution Draw a new space diagram and replace the two supports with reaction forces. At the pin support end, both the magnitude and the direction of the reaction are unknown, so draw two components of the reaction (a horizontal and a vertical component). At the roller support end, the reaction will only have a vertical component because there is no resistance to movement in the horizontal direction. Call the unknowns: R XH , horizontal reaction at X; R XV , vertical reaction at X; and R y , reaction at Y. Also draw the applied forces as horizontal and vertical components. This will make it easier to work out the moments.
8 5sin60 5cos60 RXH X 30 2sin60 2cos60 30 Y
RXV Figure 2.5
RY Reactions and forces showing horizontal and vertical components
Now find some of the other truss dimensions so that the distance of the forces to the supports are known. Refer to figure 2.6
B A X 30 E 30 D 30 C 30 Y 2m
Figure 2.6
Dimension the truss
To find XD, consider triangle XBD tan 30 = \ XD = = = XD = DY \ xy = = To find AE, XE = = and tan 30 = \ AE = = = BD XD BD tan 30 2 tan 30 3.46 m 2 3.46 6.92 m XD 2 1.73 m AE XE XE tan 30 1.73 0.577 1.0 m
Now, to solve for the three unknown, R XH , R XV and R y , apply the three equations of equilibrium. Take moments about the pin joint first. That is, apply the equation iM X = 0. For equilibrium, + SiMX = 0 =0
(RY x 6.92) (5sin60 x 1.73) (8 x 3.46) (2sin60 x 5.19) (5cos60 x 1) + (2cos60 x 1)
6.92 RY 7.49 27.68 8.99 2.5 +1 = 0 6.92 RY = 45.66 RY = 6.6 kN + SV = 0 RXV + 6.6 5sin60 - 8 2sin60 = 0 RXV = 7.46 kN
Lifting devices
+ SH = RXH + 5cos60 - 2cos60 = RXH = -ive sign indicates assumed direction was incorrect RXH =
0 0 - 1.5 kN
1.5 kN
Now use Pythagorus theorem to convert the vertical force and horizontal force to one force. RX2 = RX = =
1.5 kN
(RXH 2) + (R XV 2 ) (1.52 + 7.462) 7.6 kN
To find the angle of R x Tan q = 7.46 1.5 78.6
RX
7.46 kN
q =
\ 7.6 kN at = 78.6
answer 7.6 kN79
Figure 2.7 Vector diagram
Type 2 One unknown force; resultant or equilibrant required

Worked example 3 A 2 metre long bar, XY, is supporting three vertical forces as shown in figure 2.6. If the bar is to be lifted by means of a single rope, determine the position along the bar that the rope needs to be placed so that the bar is balanced and also find the tension in the supporting rope.
5 kN X 0.5 m
2.5 kN
3 kN Y 2.0 m
Figure 2.8
Bar with vertical loading
Mathematical solution The tension in the rope will be equivalent to the equilibrant force. That is, the force that must be added to the system to make it in equilibrium.
5 kN X Figure 2.9 Free body diagram of bar 2.5 kN Equil. Y 3 kN
For equilibrium, + SV = 0 EV 5 2.5 3 = 0 EV = 10.5 kN + SH = 0 EH = 0 For equilibrium, SMX = 0
(Note: moments can be take about any point) (10.5 x d) (2.5 x 0.5) (3 x 2) = 0 10.5d = 7.25 d = 0.7 m from left hand end of bar Worked example 4 The crane drawn below is set up on outriggers to take the load off the tyres: two outriggers at the back of the crane at point A and two at the front of the crane at point B. The weight forces of the jib (15 kN) and the crane body (125 kN) act through the centres of mass of each individual part as shown.
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F 45 Stay cable Hoist cable C Jib 15 kN 35 25
D Crane 125 kN A 2m Figure 2.10
1m E Outrigger B 7m Outrigger pad 6m
Hook 5 tonne
Crane set up on outriggers
Determine the total reaction on the front outrigger pads at B when a load of 5 tonne is suspended from the hook.
125 kN 1m 2m 7m 5m 15 kN mg = 5 x 103 x 10 50 kN
RA Figure 2.11
RB Free body diagram showing the forces acting on the crane
For equilibrium,
SMA
= = = = = = =
0. 0. 0. 0. 1150 1150 9 127.8 kN
- (50 15) - (15 10) - (125 2) + 9R B -750 - 150 - 250 + 9R B 1150 + 9RB 9RB RB
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Determine the minimum load which would cause the outrigger legs at A to just lift of the ground. To calculate when A will leave the ground it is necessary for the crane to pivot about the outrigger at B, therefore find the SMB about B.
125 kN
15 kN
mg = ?
A B
Figure 2.12 Free body diagram
To just lift, RA For equilibrium SM
= = = = = = = =
0. 0 0. 0. 0. 860 860 6 143.3 143.3 kN 14.33 T
(125 7 ) - (15 1) - ( mg b) 875 15 6mg 860 6mg 6mg 6mg
= =
Determine the magnitude of the force in the stay cable CF, the force in the hoist cable FD and of the axial force in the jib EF, when a load of 5 tonne is suspended from the hook.
45 35 25
C D 50 kN
E 50 kN
Figure 2. 13
Free body diagram of joint C
Note that the hoist cable is the one supporting the load, so there is 50 kN of tension in it. Draw the forces head to tail, to scale, and at the correct angles, and you will be able to measure off the magnitude of the forces CF and EF.
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25
FC = 78 kN
50 kN FE = 158 kN
50 kN
35
Figure 2.14
Force diagram of forces acting at C
Magnitude of force in stay cable FC = 78 kN Magnitude of force in hoist cable FD = 50 kN Magnitude of axial force in jib FE = 158 kN
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The jib is supported by two 50 mm diameter pins, as shown in the diagram below. For a different loading situation to those previously shown the axial force in the jib is 120 kN. Determine the shear stress in the pins due to the axial loading.
Pins
Figure 2.15
Detail of pin supports
Because the pins are both in double shear,
shear area, A = = =
pd 2 4 4 p 50 2
7854 mm 2
Force, F = 120 kN = 120 10 3 N Shear stress, s = F A 120 10 3 7854
= 15.28 MPa
Turn to the exercise section and complete exercises 2.1 to 2.3.
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Lifting devices
Lift systems
Modern lift systems are driven by hydraulic or electric motion. The main criteria which decide the method to be used for a specific design are: lift speed intensity of lift usage headroom constraints passenger comfort energy consumption site constraints capital and operating costs.
Machines used to provide electric traction drive are designed with three main types of drive. Generally these are: 2 speed AC motors for speeds up to 1.0 m/s variable speed AC or DC geared motors for speeds up to 2.5 m/s direct drive DC or variable speed AC gearless motors for speeds greater than 2.5 m/s.
Hydraulic systems
Hydraulic lifts are used extensively in low-rise buildings up to five stories, for example small apartment blocks, clubs, nursing homes and hospitals. Speeds rarely exceed 0.75 m/s and no overhead lifting gear is needed. They are suitable for non-intensive duty designs. The lift is mounted on a piston which is inside a cylinder that extends into the ground to a depth equal to the height the lift will rise. A pump forces oil into the cylinder to give the lift a controlled ascent. Another form of hydraulic lift is the holeless type, for use where it is not possible to extend the building foundations. This uses a telescopic piston instead of a plugging one. Hydraulic drives have the following advantages: optimum utilisation of a lift shaft is possible because is no need for a counterweight no overhead machine room is necessary, power is supplied at low level only one or two load bearing walls are required motive power can be remote, with the motor pump unit up to 15 metres from the lift shaft.
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Generally the total installation costs of hydraulic systems, including building costs, are less than for electric traction alternatives although performance efficiency is generally not equal. Direct acting hydraulic low headroom This is the basic hydraulic layout. It requires a hole to accommodate the hydraulic cylinder. The cost of well boring usually limits the arrangement to large duty applications.
Figure 2.16
Direct acting hydraulic system
Side acting hydraulic low headroom In this layout the cylinder is connected to the side of the car which removes the need for a borehole. The lift car is side guided and for some applications, dependent on car size and duty load, two cylinders are used, one on each side.
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Figure 2.17
Side acting hydraulic system
Geared systems
Lifts hoisted by geared electric motors are suited to most buildings, for example medium sized office blocks, apartments etc. One end of the hoist ropes (actually steel cables) is attached to the top of the lift car and is then wrapped around the drive sheave (a grooved pulley) sited in the motor room. The other end is attached to a counterweight that slides up and down the shaft on its own rails. With this weight, traction, and thus lifting power is gained by the pressure of the cables on the sheave grooves. The car weight with about half its passenger load is balanced by the counterweight. Therefore the motor does not have to lift the full weight of the car. When operating, the car is pulled up or let down the shaft on guide rails. Two systems with the electric traction machine located at the top of the lift shaft are common.
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1:1 roped the rope linear speed and car travel speed are the same. Single wrap the ropes pass over the sheave once. This is an economical and efficient roping system applicable to many medium and high speed systems.
Figure 2.18
Electric traction machine 1:1 roped
2:1 roped the rope linear speed is twice the car travel speed. Single wrap. This layout permits a machine to carry twice the lift car load it can in the 1:1 roped system.
Figure 2.19
Electric traction machine 2:1 roped
Gearless machines
Gearless motors are used for very high buildings or exceptionally fast speeds. The increasing trend is to use efficient and cost effective DC direct drive geared machines. However, where even higher levels of efficiency are called for, and some escalation of capital cost is acceptable, high speed variable frequency AC drives are obtainable.
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Lifting devices
Fluid mechanics
Fluid mechanics is the study of fluids. Fluid statics is the study of fluids at rest. Fluid dynamics studies fluids in motion. A fluid may be a liquid or a gas. The study of pressurized air systems is known as pneumatics and the study of pressurized liquid systems is known as hydraulics. Fluids take the shape of the container they are in because the molecules in fluids have translational mobility. The molecules in solids are able to vibrate, but can not change position relative to one another. As a result of this, fluids can flow, but solids can not flow.
Liquid
A liquid is a fluid in which the molecules are free to move. They have cohesiveness because the molecules are close together and are attracted to each other. A liquid poured onto a flat surface will spread out, but still remain in pools. If it is poured into a container, it will flow to the bottom of the container. It will also have a free surface that is not touching the container.
Gas
A gas is a fluid in which the molecules are widely spaced, so they have little or no cohesiveness. If a gas is let out of a container, the molecules will tend to separate and disperse in all directions. If a gas is forced into a container, it will occupy all the space inside the container and not have any free surface.
Compressibility
Compressibility is the extent to which a fluid volume may be reduced by an increase in pressure. In a liquid, the molecules are close together, and
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can not be made to get much closer, even if a very large pressure is applied to them. For most engineering applications in fluid mechanics, liquids may be regarded as incompressible. Gases have their molecules far apart. These can be brought closer together by compressing the gas and reducing the volume. Similarly, a gas can expand and increase in volume when not compressed.
Surface tension
Liquids have a cohesive force that occurs at the surface. The liquid surface appears to have a skin or membrane over it. Carefully place a needle on the surface of some water. The surface tension on the waters surface will allow the needle to float. Now place the needle below the waters surface. The needle will now sink because the steel is more dense than the water. Surface tension can be observed by looking at some water in a glass. The edges of the liquid form an upward curve where the water touches the glass. This is called a meniscus. The forces created by surface tension are small and can generally be neglected in fluid mechanics calculations. However, surface tension does have some important effects on fluids. It is responsible for the spherical shapes of bubbles of air and drops of water. It is surface tension that creates capillary action. A capillary is a small tube and if this is inserted into a fluid with an upward curving meniscus, the liquid will rise in the tube. This is because of the upward component of the surface tension force. A similar application is wicking, where a liquid will move of its own accord into a porous substance. The lubrication of bearings, oil burning candles, cotton or paper towels absorbing liquids and ink flowing into the ball-point of pens all use this lifting principle.
Viscosity
Fluids can flow whereas solids can not flow. When a solid is moved over another solid, a friction force acts in a direction as to oppose any motion. Fluids can also experience friction when flowing through a pipe or through a hole. Some fluids will flow more readily than others. The property of the fluids resistance to flow is called its viscosity. Honey and thick oil are
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Lifting devices
liquids with a high viscosity, whereas water which flows readily, has a low viscosity. Liquids have a greater viscosity than gases. This is because of the cohesiveness of the molecules sticking together and resisting the shearing action that is necessary to create flow.
Mass (m)
Mass is the quantity of matter in a substance. Mass does not change and is not affected by pressure, temperature or motion. The unit of mass is the kilogram (kg) or tonne (t). 1 tonne = 1000 kg
Volume (V)
The volume of a body is the amount of space it occupies. The unit of volume is the cubic metre (m3). As the cubic metre is a large unit, the unit of litre (L) is often used. The following relationships are often useful. 1000 cubic millimetres (mm3) = 1000 cubic centimetres (cm3) = 1 cubic metre (m3) = 109 mm3 = 1 millilitre (mL) 1 litre (L) 1000 litres 1 m3
Volume may be altered by changes in pressure and temperature (particularly in the case of gases).
r Density (r )
Density is the mass per unit of volume.
m V
The unit of density is kg/m3 .
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Since water is a very commonly used liquid, you should memorise these facts: 1 cubic metre of water has a mass of 1 tonne 1 litre of water has a mass of 1 kilogram.
Relative density (RD)

Relative density is the ratio of the density of a substance to the density of water. RD (substance) = r (substance) r (water )
Because relative density is a ratio, it has no units. Worked example 5 The relative density of mercury is 13.6. Calculate its density. RD (mercury) = 13.6 = r = r (substance) r (water ) r 1000 13.6 10 3 kg / m 3
n Specific volume (n)

The word specific usually means per unit mass. The specific volume then is volume per unit mass. v = 13.6 = V m 1 (the inverse of density) R
Units for specific volume are m 3 kg . Specific volume is mainly used for gases. Specific gravity The specific gravity of a substance is the ratio of the density of the substance to the density of water (Rwater = 1 10 3 kg / m 3 ).
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Lifting devices
Pressure (p)
The pressure on an object is the force (F) acting perpendicular to a given surface area (A). R =
F A
The unit for pressure is the newton per square metre (N/m2) or pascal (Pa). The pascal was named in honour of Pascal who formulated much of fluid mechanics. 1 pascal (Pa) = 1 N/m2
One pascal is a relatively small amount of pressure, roughly equivalent to the pressure exerted by a five dollar note on a level surface. It is more usual to express pressure in either kilopascal (kPa) or megapascal (MPa). 1 MPa = 1 N/mm2 1 MPa is about the weight of an orange (1N) resting on the end of a vertical matchstick (1mm x 1mm). Pressure is a scalar quantity, acting with equal magnitude in all directions. Gases exert pressure on all sides of the container in which the are enclosed. A liquid exerts pressure on a container where it touches the sides and the bottom. Inside a gas or a liquid pressure is exerted in all direction due to the movement of the molecules. Solids exert pressure due to their weight pushing down on the surface on which they sit. But inside the solid, the molecules have no translational movement, so they cannot exert pressure in other directions.
Atmospheric pressure (patm)

Atmospheric pressure is the pressure associated with the atmosphere due to the weight of air. This pressure will vary according to the location and weather conditions. The average value or normal or standard atmospheric pressure at sea level is 101.3 kPa, that is, at the earth's surface the pressure felt by an object due to the weight of the atmosphere above it is 1.013 10 5 Pa or 101.3 kPa. This is also called a pressure of 1 atmosphere. At higher elevations atmospheric pressure is less.
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Standard atmospheric pressure will support a column of mercury 760 mm high. This can be expressed as a pressure of 760 mm Hg.
No air in top of tube, therefore no pressure
Glass tube is open at the top and closed at the bottom
Mercury in a glass tube 760 mm
Atmospheric pressure on the surface keeps the mercury in the tube at a height of 760 mm
Figure 2.20
Atmospheric pressure supports a column of mercury 760 mm high
A barometer is used to measure atmospheric pressure. Worked example 6 A barometer reads 760 mm of mercury. Convert this to pascals. Density of mercury is 13.6 x 103 kg/m3 . In these calculations use gravity as 9.8m/s2 rather than 10 m/s2. p = = = = rgh 13.6 103 x 9.8 0.76 101.3 103 Pa 101.3 KPa
Note: Standard pressure, or 101.3 kPa can also be expressed as 760 mm of mercury. Meteorologists express pressure in millibars. 1 mb = 0.10 kPa
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Gauge pressure (pg)

Gauge pressure is the amount by which pressure differs from atmospheric pressure. Gauge pressure is measured with a gauge that measures the pressure above (or below) atmospheric pressure. The gauge pressure below atmospheric pressure is negative. This is called a vacuum. Absolute pressure ( rabs ) is the pressure measured above zero pressure. Gauge pressure( rg ) is a measure of the difference between absolute pressure and atmospheric pressure ( ratm ).
rabs = rg + ratm
Try drinking from the straw of a tetra pack container without letting air in through the straw. Notice what happens. The sides of the container begin to collapse inwards because the pressure outside is greater than the pressure inside. As soon as you release the straw, air gets into the container and the pressures are equalised.
Relationship between pressure and height

For a substance of constant density (such as a liquid), the pressure in the substance at any vertical position due to the self-weight of the substance is given by: p = rgh where p = pressure (Pa) r = density of the liquid (kg/m3) g = acceleration due to gravity (m/s2) h = depth below the free surface (m) The pressure increase due to self-weight is independent of the surface area and is independent of the total volume or the shape of the container. This equation applies to incompressible liquids in any shape container or to solids that have a uniform vertical cross-sectional area. The pressure given is an increase in pressure due to self-weight. If the free surface is at atmospheric pressure, then the equation will give gauge pressure at depth h.
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Drill three small holes at different heights in a can. (Holes can be punched out using a nail. Beware of any sharp protrusions that result.) Place the can under a tap and pour water into the can so that a steady state of water flow into the can and out of the can (into a sink) is reached. (This helps to show the difference between equilibrium and steady state.) Measure the horizontal distance that the water jets travel from the holes to the sink below. (Projectile motion! Some interesting possibilities for integration with other physics topics exist.) Try to develop a relationship between the height of the water above the hole and the force exerted on the water as it leaves the can. This shows that pressure increases with depth.
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Lifting devices
Piezometers and manometers

Piezometers and manometers provide a simple and accurate way of measuring relatively low static fluid pressures. Piezometers are used only with liquids whereas manometers may be used with either liquids or gases. If the fluid is flowing, these gauges may still be used provided that the pressure tappings are perpendicular to the pipe.
Vertical piezometer Figure 2.21
Vertical and inclined piezometer
h Inclined piezometer
Vertical manometer Figure 2.22 Vertical and inclined manometer
Inclined manometer
Differential manometer Figure 2.23 Differential manometer
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Basic principles of fluid statics (hydrostatics)

Principle 1
The pressure at any point in a static fluid is the same in all directions. When unbalanced pressures are exerted on the molecules of a fluid, the fluid will flow. If the fluid is at rest, then an equal pressure acts in all directions at any point in the fluid.
Principle 2
The pressure at any point on the wall of a vessel containing a static fluid is perpendicular to the wall. When a fluid flows it exhibits viscosity or a resistance to flow. This is due to the shear forces parallel to the wall. If the liquid is at rest, the molecules are free to slide over each other, so the only reaction forces are perpendicular to the walls.
Gas
Liquid Model of a liquid
Figure 2.24
Pressure in a static fluid is perpendicular to the wall
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Lifting devices
Worked example 7 A hydraulic jack is illustrated in the sketch below.

Effort 90 N 450 50
Load
Plunger 25
Piston 90
Fluid Figure 2.25 Hydraulic jack
a
90 N
Determine the force exerted by the plunger on the fluid when the effort is 90 N.
500 50 A F
Figure 2.26
Free body diagram forces on plunger handle
For equilibrium,
SMA =
0 0 900 N
(F x 50) - (90 x 500) = F =
This is the reaction force of the fluid on the plunger. Hence the force exerted by the plunger on the fluid is 900 N b Determine the fluid pressure in the system when the effort is 90 N. Area of plunger, A = = =
pd 2 4 p (25) 4
2
491 mm 2
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Pressure, p
= = =
F A 900 491 1.83 Mpa
Determine the load the jack can lift on the 90 mm diameter piston when the effort is 90 N. Area of plunger, A =
pd 2 4 p (90) 4
2
= = Pressure, p Load, F = = = = = d
6362 mm 2
F A
pA 1.83 x 6362 11642.5 N 11.6 kN
Determine the mechanical advantage of the hydraulic jack. = = = Load Effort 11642.5 90 129
Mechanical advantage, MA
Note: this MA is achieved through the MA of the lever and the MA of the hydraulic system. Turn to the exercise section and complete exercise 2.4.
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Stress and pressure

Stress and pressure are both defined as force per unit area and have the same units. However, they are two entirely different things and must be understood separately. Stress is only used with solids, whereas pressure must only be used with fluids and gases. Many solid pieces of machines and structures interface with fluids under pressure. The difference between stress and pressure is explained by Pascals principle.
Principle 3 (Pascals principle)

A pressure applied to an enclosed fluid at rest is transmitted without loss in all directions throughout the system. Pascals principle applies to fluids, but not to solids. A fluid has the ability to transfer pressure to all parts of a container equally in all directions. It applies for static conditions and neglects the weight of the fluid. If the fluid is moving, or if the weight of the fluid is not negligible, then Pascals principle must be modified using other principles involving hydraulics, pneumatics or fluid mechanics. An important consequence of Pascals principle is that a force can be magnified or reduced by means of fluid pressure. This is the main reason why pneumatic and hydraulic systems are so widely used. A relatively small force applied to a piston with a small diameter can generate a large pressure. As the ram is of much larger diameter, the same fluid pressure acting over a larger area will magnify the force at the piston to a much larger force at the ram. Consider a system of enclosed fluids as shown.
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Pressure gauge
Ram
Ram force
Gas A Piston Fluid Pressure p
Piston force Pressure p Figure 2.27 Pressure transmission in a fluid
If the piston is held in position, each of the pressure gauges will register a pressure. These pressures are not necessarily the same. Pascals principle applies to both liquids and gases. In hydraulics, gas in the system is a nuisance because much of the applied pressure results in the compression of the gas rather than movement of the ram. To work properly, the system must be bled to remove any gas before use. Worked example 8 Consider the system of enclosed fluids in figure 2.27. The piston has a diameter of 12 mm and the ram has a diameter of 75 mm. The pressure gauge at A registers 70 kPa, and B and C indicate 65 kPa and 60 kPa, respectively. A force is applied to the piston after which gauge A reads as 90 kPa. a Determine the reading on the other two pressure gauges B and C. Applied pressure will be 90 70 = 20 kPa. By Pascals principle, each gauge will register 20 kPa higher. Gauge B will now read 65 + 20 = 85 kPa and gauge C will read 80 kPa. b Identify the ratio of the force at the ram to the force at the piston. Remember that the pressure remains constant throughout the system. Pressure, p, will equal. Pressure \ Fpiston and Fram = = = F A p A piston p A ram
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\ Ratio is A:A (as p is constant) \
pd 2 pd 2 : 4 4
d 2 Ram : d 2 piston 752 : 12 2 \ 39:1 Worked example 9 What piston rod diameter and bore diameter of a hydraulic cylinder mechanism must be used for the lifting mechanism of a fork-lift truck if it must produce at least 35 kN of force on contraction? The hydraulic pressure is to be 7 MPa. The allowable stress of the piston rod is 140 MPa. Neglect seal and piston friction.
F P
Figure 2.28
Hydraulic cylinder mechanism of fork-lift truck
To contract the cylinder mechanism, the pressure p must be applied to the chamber. The diameter of the piston rod can be calculated using the stress formula.
s
\ A
= = =
F A 3500 140
pd 2 4
3500 4 140 p 17.84 mm
\ d2 d
= =
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The diameter of the rod would be rounded up to the next millimetre (that is, piston rod diameter would equal 18 mm).
d F P D Free-body diagram of piston
Figure 2.29
Area of piston rod
= =
p 182 4 254.5 mm2
AP is the face area of the piston over which the pressurized fluid acts. Ap Force on piston from fluid = = = Fp For equilibrium, + S H Fp F 5.5 D2 1781.5 3500 5.5 D2 D = = = = = = (p D2 254.5 4 Pressure x area p D2 254.5 7 4 5.5 D2 1781.5 0 0 0 1781.5 + 3500 81.8 mm
The bore of the hydraulic cylinder = 82 mm Turn to the exercise section and complete exercise 2.5.
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Archimedes principle
When a body is wholly or partially immersed in a fluid, it experiences a buoyancy force equal to the weight of the fluid it displaces. If the buoyancy force or upthrust force is greater than the weight of the body, the body will tend to move upwards in the fluid until the forces balance. In the case of liquids, the body will float on the surface. It displaces as much weight of liquid as its own weight. Bodies which have a density less than the density of the fluid will float. Oil or timber will float on water because their density is less than the density of water. For a body that does not float at the surface, the difference between the actual weight and the buoyancy force is known as the apparent weight. This is what the body appears to weigh when it is submerged. The buoyancy force acts through the centre of mass of the displaced fluid. This is known as the centre of buoyancy. The stability of a floating body depends on the vertical height between the centre of buoyancy and the centre of mass of the body. For greatest stability, the centre of buoyancy should be as high as possible and the centre of mass as low as possible. Worked example 10 Two blocks of the same size (150 mm x 100 mm x 50 mm) are lowered by a wire into a container of oil (relative density 0.9). One block is made of steel (RD 7.8) and one block is made of wood (RD 0.8). It is noted that the steel block is submerged, whereas the wooden block floats on the oil. Determine the buoyancy force and the tension in the wire when the block of steel is fully immersed? What percentage of the wooden block will be submerged?
Volume of displaced oil by steel block = =
0.15 0.1 0.05 0.75 10 3 m3
Buoyancy force
= =
= =
weight of displaced fluid

roil V g 0.9 10 3 0.75 10 3 10
6.75 N
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Weight of block
= = =
rsteel V g
7.8 x 103 x 0.75 x 10-3 x 10 58.5 N apparent weight 58.5 6.75 51.75 N r wood V g 0.8 x 103 x 0.75 x 10-3 x 10 6N V weight of displaced fluid r oil x V x g 0.9 x 103 x V x 10 0.66 x 10-3 m3
0.66 10 3 100 0.75 10 3
Wire tension
= = =
Weight of wood
=
=
= Volume of oil displaced Buoyancy force 6 = = = = V Percentage of block below surface = = =
89%
This result could also be obtained from the percentage ratio of the relative densities: = =
0.8 0.9
89%
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Lifting devices
Perform an activity to measure the weight of an object in air and the weight of the same object in a liquid. Measure the weight of the fluid displaced by the submerged object, and analyze the measurements obtained. Determine the weight of a small metal object. Place the object into an overflow can. Collect the water displaced from the can and calculate the volume and weight of the displaced water. Record the weight of the object when submerged in water, by attaching it to a spring balance. Determine the weight of the liquid displaced and compare it to the apparent weight of the submerged object due to the buoyant force. The weight loss of the submerged object should be equal to the weight of water displaced.
Repeat for an object which floats. Carefully examine how the apparent loss in weight of a floating object compares to the weight of the liquid it displaces.
Report on your findings. __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________
37
Place uninflated balloons 30 cm apart around the perimeter of a rectangular table. Invert a second table face down on the one below, so that the open ends of the balloons are all protruding out from between the tables. Invite someone to sit in the middle of the inverted table. Get as many volunteers as there are balloons. Ask each volunteer to blow into a balloon, to see if they can lift the inverted table with the person sitting on it.
Turn to the exercise section and complete exercise 2.6 and 2.7.
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Lifting devices
Exercises
Exercise 2.1 Two chain slings, one at each end, are used to support a rectangular box girder of mass 8 tonne. The chain sling goes right around the beam and has a length of 5 metres. The rectangular cross sectional shape of the box girder has dimensions of 1.5 m by 0.5 m.
Figure 2.30 Girder supported by two chain slings Board of Studies, NSW
39
Determine the tension in each of the chain slings when the girder is supported as shown in the diagram below.
1.5 m Figure 2.31 Girder positioned with long edge horizontal.
Board of Studies, NSW
Determine the change in tension in each sling when the girder is supported on its edge as shown in the diagram below.
0.5 m Figure 2.32 Girder supported with its smallest edge horizontal
Board of Studies, NSW
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1.5 m
0.5 m
Lifting devices
Exercise 2.2 A crate of mass of 60 kg is being moved in a loading dock by four workmen. The forces exerted on the crate by the workmen are shown in the figure 2.33. Determine the resultant force acting on the crate. Solve the problem by using both: a b mathematical and graphical methods.
325 N
0.4 m
60
30
200 N
100 N
0.25 m
2m
Loading dock Figure 2.33 Crate in loading dock
0.5 m
Crate 60 kg
1m
375 N
41
Exercise 2.3 A mobile crane with the necessary dimensions for a force analysis is shown in the diagram. The point C represents the centre of mass of the mobile crane, mass 2.5 tonnes.
45
00 75 35
Mass 6 tonnes
00
Hydraulic cylinder
90
A 1500 Figure 2.34
B 3000 4000
Mobile crane
For the loading arrangement shown, determine the force on the hydraulic cylinder.
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Lifting devices
43
Calculate the reactions at the supports A and B for the 6 tonne load.
At a particular time, the load is hanging stationary. If the breaking stress in the cable is 130 Mpa determine the diameter of cable that would support this load.
44
Lifting devices
Give two reasons why the diameter of the cable used would be of a bigger diameter than you have calculated in C. _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________
Determine the work required to lift this load through a vertical height of 4 metres.
Determine the power required to lift the load if it takes 30 seconds to lift the load the height of 4 metres.
Why would an electric motor of larger rating be used in practice? _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________
45
Exercise 2.4 A hydraulic jack is shown in the sketch below.

Effort 450 50 Load
Plunger 25
Piston 90
Fluid Figure 2.35 Hydraulic jack
A load of 1.3 tonnes is to be lifted with the jack. Determine the effort that must be exerted at the end of the handle to lift the load.
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Lifting devices
Exercise 2.5 The piston in a hydraulic cylinder shown is caused to move by a pressure of 1.5 MPa in chamber A. Calculate the tension force in the f20 cylinder rod if the hydraulic cylinder has a 100 mm diameter. Neglect the seal drag.
20 A
Figure 2.36
Hydraulic cylinder
Bore 100
47
Exercise 2.6 State Archimedes principle. __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ Explain why buoyancy forces occur and state where they act. __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ When a body floats in a liquid, what conclusions may be drawn? __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ Explain why a steel ship is able to float. __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ What is the condition for maximum stability of a floating body? __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________
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Lifting devices
Exercise 2.7 Select the alternative a, b, c or d that best answers the question. Circle the letter. 1 Three parallel forces: a b c d 2 will be in equilibrium if their lines of action are concurrent can be resolved into a resultant force by applying the parallelogram of forces can be resolved into a resultant such that the moment of the resultant will equal the sum of moments of the individual forces will prevent rotation about a point.
Non-concurrent forces: a b c d cant be in equilibrium because they are not concurrent can be in equilibrium if SH =0, SV = 0 and SM = 0 are rarely seen in an engineering application always have parallel lines of action.
Archimedes principle states: a that a body wholly or partly immersed in a fluid is subject to a buoyancy force of magnitude equal to that of the weight of the displaced fluid. when a body is wholly or partly immersed in the bath, the phone rings a screw inside a cylinder can be used to raise water by placing the bottom in the water and turning the upper end of the cylinder when a keystone is placed at the top of an arch, it locks the arch in position.
b c d
Pascals principle states: a b c d the unit of stress is the pascal, and is equivalent to a newton per square metre stress is equal to pressure, and is found by finding the force per unit area the pressure applied to an enclosed fluid is transmitted with equal force throughout the container air has weight and air pressure can produce a vacuum.
49
The lifting force created by a hydraulic jack demonstrates: a b c d Newtons principle Murphys principle Archimedes principle Pascals principle.
Hydrostatic pressure: a b c d is measured using a barometer is measured using a hydrometer is caused by stagnant water emitting gases in a closed container deals with the laws of liquids at rest and of liquids and gases under pressure.
Specific gravity: a b c d is the gravitational acceleration on earth (9.8 m/s 2) varies according to the bodys location (for example, gmoon = 1.6 m/s2) is the ratio of the density of the substance to the density of water must be specified to determine a bodys weight.
Lifting devices: a b c d may use either hydraulics or pneumatics to aid in the lift always work with a mechanical advantage must work without frictional forces incorporate pulleys and ropes to raise an elevator.
If the buoyancy force is greater than the weight of the body itself, the body will: a b c d sink in a liquid by displacing as much weight of liquid as its own weight float on the surface of the liquid and displace as much weight of liquid as its own weight tend to move upward until the forces balance rotate in the fluid until it finds its own level.
50
Lifting devices
10 Atmospheric pressure is a b c d always equal to 101.3 kPa always equal to 760 mm of mercury called a vacuum when it is low associated with the atmosphere due to the weight of air.
51
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Lifting devices
Progress check
During this part you examined principles that apply in the way that some hydraulic mechanical lifting devices work. Take a few moments to reflect on your learning then tick the box that best represents your level of achievement.
Agree well done Disagree revise your work Uncertain contact your teacher Agree Uncertain Disagree
I have learnt about: engineering mechanics and hydraulics as applied to lifting devices by studying; the conditions of equilibrium for non-concurrent coplanar forces fluid mechanics Archimedes' and Pascal's principles hydrostatic pressure applications to lifting devices. I have learnt to: solve problems related to lifting devices using mathematical and graphical methods apply the concepts of hydraulics in the solution of problems related to types of lifting devices.
During the next part you will investigate how component parts are formed to utilise desirable material properties.
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Lifting devices
Name: _______________________________
Check!
Have you have completed the following exercises? Exercise 2.1 Exercise 2.2 Exercise 2.3 Exercise 2.4 Exercise 2.5 Exercise 2.6 Exercise 2.7 Locate and complete any outstanding exercises then attach your responses to this sheet. If you study Stage 6 Engineering Studies through a Distance Education Centre School (DEC) you will need to return the exercise sheet and your responses as you complete each part of the module. If you study Stage 6 Engineering Studies through the OTEN Open Learning Program (OLP) refer to the Learners Guide to determine which exercises you need to return to your teacher along with the Mark Record Slip.
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Lifting devices
Part 3: Lifting devices materials
Part 3 contents
Introduction..........................................................................................2
Jacks, elevators, cranes....................................................................3

Testing of materials ................................................................... 6 Heat treatment .........................................................................13 Forming processes .................................................................. 19
Exercises ...........................................................................................33 Progress check .................................................................................43 Exercise cover sheet........................................................................45
Introduction
Engineers are interested in the development, properties and availability of materials and how this affects the design of various forms of lifting devices. In this part you will be examining specific materials, investigating structure/property relationships and testing procedures as they relate to lifting devices. The main focus in this part will be on car jacks, elevators and cranes.

You will learn about: testing of materials used in lifting devices structure/property relationships in heat treatment processes structure/property relationships in the material forming processes.
You will learn to: describe the properties, uses and appropriateness of materials used in lifting devices evaluate manufacturing processes for components used in lifting devices investigate impact testing experiment with and assess structure/property relationships, before and after heat treatment analyse the structure/property relationship developed through forming processes.
Lifting devices
Jacks,elevators,cranes
The following diagrams of lifting devices are included to assist in the identification of the various component parts.
Floor jacks
Most of the materials used in floor jacks are iron-based alloys. Hydraulic cylinders are cast iron, pistons are chrome plated low carbon steel, bodies may be cast steel or fabricated in low carbon steel, lifting arms, pivot pins and tension screws are low carbon steel, wheels are cast iron and bleed screws are low carbon steel. Screw jack
Load cap Single chrome-molybdenum ball reduces operating friction Four-way head permits lever bar insertion at four angles
Lever bar Ductile-iron housing
Welded stop Figure 3.1 Screw jack
Hydraulic jack
Load
Large piston
Large cylinder Small cylinder Valves Effort Reservoir
Small piston Figure 3.2 Hydraulic jack
Cranes
A variety of materials are used in cranes including the following major components. The platform can be of reinforced concrete or fabricated steel. The slewing ring is hardened steel. Jibs can be high tensile steel or lighter precipitation hardened aluminium alloy. Ropes are multi-strand medium to high carbon steel. The main rope pulleys are cast in either steel or aluminium. Hooks are forged in low carbon steel or wrought iron but 0.1% carbon steel may be cast to the hook. Jib Crane
Wire ropes Pulley
Fly jib
Mast Boom
Load block and hook
Machinery house Figure 3.3 Jib crane
Lifting devices
Derrick crane
Boom lines
Mast or post Back stays Load block and hook Boom Figure 3.4 Derrick crane
Elevator
A variety of materials are used in elevators including the following major components. The hoist ropes are cold drawn medium carbon steel while the guide rails are hot rolled low carbon steel. The electric hoist machine includes a large cast iron rope sheave. The safety gear contains hardened steel plates in a fabricated low carbon steel frame. Cast aluminium guide rollers with vulcanised rubber tyres are used. Counterweight segments are either cast iron or laser cut low carbon steel. The car frame is mild steel with sheet metal paneling and bent sheet steel used as car and hoistway doors. The buffers include large hardened and tempered medium carbon steel springs.
Hoist motor
Hoist ropes
Car frame
Counterweight
Car buffer
Figure 3.5 Gearless elevator
Testing of materials
A variety of tests are carried out on lifting devices and on each of the component parts of the devices. Some of these such as the tensile, compression and impact tests, test standard specimens to destruction while proving and hardness tests are non-destructive tests.
Tension test
Many parts involved in lifting devices are subjected to tensile loads. Cables on elevators and cranes and some of the truss members on cranes all rely on tensile strength. In previous modules, both preliminary and HSC, detail has been given of how a tensile test is carried out and how load/extension graphs are produced for each test.
Lifting devices
From the information available in previous modules, summarise the steps in performing a tensile test on a standardised specimen. ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ The graph in figure 3.6 shows the result of a tensile test on a low carbon steel.
Maximum load
Failure point Load (kN) Elastic limit
Extension (mm) Figure 3.6 Load/extension graph for low carbon steel
The shape of a load/extension graph tells a good deal about the mechanical properties of the material. These properties include: toughness resilience this is determined from the total area under the curve this is the area under the straight-line section of the graph
elasticity
the angle of the straight-line section of the graph indicates elasticity the steeper the line, the stiffer the material a material that doesn't show much plastic deformation is rigid and brittle the graphs for some ceramic materials are only a straight line with no curve at all any graph that shows a large area of plastic deformation and possibly a failure point that is below the ultimate tensile strength (UTS) is said to be ductile the amount of force needed to plastically deform the material is the proof or yield strength while the 'high point' of the graph is the UTS.
brittleness
ductility
strength
Before the load/extension graphs for a variety of materials can be accurately compared, the cross-sectional areas and the original length of each specimen must be taken into account. Naturally a telegraph pole will withstand a greater load than a steel guitar string but that doesn't necessarily mean that timber is stronger than steel. In fact from our previous learning we know that steel is stronger than timber. To allow comparison of tensile test results, the load must be divided by the cross-sectional area to give the stress (s) and the extension must be divided by the original length to give the strain (e). Once this is done, graphs can be directly compared or even drawn on the same set of axes.
300
300
Normalised medium carbon steel
250
250
Stress (MPa)
200
Stress (MPa)
200
Grey cast iron

150
150
100
100
Normalised low carbon steel
150
150
10
20
30
40
50
Strain Note: different units for strain Figure 3.7 Tensile test results for common irons and steels
Strain
Lifting devices
Compare the stress/strain curves in figure 3.7 and suggest which material has the highest: Toughness __________________________________________________ Resilience __________________________________________________ Strength ____________________________________________________ Ductility ___________________________________________________ Stiffness____________________________________________________
Did you answer? Medium carbon steel appears to be the strongest and most resilient while low carbon steel is the most ductile and grey cast iron is the stiffest. One of the steels is the toughest, though it might be necessary to calculate the areas under the curves, since it is difficult to assess visually.
Compression test
Many parts involved in lifting devices are subjected to compressive loads. Hydraulic rams in some cranes, elevators and many modern jacks are all subject to compressive loads. In all lifting devices some part must be under compression to allow lifting to occur. As a tower crane lifts a load at a building site, the cables will be in tension but the tower itself will be under an additional compressive force equal in magnitude to the tensile force in the cables. In previous modules, both Preliminary and HSC, some detail has been given of compression testing. As with tensile testing, standardised specimens can be used to produce load/reduction graphs that can then be converted to stress/strain graphs. The specimen is positioned between two hard and rigid platens and a compressive load is gradually applied. With brittle materials, such as concrete and stone, there is a definite failure point. In ductile materials, like those used in lifting devices, there is no definite failure point and specimens often bulge in the middle. This effect is known as barrelling. To provide an accurate test result, the ends of the specimen must be parallel and the specimen must have a large enough cross-sectional area to prevent it from bending or tipping rather than compressing. This means the specimen is normally larger than the one used for tensile tests and consequently the testing machine must be larger and capable of applying a greater load.
Figure 3.8 Barrelling in ductile materials
Hardness tests
The Brinell, Vickers and Rockwell hardness tests were described in detail in the preliminary module on Braking Systems. Complete the table below to provide a summary of three common types of hardness test, refer back at the previous modules or textbooks if you need to.
Hardness test Indentor Measured Used On
Brinell
the diameter of the circular indentation is measured using a low-powered microscope industrial diamond cut to a square-based pyramid.
Vickers
Rockwell
used on a full range of materials with a wide range of hardness
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Lifting devices
Safety systems on elevators, surfaces on gears and pulleys in cranes and faces of hydraulic cylinders all need to be hard in order to resist wear. The materials used for these components, the forming processes employed and any heat treatments applied all contribute to the hardness of the components. The data collected from hardness testing can be used to initially select the correct material or heat treatment for an application and also to assess the effect of the forming process. These tests are also used on the production line to provide checks on the quality of the raw materials and production processes.
Notched-bar impact tests

Jacks, cranes and elevators are usually subjected to a variety of loads including gradually applied and impact loads. To assess the safe performance of these lifting devices under impact loads each device must be thoroughly tested. As the behaviour of materials under impact loads can be vastly different to their behaviour under gradually applied loads, it is also important that each of the component materials is tested under impact or dynamic loads. Standardised impact tests use a standard specimen with a standard notch cut into it. The results of dynamic testing of this type are interesting. The dynamically tested impact strength of an unnotched specimen is similar to the toughness that is assessed from the area under the curve of a stress/strain diagram. The use of notched specimens provides a stress point and even ductile materials display a brittle type of fracture. The notched-toughness of dynamically tested materials is much less than the toughness figures expected from stress/strain diagrams. Suggest some materials that would have very low notched-toughness. ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________
Did you answer? Did you suggest brittle materials like white cast iron, grey cast iron and hardened high carbon steel.
Notched-bar impact tests were described in detail in the Preliminary module on Braking Systems and in the previous HSC module.
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Describe the basic principles of notched-bar impact tests and then list the special features of the Izod and Charpy , refer to information available in previous modules if you need to. Basic principles ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ Izod ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ Charpy __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________
Did you answer? Notched-bar impact tests use a standardised specimen. A notch establishes a stress point where a failure may start and a swinging pendulum simulates an impact loading, the pendulum always starts from a known height with known potential energy. The height that the pendulum attains after impacting with the specimen, when compared to its starting height, gives an indication of the energy used to fracture the specimen. In the Izod test a standard specimen, 10 mm square in cross-section, is mounted vertically with the notch facing the approaching pendulum. In the Charpy test a standard square-sectioned specimen is mounted as a beam between to supports 40 mm apart with the notch on the opposite side to the approaching pendulum.
Proving tests
Many components associated with lifting devices are subjected to actual loading or even overloading to assess performance under real conditions. Each new design feature used in elevators is evaluated in a test elevator. The effectiveness of features like speed governors and safety devices are tested by dropping the test elevator while post installation testing involves checking the running of the elevator under maximum loading conditions.
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Lifting devices
Crane hooks and safety chains are commonly subjected to proving tests before being used and new design concepts in jacks are also subjected to proving tests under actual loading conditions. Each of these lifting devices is subject to maximum loads. The number of persons allowed in an elevator is normally clearly indicated on the control panel. The lifting capacity of jacks and cranes is labelled clearly, often with a warning about overloading. Obviously manufacturers understand that people will always stretch lifting devices to their loading limits so it is important that proving tests overload the devices and therefore include a factor of safety in the loading limits. Turn to the exercise section and complete exercise 3.2.
Heat treatment
Various heat treatment processes have been discussed in detail in previous Preliminary and HSC modules. Give definitions of the following processes, use information from previous modules if you need to. Normalising __________________________________________________________ Hardening ___________________________________________________________ Tempering ___________________________________________________________
Did you answer? In summary, normalising involves heating and cooling in still air, hardening involves heating and quenching and tempering is the reheating of a hardened structure to reduce some of the brittleness while retaining hardness.
In this part, you will take a closer look at the internal structure that results from these heat treatment processes and the typical properties that result.
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Normalising
The main reason for normalising is to produce a uniform structure throughout the component. This process, which is usually carried out on steels, allows the removal of any residual stresses that may remain after the forming process. For example while forging is a hot working process, thick sections that have received little working will be coarse grained while thin sections that have undergone a large amount of working will be fine grained. If this forging were machined while in this condition, it would possibly change in shape during any subsequent heat treatment. A forged gear blank to be used in the drive mechanism of a crane is a good example. Forging is essential as the grain-flow created by forging gives strength to the gear. Normalising before final machining will stabilise the structure. To normalise a low carbon steel component (0.25%C), it is heated to around 1000C, above the upper critical temperature, and soaked until the whole item is at a consistent temperature. At this stage the entire internal structure consists of small grains of austenite. Remember from the previous module that austenite is face-centred cubic iron with carbon dissolved within 'holes' in the structure. Once the whole structure is at the desired temperature, and has transformed to small grains of austenite, the component is removed from the furnace and allowed to cool in still air. As the structure cools, the iron starts to undergo an allotropic change to a body-centred cubic structure and grains of ferrite (alpha iron with 0.008%C at room temperature) start to form. At this stage of cooling, the microstructure shows grains of ferrite in a background (matrix) of austenite. Once the component cools to 723C, an eutectoid reaction occurs and any remaining austenite transforms to pearlite. Pearlite is a lamellar structure with alternate plates of ferrite and cementite. Cementite is the hard and brittle interstitial compound Fe3C that occurs because all of the carbon in the alloy can't be dissolved into the body-centred cubic alpha iron.
pearlite
1100C
840C
780C
Room temperature
Figure 3.9 Cooling of low carbon steel
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Lifting devices
The final microstructure shows uniformly fine-grained ferrite and pearlite throughout. As the cooling rate in normalising is faster than equilibrium cooling, there is less time for the grains of ferrite to form before the eutectoid reaction takes place. This means there will be more pearlite in a normalised structure than in an annealed structure of the same composition.
Properties resulting from normalising

As previously mentioned, normalising is used to refine grain structure so it is the same throughout the component (homogenous). It is used to remove the stresses induced during forming processes and to eliminate columnar grains and dendritic segregation that sometimes occurs during casting. Normalising improves the machinability of the component and provides dimensional stability if the component is subjected to further heat treatment. Normalising produces harder and stronger steel than annealing due to a number of factors including: the greater amount of pearlite found in the normalised structure because of the non-equilibrium cooling. the pearlite is fine not coarse, as in annealed structures, which means that there is not as much soft and ductile ferrite separating the plates of hard and brittle cementite. This tends to stiffen the structure increasing both the hardness and strength.
Normalising in lifting devices

A number of components found in lifting devices would be normalised. These include: forged and cast steel crane hooks cast steel jack bodies fabricated steel lifting chains forged steel gear blanks cast iron pulleys in cranes cast brackets used in elevator assemblies.
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Hardening and tempering

Look back to the previous module on personal and public transport and complete the following activity. Outline how and why medium carbon steel becomes hard and brittle when it is heated and quenched. ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________
Did you answer? Did you mention heating so the entire structure is FCC austenite, make reference to the allotropic change in iron from FCC to BCC and the stress induced by the excess carbon which is trapped in the quenched structure?
Of course the structure produced is known as martensite. Martensite is a body-centred tetragonal structure with the carbon trapped within the lattice. Under the microscope, martensite appears as a series of needlelike (acicular) crystals as shown in the microstructure in figure 3.10.
Acicular structure
Figure 3.10 Martensitic structure
Outline the role of tempering after hardening. ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________
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Lifting devices
Did you answer? Tempering allows some of the carbon in the martensite to diffuse which relieves some of the stresses and reduces brittleness and hardness.
Identify components of jacks, elevators and cranes to suggest some components of each that you feel would be hardened and tempered. ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________
Did you answer? Did you suggest parts like the teeth of gears in cranes and mechanical jacks and wear plates in the safety devices in elevators.
Properties resulting from hardening and tempering

The hardness of martensite depends on the carbon content of the steel. The greater amount of carbon produces maximum strain of the lattice structure and therefore the greatest hardness and brittleness. Different quenching media cool the steel at different rates and can be useful in hardening a variety of steels. Steels with higher carbon contents must be quenched slowly to avoid cracking while lower carbon steels need very rapid quenching to produce maximum stress in the lattice structure. Common quenching media from rapid to slow cooling are: hydroxide solution salt water (10%) or brine agitated.
Hardenability
This term refers to the depth to which steel hardens. When the steel is quenched the surface cools rapidly but the inside cools at a slower rate. The depth of martensite, in plain carbon steel, might only be two to three millimetres with pearlite forming below this depth. Alloy steels have been developed that, once quenched, show martensite to a depth of 50 mm or more. Other alloys, containing 5% nickel and 1.5 % chromium, change to martensite even after cooling in still air and are known as air-hardening steels. Alloy steels are always used when a depth of hardness is required.
17
A standardised test has been developed that is used to determine the hardenability of steel. Known as the Jominy end-quench test, it involves heating a 25 mm diameter, 100 mm long specimen into the austenite range then quenching it from one end only. Parallel flats are ground on the sides of the specimen and hardness readings are taken at 1.5 mm intervals along the specimen. The results of this test clearly demonstrate the hardenability of the specimen.
Air cooled end
Jig
Hardness
Test-piece ( 25 x 100 mm)
Alloy
C ar bo n
ste el
steel
100
Water jet Figure 3.11 Jominy end-quench test
50
___ Distance from quenched end (%)

Figure 3.12 Test results
Patenting
This process is peculiar to the wire industry and is used on the wire that goes to make up the ropes found in cranes and elevators. The wire used is of around 0.65% carbon steel and the patenting process involves it being heated to the austenitic range then quenched into a bath of molten lead that is held at 250C. The final structure of this process shows both nodular and lamellar pearlite in a ferrite matrix. It responds well to severe deformation and demonstrates high tensile strength in the direction of drawing.
The mass effect

The change from austenite to martensite involves an expansion of the structure due to the movement of the carbon caused by the allotropic change of the iron. As any material cools it contracts and, with steels, it is possible that while one section of a quenched item is shrinking another section is expanding. The larger the mass of an article the more
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Lifting devices
pronounced the differences in cooling rates and the more likely the item is to crack due to quenching. Two processes, Martempering and Austempering, have been developed that allow large masses to be cooled without developing quench cracks. In both these processes, the component to be heat-treated is heated till the structure is all austenite. The component is then quenched in a lead or salt bath that is held at a temperature just above the temperature at which the cooling steel will change into martensite. In Martempering, the component is held in the bath till it is a uniform temperature throughout. It is then water-quenched producing a full martensite structure. The shrinking, due to cooling, and the expansion due to the austenite-martensite transformation are separated by this process and cracking is eliminated. Sketch and label, in figure 3.13, the microstructure of the martensite that results from martempering.
Figure 3.13 Martensite
In Austempering, the component is held in the bath till the austenite has changed to a ferrite matrix with carbide particles finely dispersed throughout. This new structure is softer than martensite with similar carbon content but has greater shock resistance. Turn to the exercise section and complete exercise 3.4.
Forming processes
Jacks, cranes and elevators all use component parts that have been manufactured using a variety of forming processes. Each of these processes alters the structure of the material being formed. These changes in structure produce properties that are often desirable in these component parts.
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Forging
Both hot and cold forging are used on various parts of lifting devices and the major reason for using forging is that the components strength properties are all increased in the direction of the forging. In hot drop forging, a set of special dies are made from hardened and tempered carbon steel or special alloy steel. The upper-half of the die is attached to the hammer and the lower half is attached to the anvil. These dies provide a series of stages to allow the metal to flow into the shape of the final die. The stages in forging are: metal blank cut from stock then heated and placed in the lower die rough forming is carried out in the first set of dies final forming takes place in the finishing dies trim dies are used to remove flash from the forging.
For ease of forgeability, mild steel is by far the best materials, followed by aluminium, copper, nickel and stainless steel. Temperature range for common metals and alloys
Metal Steel low medium carbon Steel high carbon Steel alloys (including stainless) Copper Copper alloys Aluminium and alloys Aluminium bronze Temperature Range C 800 1300 750 1100 950 1200 450 1000 600 800 325 475 800 900
Grainflow
When cast stock is hot forged the material is plastically deformed and then immediately starts to recrystalise. Any cored grains remaining from the casting process disappear and segregations and slag inclusions are spread throughout the structure.
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Lifting devices
The new grain structure is known as grainflow or fibre. The hot working produces a recrystalised or normalised grain structure and the forging process forces the original grains into new orientations. The new grains form from these reorientated grains assuming the flow of the original grains. Any non-metallic impurites, such as slag and trapped oxides, are aligned in the direction of forging. Grainflow affects the properties of the forged components. Elastic limit, ultimate strength, ductility and toughness are all greater when measured in the direction of grainflow. Gears and cogs cut into forged blanks are stronger than those machined from cast stock.
Casting
A number of practical and economic factors are taken into account when deciding whether a component should be cast and what type of casting is most suitable. In some cases, the shape and size of the component may be such that casting is the only suitable process even though the grain structure and mechanical properties will be inferior to those of a forged product. List at least four different processes that are used to cast molten metal ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________
Did you answer? Did you mention sand casting, shell moulding, pressure die-casting and investment casting or have you included centrifugal casting or permanent mould casting?
Some of the cast components in lifting devices include the following.

Jacks hydraulic cylinder, body, wheels, ram Elevators counterweight sections, motor components, drive sheaves, guide rollers, covers and guards Cranes some hooks, pulleys, housings to support gears, hydraulic cylinders and rams
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Features of casting methods

Sand Casting Metals cast Unlimited Pressure Die Casting Copper, aluminium & zinc based alloys 15kg Investment Casting
Unlimited
Casting size Mechanical properties Surface finish Design complexity Massproduction cost
Unlimited
5kg
Fair
Very good
Good
Fair
Very good
Very good
Good
Very good
Very good
Medium
Lowest
High
Sand casting
Single use sand moulds are prepared using either naturally occurring greensand or synthetic sands that are made from blending dry silica with clay. The parts of the mould that come in contact with the molten metal, during the casting process, are fired just like clay in a kiln. When the mould is broken away from the completed casting, this affected material is removed then the rest of the sand is reused in new moulds. To make castings hollow, cores are prepared from a mixture of sand and resins. These cores are carefully positioned in the sand mould then the molten metal is poured in. These cores are broken out of the solid casting after the casting has been removed from the mould. Small castings are made in a moulding box while large moulds are usually made in a pit in the foundry floor. The quality of the surface finish on sand casting is controlled by the size of the sand particles on the surface of the mould. Fine sand will give a good surface finish! Each sand mould has a series of risers and runners that allow the molten metal to be poured into the mould, air to be pushed out of the mould and to provide a reservoir of molten metal that can compensate as shrinkage occurs in the solidifying casting.
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Problems that may arise during sand casting include: some areas of porosity due to the effects of internal shrinkage gas porosity, as little blow holes just under the surface, due to steam being generated due to a moist or too tightly rammed mould poor melting practice may allow slag to be melted in with the metal loose sand from the mould may be washed into the mould cavity cold shuts happen when two streams of molten metal meet but dont fuse together as the casting metal is too cold.
Compare sand cashing and shell moulding outlining the differences and similarities. Similarities ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ Differences ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________
Did you answer? Did you mention that both use a sand mould, gravity fed molten metal and sand cores as required while Shell Moulding shells are mass produced rather than hand made and shell moulds are normally based on symmetrical objects?
Pressure die casting

The dies used are made from steel alloys. The composition of the alloy used depends on the melting temperature of the metal to be cast and the number of castings required in the production run. Injecting the molten metal into the mould means that very thin sections can be cast, complex designs can be filled and solidification under pressure will reduce porosity. The dimensional accuracy and excellent surface finish that can be obtained through die-casting are two other outstanding features. The accuracy of the casting means that little or no machining is usually necessary. Die-casting allows metal to be cast around an insert. This is used to encapsulate items such as magnets, and hardened and threaded sections into die cast components.
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Thin vents on the parting line of the mould allow the air to be forced from the mould, as the metal is injected, without letting the molten metal squeeze out. Die-cast components typically have a surface that is harder than the interior due to the faster cooling rate on the surface.
Solidification of cast metals

When metal is cast, the rate of cooling affects the structure of the cast component that in turn influences the properties. Outline the stages in the solidification process of metals. ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ Grain size in a cast structure is determined both by the rate of nucleation of the metal and the rate of grain growth. Fast cooling, as in a cold metal mould, will result in a large number of nuclei being formed and resulting in a fine grain structure. Under slower cooling, as in sand, shell or heated mould casting, only a few nuclei form and have a chance to grow into larger equiaxed grains. Other factors that may increase the rate of nucleation and produce a fine grain structure are: stirring the molten metal during solidification to break up the crystals into smaller parts impurities in the melt that provide a seed for the formation of crystals.
When molten metal is poured into a mould, the metal skins as it hits the surface of the mould. Once the skin of the casting has formed, the rate of conductivity of the mould material governs the cooling rate of the interior. As metal moulds easily conduct heat, as the molten metal cools many nuclei form close to the surface of the component and dendrites start to grow reaching into the still molten centre of the component. The resulting grains are long and thin and are known as columnar grains. If the casting temperature is not too high the final grains to solidify, in the centre of the component, will possibly be equiaxed. If the casting temperature is too high, the columnar grains will meet forming a plane of weakness at the centre of the casting.
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As sand is a poor conductor of heat, the molten metal cools slowly in conditions that are closer to equilibrium. The resulting structure is typically a chilled skin with fine equiaxed grains in the centre. You may have noticed that castings dont have sharp internal corners. The diagram in figure 3.14 shows how the use of fillet curves in corners prevents the formation of a plane of weakness where the columnar grains meet.
Equiaxed grains Metal mould Chill crystals Columnar grains Plane of weakness Fillet curve Figure 3.14 Grain structure in a cold metal mould
Properties of cast metals

As discussed previously, the rate of cooling in cast metals influences the final structure and therefore the mechanical properties. The surface of any casting will always cool very rapidly when the molten metal hits the surface of the mould. This invariably produces a very fine grain structure and a harder skin on the casting. In the case of grey cast iron, there is insufficient time for the graphite to precipitate from the cementite so the surface remains as hard and brittle white cast iron. Any machining to occur must first remove this white cast iron skin. Tools with very hard cutting tips, such as cemented carbide, must be used. Generally, fine-grained materials show greater toughness, are more shock resistant and are harder and stronger than coarse-grained materials. Components produced by die-casting are generally fine-grained and have more favourable properties than sand-cast components. Castings are often heat treated (normalised) after forming. This is carried out for a number of reasons: coring, that can occur when alloys are cooled under faster than equilibrium conditions, is removed
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the different grain sizes formed by different cooling rates need to be refined to provide consistent properties stresses induced in the structure due to differential cooling rates need to be relieved before machining takes place or distortion may occur.
Non-metallic impurities are insoluble in the molten metal so they concentrate in the metal that solidifies last. This happens at the grain boundaries, where the dendrite arms meet. This segregation of impurities at the grain boundaries makes the cast metal brittle and likely to fail along these boundaries. Turn to the exercise section and complete exercise 3.5.
Extrusion
Describe the metals and profiles that can be extruded. ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________
Did you answer? Did you mention ferrous and non-ferrous solids and tubes that have a continuous, parallel profile?
Some metals can be extruded cold but most are heated to increase the plasticity of the metal and are then forced, by a hydraulically powered ram, through an hardened alloy steel die. These dies, used for extrusion, are fairly simple and therefore relatively cheap. This process is not unlike the way that toothpaste is squeezed out of the tube.
Metal Aluminium alloys Brasses Steels Extrusion Range 350 500C 700 800C 1100 1250C
The excessive pressure and temperature needed to extrude steel can lead to the hot metal welding to the mould. This problem can be minimised
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through the use of a lubricant. One method of lubrication involves the use of a coating of phosphate salts or glass that melts under the extrusion temperature and acts as a lubricant. Other metals have much lower yield strength than steel; aluminium brass, lead, copper, bronze and magnesium are all fairly easy to extrude. In elevators, much of the trimming used in the car is extruded. Next time that you are in an elevator, have a look at the extruded track in which the doors run, both on the floor and at the top. They are steel extrusions that have been plated to provide protection from corrosion.
Properties in extrusions
The process of extrusion causes an alignment of the grain structure. This results in grainflow similar to the structure found in forgings. In cold extrusion, the grains are distorted in the direction of extrusion and the extruded metal is stronger along its length than across. In hot extrusion, as in hot forging, the final grain structure will be equiaxed grains but these equiaxed grains will recrystalise from the grains that have been forced to flow by the extrusion process. This will also provide directional properties in the direction of extrusion. As the outer surface of the hot extruded metal cools more quickly than the centre, the outer layer shows fine equiaxed grains while the grains in the centre will be larger. Dimensional accuracy, excellent surface finish and directional properties are all appealing features of extruded products.
Outer surface
Figure 3.15 Grain structure resulting from extrusion
Rolling
This is the name given to the process that changes the cross-sectional shape of a piece of metal by passing the metal through suitably shaped and spaced rollers.
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There are two general types of rolling mill: sheet, strip and plate mills bar, rail and joist mills.
Often, a series of roller sets in tandem form a line to enable the change from billet to sheet to be a single continuous operation. Rolling increases the length of the metal while reducing the thickness. The width does not really change during the rolling process. Rolling is an effective method of producing long lengths of material with a uniform cross-sectional shape.
Finished strip Finishing train
Roughing rolls Scale breaker
Coil roll Edging rolls Live roller table Hot billet
Figure 3.16 Continuous rolling mill
Some of the rolled components in lifting devices include the following.

Jacks Hot Rolling Main framework/chassis of floor jacks, Elevators Guide rails, safety rails Cranes Jib structural members, winding drum support structure Body panels for control booth.
Cold Rolling
Cover plates, framework of simple car jacks
Button panels, door skins
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Properties of rolled materials

The hot rolling process changes the microstructure of the original cast billet material. Rolling reduces the effects of weaknesses such as impurities, segregations, blowholes, cavities, piping and coring in the cast billet. This reduction in weaknesses combined with the smaller grain size that results from hot rolling produces a more homogeneous and refined structure. The heating of the metal also increases the plasticity of the material as it undergoes the forming process. Cold rolling doesnt allow recrystalisation of the distorted and stressed grains to occur. Sometimes this means that the material must be annealed midway through the forming process. The stressed grain structure produced by cold rolling increases strength, hardness, resilience and toughness while reducing the ductility and workability of the material. Hot rolling produces a surface that is covered with an oxide coating, due to the heating process. The oxide coating on steel is a ceramic material that actually protects the surface of the steel. Any machining process that is carried out on the hot rolled steel must first break through this hard oxide layer. Cutting tools tipped with tungsten carbide are suitable for this application. Cold rolling leaves a much higher quality surface finish. Metals to be cold rolled are often painted or plated before rolling takes place. Some materials, like steel, will require the use of lubricating oil to ensure the prefinished surface is not damaged during rolling.
Powder forming
List the three basic steps in powder forming, refer to the previous module if you need to. ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________
Did you answer? Did you include making the powders, pressing of the moulding and sintering of the finished product. Accurate mixing of the powders could also be included as a second step.
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Powder forming, sometimes known as powder metallurgy, was first used in modern times, to produce tungsten and platinum wires. Soon after World War I, Germany used the process to produce cutting tips. It soon became obvious that powder forming had many applications in manufacturing. The production of tungsten wire is a good example of the use of powder forming. Tungsten melts at 3410C, that is, beyond the softening temperature of normal furnace linings. Tungsten powder is produced from its ore, and compacted at around 1500 Pa. Under this pressure, the particles of tungsten are cold-welded together at the points of contact. Sintering, at around 1600C, allows recrystallisation to occur particularly in the highly stressed region where cold-welding has occurred. The particles become joined as grain-growth occurs across the original grain boundaries.
Pressure Heat
Compacting
Sintering
Particles of tungsten powder
Cold welding between particles
Grain growth across particle boundaries
Figure 3.17 Stages in a powder-metallurgy process
Again look at the previous module, and list four different types of products that are commonly produced by powder forming. ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ Some of the main advantages of powder forming include: the elimination of machining because the dimensional accuracy and surface finish after sintering is suitable for most applications high production rates as the steps are simple and the process is highly automated
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scrap is eliminated which is important when forming expensive materials pressing, casting and machining can waste up to 50% of the original metal complex shapes can be produced and the density of the part can also be controlled to allow for porous parts materials, metals and non-metals, that normally dont alloy can be combined in the full range of proportions.
Some of the main disadvantages of powder forming include: the strength properties are inferior to wrought or cast components due to the lack of directional properties or grainflow the dies are expensive because they must be big and made from expensive alloys to withstand high pressure and severe abrasion from the powders powdered materials are more expensive than cast or wrought materials but, as there is less scrap and the parts are normally fairly small, the material cost is not that great designs are limited as components must be uniform along one axis and the length to diameter ratio is limited. The restricted size of presses also limits the size of components that can be produced.
Properties of powder formed components

There are so many variables associated with powdered products it is difficult to give general information about the properties. The type and size of powders, pressing pressure, sintering temperature and finishing treatments will all influence the properties of the component. Electrical contacts, for example, may blend gold, copper or silver with tungsten or molybdenum. The gold, copper and silver provide high conductivity while the tungsten or molybdenum provides resistance to fusion that can occur through the high arcing temperature. Bearings can be made porous and may contain from 10 to 40 % voids. These are used to hold oil and provide lubrication during the service life of the bearing. True powder forming uses a sintering temperature that is below the melting point of each of the component materials. Sometimes, however, the sintering temperature is above that of one of the metal powders. In a bronze bearing (90% copper and 10% tin) sintered at 800C, the tin melts and flows around the copper particles joining them in a solid mass. Bearings similar to those described, would be used in the moving parts of jacks, cranes and elevators.
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Generally items made by powder forming are not as strong as those made by casting or forging. This is due to the lack of grainflow in the final structure. Component design is therefore very important and strength properties can be improved through careful design. As with castings, the use of fillet curves at all changes in directions and internal angles will reduce the stresses at these points. Turn to the exercise section and complete exercises 3.6 to 3.8.
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Exercises
Exercise 3.1 a On the axes below, sketch the stress/strain curve for a low carbon steel test specimen.
Stress
Strain
How are the following properties recognised on a stress/strain curve?
Toughness ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ Resilience ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ Ductility ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________
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Describe with the aid of a sketch, the Charpy notched bar impact test with the aid of a sketch.
_______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ Exercise 3.2 a Briefly discuss the specific types of proving tests that may be used with jacks, cranes and elevators _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ b Briefly explain the difference between a load-extension curve and a stress-strain curve. _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________
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For each of the components listed in the table below, suggest the most important mechanical property that may be tested.
Component Lifting cable Mechanical property
Jack body
Crane jib
Exercise 3.3 a Describe the Rockwell Hardness test including loads and indentors used in this test. _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ b Suggest some component parts of jacks, cranes and elevators that must display hardness. _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ c Briefly explain why forged components are often normalised before machining takes place. _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________
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With reference to the structure, explain why steel in the normalised state is stronger and harder than in the annealed condition. _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________
Exercise 3.4 a Complete the table below by suggesting a heat treatment process that may be undertaken on each of the lifting device components listed.
Component Forged gear blank before machining Heat treatment process
Steel ropes used on cranes
Wear plates on elevator safety device Cast steel jack body
Describe the process of patenting that is used to heat treat steel lifting cables used in crane and elevator ropes. _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________
Explain why Martempering and Austempering are used when heattreating components in lifting devices. _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________
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Exercise 3.5 a State four stages in forging. i______________________________________________________ ii______________________________________________________ iii_____________________________________________________ iv______________________________________________________ b Briefly explain why and how grainflow in forged components, like gear blanks, increases the strength of components. _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ c Pulleys and rollers used in cranes and elevators are often cast. List some defects that can occur in sand casting ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ d Explain why fillet curves are used in the design of castings to overcome weaknesses that may result from non-equilibrium cooling with the aid of a sketch.
_______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________
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Exercise 3.6 a Complete the table below by suggesting some components in lifting devices that could be manufactured by the process indicated. Note: You may not be able to fill each space!
Jacks Forging Cranes Elevators
Casting
Extrusion
Rolling
Powder forming
Discuss the changes in both structure and properties that occur due to hot and cold rolling. Hot rolling _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ Cold rolling _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________
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Exercise 3.7 a Discuss the reasons why lubrication may be used to aid the extrusion process. _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ b Explain how a powder formed component becomes solid with the aid of sketches.
_______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________
Explain why powder formed components normally not as strong as those made by forging. _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________
List two variables that may influence the properties of powder formed products. i ii ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________
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Exercise 3.8 Select the alternative a, b, c or d that best answers the question. Circle the letter. 1 On a stress/strain graph, toughness is indicated by the: a b c d 2 total area under the graph area under the straight line section of the graph length of the straight line section of the graph the downturn in the graph after the UTS.
Strain can be calculated by: a b c d dividing the load by the extension multiplying the load by the cross-sectional area dividing the extension by the original length multiplying the cross-sectional area by the original length.
In compression tests, barrelling occurs a b c d after brittle materials have failed as ductile material is squashed when the deforming load is removed only on cylindrical specimens.
The indentor used in the Vickers hardness test is: a b c d a combination of spherical and diamond point indentors two different sizes of hardened steel spheres a diamond cone a diamond pyramid.
The main reason for normalising is to: a b c d produce a uniform structure throughout the component increase the surface hardness of the component make the material softer so it can be cold worked change the grain structure to large, equiaxed grains.
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Hardenability of a material is: a b c d the amount it hardens under cold working the depth to which a material hardens when quenched the surface hardness after quenching the measure of the materials ability to be hardened.
Martempering and Austempering: a b c d are production methods for softening steel are used to prevent heat scale forming on the surface allow large masses to be cooled without developing quench cracks can be used in place of normalising.
Grainflow occurs in: a b c d hot forging sand casting machining injection moulding.
Permanent metal moulds are used in: a b c d die casting shell moulding and investment casting die casting and investment casting shell moulding.
10 The skin on a cast component is normally: a b c d softer than the core of the component identical to the core of the component harder than the core of the component made up of large equiaxed grains.
11 Powder forming is commonly used: a b c d as it is cheaper than other types of forming because the materials dont need to be melted to form hard materials that are too difficult to machine on raw materials normally found in powder form.
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Progress check
During this part you examined the basic components of jacks, lifts and cranes and how the forming processes for these components are used to produce the most desirable material properties. Take a few moments to reflect on your learning then tick the box that best represents your level of achievement.
I have learnt about: testing of materials used in lifting devices structure/property relationships in heat treatment processes structure/property relationships in the material forming processes.
I have learnt to: describe the properties, uses and appropriateness of materials used in lifting devices evaluate manufacturing processes for components used in lifting devices investigate impact testing experiment with and assess structure/property relationships, before and after heat treatment analyse the structure/property relationship developed through forming processes.
During the next part you will investigate electric systems and their control and electrical safety systems and how these can be applied to lifting devices.
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Name: _______________________________
Check!
Have you have completed the following exercises? Exercise 3.1 Exercise 3.2 Exercise 3.3 Exercise 3.4 Exercise 3.5 Exercise 3.6 Exercise 3.7 Exercise 3.8 Locate and complete any outstanding exercises then attach your responses to this sheet. If you study Stage 6 Engineering Studies through a Distance Education School/ Centre (DEC) you will need to return the exercise sheet and your responses as you complete each part of the module. If you study Stage 6 Engineering Studies through the OTEN Open Learning Program (OLP) refer to the Learners Guide to determine which exercises you need to return to your teacher along with the Mark Record Slip.
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Part 4: Lifting devices electricity/electronics
Part 4 contents
Introduction ..........................................................................................2
Control of electric motors...................................................................3

'Control'..................................................................................... 4 Controllable parameters of electric motors................................... 8 Types of control systems............................................................ 9 Analogue (Continuous) control of motors................................... 10 Digital (Switching) control of electric motors............................... 21 Applications of motor control in lifting devices ............................ 24
Electrical safety.................................................................................27
Occupational health and safety................................................. 27 Australian standards ................................................................ 29 Hazard assessments................................................................ 29
Electrical safety in lifting devices....................................................31

Automatic garage door opener.................................................. 31 Building elevator ...................................................................... 32
Exercises............................................................................................35 Progress check .................................................................................41 Exercise cover sheet........................................................................43
Part 4: Lifting devices - electricity/electronics
Introduction
Many lifting devices use electricity as a source of power or energy. Electric motors are common in lifting devices and electric pumps are often used together with hydraulic systems. In this part you will examine the different types of motor that are used in lifting devices and the control systems that enable them to be used effectively. You will also learn more about electrical safety and its application to lifting devices.

You will learn about: engineering electricity/electronics applications found in appropriate lifting devices; motors, motor control electrical safety
You will learn to: describe the basic principles and applications of electrical components to lifting devices.
Lifting devices
Control of electric motors
In Part 4 of Personal and public transport you looked at the principles of operation of electric motors. You have seen that motors can generate torque through the interaction of the magnetic fields from the rotor and stator of the machine. While motors are clearly very useful in a wide variety of applications, there is also a need to be able to control these motors. In transport applications you need to be able to regulate the speed of the vehicle. In lifting devices, you need to be able to control the speed of the lift, and also to be able to stop the lifting device in a particular position. In this module you will look at motor control: at what is meant by control, the various forms of control, and how you can control the various types of motors that you have seen in previous work. This module also looks at electrical safety. Electrical safety is very important for three principle reasons: 1 2 3 Electricity is used extensively in modern homes and workplaces: you need to live with electricity without putting yourself in danger. Electricity is invisible: it is odourless, tasteless and colourless, and hence the potential danger is not readily apparent. The human body is controlled by electrical impulses of very small magnitudes: if our bodies are exposed to external electrical currents, the body's normal functions can be altered or halted.
You look at motor control and electrical safety here in the context of lifting devices.
'Control'
The term control is used in many situations. Control is based around the notions of inputs and outputs of a system.
A familiar control problem a hot shower

Lets illustrate the principle with a simple but common example a hot shower. In this situation, the system includes the hot and cold water taps, the shower rose and the associated plumbing. The inputs to the system are the settings of the hot and cold water taps. The outputs from the system are the temperature and pressure of the stream of water from the shower rose. Figure 4.1 illustrates the example.
Cold water pressure Hot water pressure PC PH Plumbing, taps and shower rose PW TW Total water pressure Water temperature
Inputs
System
Outputs
Figure 4.1 Inputs and outputs of a control system (in this case, a hot shower)
In controlling the shower, you adjust the inputs (hot and cold water taps) to achieve a desired water temperature and pressure. In this case there are two inputs, and two outputs. You want to control the two outputs separately. That is, you might want to have the water temperature very hot, with low pressure, or very hot water with high pressure. Similarly you might want to have a cool shower, with high or low pressure. Note that the inputs are not directly connected to the outputs: that is, there is no explicit temperature and pressure taps. You can only adjust the pressure of the cold and hot water supplies. The total water pressure is the sum of the two separate pressures, while the temperature is essentially the difference between the amount of hot water and the amount of cold water being supplied. The shower system is known as a multiple input, multiple output, or MIMO, control system. The relationship between the inputs and outputs is said to be cross-coupled, since changing one of the inputs (say the cold tap) affects both outputs (temperature and pressure). The simplest control system is a single input, single out, or SISO, system. In a SISO system, the input and output can be different quantities. For
Lifting devices
example, on a gas cooker you can adjust the flow rate of gas (the input) to regulate the temperature of the cooking vessel (the output). Can you think of a simple SISO control system? Can you define the input? Can you define the output?
Feedback in control systems

There is another important part of a control system that is not shown in figure 4.1. The missing part is the feedback path. The feedback path or feedback signal provides the information by which you adjust the inputs so that outputs move towards their correct values. Figure 4.2 shows how the feedback path fits into the control system of figure 4.1.
TD ET Desired temperature EP Desired PD pressure PC Human controller PH PW Plumbing, taps and shower rose TW Total water pressure Water temperature
Feedback path
Desired values
Error
Control
Inputs
System
Outputs
Figure 4.2 Key components of a control system (in this case, a hot shower)
You see from figure 4.2 that the system output is compared with (subtracted from) the desired reference signal. The difference between the current output and the desired output gives an error. This error is then used to adjust the inputs so that the input moves towards the desired value. If the output is greater than the desired value, the error becomes negative, and you need to reduce the input to achieve the desired output. The error signal is zero when the output matches the desired signal. When this happens, the inputs need not be adjusted any further. Lets think about the feedback mechanisms that occur in our example of the hot shower. If the temperature or pressure is not correct (too hot, too cold, too light), you immediately feel it on your back! Quickly, you turn to the taps to make the appropriate adjustments.
In this case the outputs are measured, or sensed, by the human body. The desired, or reference, signal against which you compare the output does not exist as a physical quantity: it is actually our brain that determines what the ideal water temperature should be. In this context you see that the human mind/body is an integral part of the shower control system. The human body is, in fact, a very, very good system controller. Humans can control systems that are very difficult, if not impossible, for a machine to manage. Lets think about driving a car. With some training, many humans can drive a car. This involves controlling many interacting inputs and outputs, with many forms of sensing being required, and many desired outputs to be achieved simultaneously. Inputs in a car's control system include steering, accelerator, brake, gears, windscreen wipers, indicators, radio volume and so on. The system outputs are the speed and position of the car on the road (hopefully!), the acceleration rate of the car, the cleanliness of the windscreen, volume of the radio and so on.
Figure 4.3 A highly complicated system to control a car
It would be virtually impossible to write equations that related all of the system inputs to the system outputs for control of a motor vehicle. Without such a set of equations it is extremely difficult to design a machine to drive a car. Yet many of us can manage it without undue difficulty. You will see in subsequent examples that humans form an integral part of many motor control systems.
Lifting devices
Suppose you are asked to monitor a pot of vegetables cooking on the stove so that it remains simmering. (This is essentially the SISO system outlined previously.) Draw the system, identifying the input, the output, the feedback path and the desired input and label each part with the quantity being measured or observed.
As a human controller, what observations do you make of the current output of the system, and what inputs do you adjust to force the output to the desired value? Could you program a machine to carry out the same task? How would you measure the current output? Can you write an equation or expression that would tell a machine how to vary the inputs given the measurements of the output? (Hard, isnt it? Yet many cooks successfully manage this control problem every day!) Turn to the exercise section and complete exercise 4.1 questions 1 to 4.
Controllable parameters of electric motors

In a motor control system, the three most common outputs you might seek to regulate are: torque (the turning force on the motor shaft) speed (the rate at which the shaft rotates) position (the location of shaft with respect to its frame of reference).
Desired outputs: speed, torque and position

The concepts of torque, speed and position are immediately applicable to lifting devices. Lets consider an elevator. The torque produced by the winding motor dictates the acceleration of the elevator. If too much torque is applied, the elevator might accelerate too rapidly, giving passengers heavy legs and perhaps in extreme cases causing them to fall over. The speed of the motor (and hence elevator) needs to be limited so that the air pressure change (caused by increasing or decreasing elevation) does not cause discomfort in the ears of passengers. Motor position needs to be controlled so that the elevator stops at exactly the correct place to enable passengers to embark and disembark from the lift. The inputs available to regulate the torque, speed and/or position of an electric motor are usually simply the voltage and/or current supplied to the motor. Think of a common household appliance that contains an electric motor. Are the controls on the appliance used to regulate the speed, torque or position of the motor?
Lifting devices
Types of control systems

Analogue control
The example of the hot shower is one in which you exercise continuous, or analogue, control over the input variables. In Part 4 of Personal and public transport you have already used the term analogue to describe a signal that is continuous in amplitude. In using the term analogue control, you refer to a system in which the inputs and outputs are continuously variable that is, you can make arbitrarily small adjustments to the input variables to achieve arbitrarily small changes to the outputs. The input and output signals are said to be analogue signals.
Digital control (or switching)

In some control systems, the inputs and outputs are not analogue signals, but instead take on only a finite number of possible values. This is equivalent to a digital signal. Perhaps the most simple example of a digital control system is an electric light. The input to the system is the light switch (which controls voltage or current) and the output is the intensity of illumination. In most instances the input can take only one of two possible values: on or off. (You may recognise this as a binary system). The corresponding light output is either illumination, or no illumination. Another example might be a ceiling fan. Many ceiling fans have two or three speeds that can be selected to give varying levels of air circulation. Systems that are regulated by inputs with only a finite number of possible values are called digital or switched control systems. Note that the use of the term digital does not (necessarily) imply logical operations (as seen in digital logic circuits) but rather that the control system is operating with inputs and outputs that can only take on one of a finite set of values. Can you think of an electrical appliance that has an analogue control system? Can you think of an electrical appliance that has a digital or switching control system? In each case, identify the input/s and output/s of the system. Turn to the exercise section and complete Exercise 4.1 questions 5 to 7.
Analogue (Continuous) control of motors

In this section you investigate analogue, or continuous, control of various types of electric motors. You are interested in identifying how you can regulate the speed, torque and/or position of the motors using particular inputs. The general configuration of an electrical machine was shown in figure 4.26 of Part 4 of Transport systems, and is reproduced here as figure 4.4.
Torque Figure 4.4 A generic electrical machine to produce torque
The figure shows two electromagnets whose fields interact to produce torque on the rotor. You have seen in previous work that the torque produced by the machine is given by:
T I R N R I S N S Sin q
where IR and IS are the currents in the rotor and stator coils respectively;
N R and N S are the number of turns on the rotor and stator coils respectively; and
q
is the angle between the two magnetic fields.
Control of DC motors
The general configuration of a DC machine was seen previously in figure 4.32 of Part 4 of Transport Systems. You saw there that the commutator structure of the DC machine fixed the angle between the rotor and stator fields at 90. This angle maximises the torque produced, since Sinq is at a maximum when q = 90
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The torque produced by a DC machine is thus:

Tdc I R N R I S N S
The number of turns on the stator and rotor coils of a DC machine are invariably fixed by the manufacturer of the motor. This means that the variables NR and NS cannot be used (by us) for controlling the motor torque. Consequently, the torque produced by the DC motor is described by the more simple expression:
Tdc I R I S
That is, the torque produced by the motor is simply proportional to the product of the rotor and stator currents. It is common to keep the stator current in a DC motor constant. (This means that the stators magnetic field is constant.) This is simply achieved by feeding the stator coils with a constant DC voltage source. See figure 4.5.
DC source VS
Figure 4.5 Stator of a DC machine fed by a constant voltage source, giving constant stator current
The stator current in this case is determined by: IS = VS RS
where VS is the stator source voltage and RS is the stator winding resistance.
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Small DC motors, such as those found in model cars and video cassette players are often made with permanent magnet stators. This means that there is no stator winding, and hence no value of IS. What do you think determines the torque produced by a permanent magnet DC motor? Lets now consider the rotor circuit in some detail. Figure 4.6 shows a DC voltage source VC and variable resistor RC feeding the rotor circuit of a DC motor. You see that the rotor circuit is modelled by a constant resistance RR in series with a DC voltage source ER.
Rotor of DC motor
Back emf ER
Rotor winding resistance RR
DC voltage source VC
External variable resistor RC
Rotor current Figure 4.6 Equivalent circuit for the rotor of a DC machine
The resistor RR represents the resistance in the wire that makes up the turns on the rotor coils. This resistance is usually no more than a couple of Ohms, and in large machines is usually less than one Ohm. The voltage sourceER represents the back electromotive force, or back emf induced in the rotor winding. You will recall from the discussion of induction motors in Household appliances that an electrical conductor that cuts a magnetic field will have a voltage induced in it. This phenomenon is described by Faradays Law. In a DC machine, the conductors making up the coils on the rotor spin in the magnetic field produced by the stator. As these conductors break the lines of magnetic flux, they too have a voltage, or emf, induced in them. The
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back emf, then, is a voltage induced in the rotor of the machine that acts to oppose the rotation of the machine. (You may have heard of Lenz's Law in your studies of physics. The back emf in a DC machine is Lenz's Law in operation!) Faraday showed that the voltage induced in a conductor is proportional to the rate at which the flux lines are intersected. It follows, then, that the back emf induced in the rotor of a DC machine is proportional to the speed of rotation of the motor since the faster the motor spins, the faster it will cut the flux lines set up by the stator. That is:
ER w R
where wR is the speed of rotation of the rotor. When the motor is stationary, the back emf ER will be zero, because the conductors in the rotor will not cross any flux lines. If the motor spins sufficiently fast, the back emf will increase until it is almost equal to the source voltage. When this happens the rotor current will be almost zero, and hence the torque produced will be almost zero. In practice, the motor never quite reaches a high enough speed to cause ER = VC because when ER VC , the torque produced by the machine reduces to too small a value to further accelerate the machine. The back emf thus limits the maximum speed of a DC machine. Since IS is assumed constant, you have to adjust IR to regulate the torque of the DC machine. It is apparent from the equation for IR that you can control the torque in one of two ways: 1 2 If the source voltage VC is adjustable, then you can fix the variable resistor RC to any value (including zero), and simply vary VC. If the source voltage VC is not adjustable (as is often the case), then you can adjust the variable resistor RC to vary the rotor current IR.
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Figure 4.7 shows the electrical connections for a DC machine to enable torque control.
DC source Vs
Figure 4.7 Electrical connections for controlling a DC motor
Implementing either of these two control strategies allows us to control the torque produced by the motor. The speed or position of the motor is generally much more difficult to control, since these outputs are dependent on the nature of the load attached to the motor. Figure 4.8 shows the DC machine from a control system perspective.
Rotor source voltage Rotor resistance VC RC DC motor TDC Motor torque
Inputs
System
Outputs
Figure 4.8 Control system view of a DC machine
In many instances, the control of speed or position is left to a human controller. For example, an electric train lifting a load of passengers up the Blue Mountains is driven by a human. The driver makes adjustments to the motor (rotor) current which varies the torque produced by the machine.
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However, the torque produced by the motors is not the important output variable. The speed and position are more significant: these outputs are the result of the good judgement of the driver who instinctively varies the torque to achieve the desired speed and position. Similarly, a crane driver uses experience and his observations to control the lifting of very light or very heavy loads, using only the rotor current to regulate the torque of the winch motor. An example where direct human intervention is not used is that of a modern elevator. In an elevator, there is no driver using observations and judgement to control the vehicle. (There was, of course, in older style elevators.) Instead, the control of the vehicle is handled by a sophisticated automated system. The automated system needs to sense where passengers are located (by monitoring push buttons on respective floors) and where they want to go (by monitoring push buttons inside the vehicle). Using this information, together with measurements of vehicle speed and position, the controller regulates the motor (rotor) current to achieve the desired outputs. Can you think of an example where a DC motor is used in an appliance or toy in your home? Is the speed of the motor variable? Who or what controls the motor speed? Turn to the exercise section and complete exercise 4.1 questions 8 to 10.
Control of synchronous motors

You have previously read about the principles of synchronous motors. While synchronous motors are not often used in lifting devices, it is insightful to contrast their control characteristics with those of the DC machine examined above. The stator of a synchronous motor is usually fed by a three-phase supply to produce a rotating magnetic field. (See Part 4 figure 4.29 of Personal and public transport.) The key parameter of this supply is its frequency. You might recall from previous work that the speed of a synchronous motor is determined by the speed of rotation of the stator field. This means that if the stator field is supplied by a fixed frequency source (such as mains electricity) then the speed of the motor is also fixed. If you change the supply frequency, you can change the speed of the motor. In order to vary the speed of the machine you must be able to provide a variable frequency supply to the synchronous motor's stator. In practice the complexity, and hence cost, of this arrangement discourages its use.
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Consequently, synchronous motors are generally only used in constant speed applications. The torque produced by a synchronous motor is again determined by:
where IR and IS are the currents in the rotor and stator coils respectively; NR and NS are the number of turns on the rotor and stator coils respectively; and
is the angle between the two magnetic fields.
In the synchronous motor case, the stator current IS is usually fixed (by the stator supply voltage VS and stator winding resistance RS , with I S = VS ). RS NS and NR are fixed by the motor manufacturer. In the case of the DC motor, you saw that the torque and speed are related by the nature of the load and not by the motor itself. For example, a heavy load requires greater torque for a given speed than does a light load. In the synchronous motor, the torque and speed are determined by separate quantities inside the motor: the torque is determined by IR Sin q ; the speed is determined by the frequency of the AC supply. However, you know from physics that the torque and speed must be matched for a given load. So how does the synchronous motor ensure that the appropriate torque is produced for a given load and speed? The answer is in the Sinq term. The angle q is defined as the angle between the stator and rotor magnetic fields. This angle can vary between 0o (zero torque) and 90o (maximum torque). The angle q is not an input variable that you can control it is a variable that automatically adjusts itself to match the torque required by the load. When the load is relatively light, q adjusts to a small angle, and only a small torque is produced by the motor. When the load increases, q also increases towards 90o. If the load is too heavy for the machine, the angle increases beyond 90o. The resulting torque then decreases (because of the Sinq term). The motor
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experiences what is called pole slipping whereby the rotor magnetic field loses its lock on the stator field. Pole slipping is analogous to a set of slipping gears. Imagine that you had a small gearbox made up from polymer gears. If you try to transfer too much torque through the gearbox the gear teeth will start to slip over each other. If you reduce the torque, the gears will again start to mesh properly, transferring the torque. Given that the Sinq term is not available to us as an input, the only variable that you can control to regulate the torque is IR. You can control the rotor current in a synchronous motor in the same way that you controlled the rotor current in a DC motor: that is, by varying the DC supply voltage (if possible) or by varying a series resistance if the DC supply voltage is fixed. Figure 4.9 shows the electrical connections for a synchronous motor.
AC source VS
Figure 4.9 Electrical connections for controlling a synchronous motor
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Figure 4.10 shows the synchronous motor from a control system perspective.
Rotor source voltage Rotor resistance VC RC Synchronous motor TSynch Motor torque
Inputs
System
Outputs
Figure 4.10 Control system view of synchronous motor
Turn to the exercise section and complete exercise 4.1 questions 11 and 12.
Control of induction motors

The induction motor is fundamentally different to the DC and synchronous motors in that it has only one electrical supply. That is, you can only feed power to the stator of the induction motor, with the power being supplied to the rotor through an inductive process. This contrasts with DC and synchronous motors which have separate stator and rotor power supplies. The single power supply means that the general expression for torque given by:
is not immediately applicable, since you cant determine what the rotor current IR and field angle q will be. (The equation does in fact still hold, but you have to infer IR and q from known quantities through complicated relationships.) In the induction motor case, you have a single AC supply. This supply has two main parameters: the voltage (or current) and the frequency. The relationship between the applied voltage and supply frequency (the system inputs) and the torque of the motor (the system outputs) is quite complicated. This system is a multiple input, single output (MISO) system. Figure 4.11 shows an induction motor from a control system perspective.
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Source voltage Source frequency
VS FS Synchronous motor TInduct Motor torque
Inputs
System
Outputs
Figure 4.11 Control system view of an induction motor
In practice, you use induction motors in either a controlled, or uncontrolled, form. In a controlled form, you need Variable Voltage Variable Frequency (VVVF) drive system. This is essentially a box of electronics that converts a fixed frequency fixed voltage supply (from the mains) into a supply that has adjustable voltage and frequency. These systems are invariably microprocessor controlled, and allow us to vary the torque, and hence speed, of an induction motor. Unfortunately, VVVF drives are relatively expensive. Thus while induction motors are relatively cheap amd robust, the addition of a VVVF controller detracts from the motor's inherent advantage. In an uncontrolled form, you simply apply a fixed frequency fixed voltage (from the mains) to the motor. The motor then runs at a speed dictated by the nature and size of the load. Obviously uncontrolled motors are much cheaper to use that controlled motors. The uncontrolled form is actually very common: refrigerators, washing machines, fans and pumps can all run uncontrolled. The maximum speed of the induction motor is limited by its supply frequency, and so induction motors connected to the mains cannot run at excessive speed. Induction motors make up a large part of the total electrical load of the state. By far the majority of these motors are uncontrolled! How many induction motors do you think there may be in and around your home? Make a list of the devices that you think contain induction motors. ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________
Did you answer? Some of the appliances which may contain induction motors include: air conditioner; washing machine; electric crane and electric lifts.
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Are any of these motors controlled by VVVF drives?
Turn to the exercise section and complete exercise 4.1 questions 13 to 14.
Motor control summary

The following table shows a summary of the key parameters for control of various motor types.
Motor Type Normally Fixed Inputs Controllable Inputs Controlled Outputs Notes
DC motor
NR , NS , I S , Sinq
IR
TDC
Max speed limited by back emf. Speed set by load. Speed set by stator supply frequency. Sinq self adjusting to load. Max speed limited by supply frequency. Speed set by load.
Synchronous motor
NR , NS , I S
IR
Tsynch
Induction motor
NR , NS
V S , frequency of supply FS
TInduct
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Digital (Switching) control of electric motors

In the above you have looked at analogue control of DC, synchronous and induction motors. In these instances you saw you can control the speed and/or torque of the various motors by continuously variable voltages, currents, resistances and/or frequencies. While analogue systems offer very good control of motor performance, such systems are becoming increasingly expensive, particularly in comparison with alternatives based on digital devices. Digital technology is based on a simple on-off switching arrangement. The approach is simple, cheap, and as you will see, can be very effective.
On-Off (Binary) switching

The concept of switching is simple and familiar to us all. Every day you switch many devices on and off as you require. Most of the time, the time lapse between switching on and off varies from a few seconds to several or many hours. For example, you might use a food processor for ten seconds at a time; a hair dryer for minutes at a time, and room lighting for hours at a time. In some appliances the motor is switched automatically by the appliance's control system. For example, in a refrigerator, a thermostat monitors the temperature inside the fridge. If the temperature rises above a preset threshold, the cooling system (compressor) motor is switched on until such time as the fridge cools to its correct operating range. Another example of an automated motor drive is a garage door opener. Usually you press a switch (on the wall or on a remote controller) to start the door opening or closing. However, the motor stops driving when the door is fully open or closed without our intervention. Sensors are used to detect when the door is fully open or fully closed and to cut power to the motor when these limits are reached. Can you draw a control system diagram for an automatic garage door when it is closing? What are the system inputs? What are the outputs? What is the desired setting? How can you generate an error signal?
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Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)

Switching control of electric motors is not limited to those applications when the time between switching is several seconds, minutes or hours. Many new technologies use a control strategy that switches a device on and off many times per second in order to emulate a continuously variable, or analogue, signal. Such systems are often called Pulse Width Modulation, or PWM, systems. Suppose you have a single electric lamp in a darkened room. If the lamp is off, the room is totally dark. If the lamp is turned on (and left on) we'll say that the room is totally bright. Now suppose you were able to turn the lamp on and off at around 1 000 times per second. (Don't worry for the moment as to how you could operate a switch so rapidly, we'll just assume it can be done!) If the lamp is on for 1 millisecond, and then off for one millisecond, then on again for one millisecond, off for one millisecond, and so on, the room would only be half as bright as compared to when the lamp was on all of the time. This is because only half the amount of light energy is being delivered into the room. During this switching, our eyes would not be able to tell that the lamp was flashing. Our eyes can only detect flicker frequencies up to ten or twenty Hertz. (Films shown at the cinema are actually a series of still images, updated at 24 frames per second (24 Hz). Our eyes are not sufficiently sensitive to see the individual images, hence the resulting image is perceived as one of continuous motion.) Suppose now that you turned the lamp on for one millisecond, then off for three milliseconds, then on for one millisecond, off for three milliseconds, and so on. The room now is only one quarter as bright as if the lamp was fully on. It is clear that you can vary the ratio of on-time to off-time to vary the average brightness. The ratio of on-time to off-time is called the duty cycle and is measured as a percentage: % Duty Cycle = (on - time) 100 (on - time) + (off - time)
By varying the duty cycle, you can in effect approximate an analogue signal.
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Figure 4.12 shows several PWM waveforms with different duty cycles.
On Duty cycle = 20% Off On Duty cycle = 80% Off On Duty cycle = 45% Off
Figure 4.12 Varying duty cycles in Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)
PWM systems are attractive because you only need a simple switching arrangement to implement them. Digital logic, seen previously in the Transport module, is based on devices being at logic 1 (on) or logic 0 (off). Consequently, digital logic is ideal for implementing PWM systems. Switching frequencies used in PWM systems vary with the application. The switching frequency needs to be fast enough so that the controlled output(s) of interest do not change markedly between switching instants. In the lighting example, while the light in fact turned on and off every millisecond, the output of interest the brightness perceived by our eyes appeared constant. In practice, switching frequencies of kHz to MHz are common. How can PWM be used in motor control? You have seen that a variable voltage or current supply is required for controlling the various motors. In some instances you saw that you might use a variable series resistor to change the motor current. However, the main problem with using such a resistor, is that the resistor will waste power (recall that power P = I2R = V ) .
R
2
If you use PWM to switch, and hence vary, the voltage supplied to the motor, you do not need to use the variable (power wasting) resistor. The new controllable input is thus the duty cycle of the PWM system: by increasing the duty cycle you increase the (average) voltage supplied, and hence increase the torque. If you decrease the duty cycle you can decrease the torque.
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Time varying pulse width modulation

In the above discussion you assumed that the duty cycle remained constant, and hence the average output remained constant. The duty cycle can be made time varying. Varying the duty cycle allows you to produce a time varying average signal. (The term average here is used in inverted commas because you now have to be careful over what period you do your averaging.) Figure 4.13 shows the effect of varying the duty cycle in a particular pattern so as to produce a sinusoidally varying signal.
Pulse with modulated output On
Off Switch position
Equivalent (sinusoidal) analogue output
Figure 4.13 Sinusoidal signal produced by a time varying PWM cycle
Turn to the exercise section and complete exercise 4.1 questions 15 to 16.
Applications of motor control in lifting devices

In considering motor control in the context of lifting devices, you will try to categorise the system according to a number of key parameters: Motor type does it use a DC motor, synchronous motor or induction motor? Is the motor controlled in some sense, or is it simply on/off? If controlled, what are the controllable inputs, and what are the controlled outputs? Does the system use automatic feedback, or does it rely on human control?
Electric motors are used in many lifting applications. You will consider a small number of applications here.
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Video cassette recorder

Consider the drive system used to load a cassette into a VCR. Motor type does it use a DC motor, synchronous motor or induction motor? The VCR uses small permanent magnet DC motors. Is the motor controlled in some sense, or is it simply on/off? The motor is either on or off there is no continuous control of torque or speed. Does the system use automatic feedback, or does it rely on human control? The system uses automatic detection of the cassette position to determine when to switch the motor drive off.
Elevator
Motor type does it use a DC motor, synchronous motor or induction motor? You need to have variable speed, so probably use a DC motor, or induction motor with VVVF drive. Is the motor controlled in some sense, or is it simply on/off? The motor needs to be very closely controlled to provide a safe and comfortable ride for passengers. If controlled, what are the controllable inputs, and what are the controlled outputs? The controlled outputs are: torque (to limit the acceleration (apparent gravity) forces experienced by passengers) speed (to limit the air pressure changes from increasing or decreasing altitude) position (so as to open the vehicle doors exactly in line with the desired floor). The inputs available to the user are: access to elevator request (via button on each floor) desired destination (via button in vehicle). The user inputs are translated into torque requirements by the (sophisticated) elevator control system. Does the system use automatic feedback, or does it rely on human control? The system is fully automatic, and does not require intervention of the user other than to request service.
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Brick conveyor
A brick conveyor is used to haul individual bricks from ground level up one or two floors on small building sites on a conveyor belt. The belt is started with no bricks on it, and then bricks are placed on the conveyor. This means that the conveyor can start with virtually no load, but once under way, the load is steadily increased. Motor type does it use a DC motor, synchronous motor or induction motor? You would like the motor to be as robust and cheap as possible, so use an induction motor. Is the motor controlled in some sense, or is it simply on/off? System is controlled by a simple on/off arrangement. The speed of the conveyor is limited by the supply frequency (usually a mains supply), and slows down as the load increases. Control over torque, speed or position not really required.
Crane
Motor type - does it use a DC motor, synchronous motor or induction motor? Need variable speed, and high starting torque, so DC or VVVF-fed induction motor best suited. Is the motor controlled in some sense, or is it simply on/off? Motor needs to be closely controlled to allow accurate placement of loads. If controlled, what are the controllable inputs, and what are the controlled outputs? The main output to be controlled is the position of the load. This position is closely related to the speed and duration of lift. The speed of lift is, in turn, dependent on the torque produced by the motor which is a function of the motor current. Does the system use automatic feedback, or does it rely on human control? The system is highly dependent on skilled operators to translate desired position into a combination of speed and duration of lift. Can you categorise the following applications according to the criteria abov A motorised garage door opener? A constant speed escalator in a shopping mall?
Turn to the exercise section and complete exercise 4.2a to f.
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Electrical safety
The vast majority of Australians make use of electrical energy every day. Most of this energy is drawn from the electrical distribution network. Those who do not have a direct connection to the electrical grid generate their own electrical energy for private use. We are so used to the presence of electrical appliances in our lives that we often take them for granted. Of all the possible occupations found in the workplace, only forestry operations had a higher record of fatalities than the electrical trade during the 1990s. Outside the electrical trades and professions, there are additional numbers of domestic electrical fatalities. There are a large number of electrical standards and guidelines that equipment, appliance manufacturers and electrical workers must adhere to. These electrical rules are created to ensure that the electrical accident rate is minimised and that a reasonable level of protection is afforded to everyone, not just those with formal electrical training.
Occupational health and safety

In 1983, the New South Wales government introduced the NSW Occupational Health and Safety Act. It was revised in 2000. The Act and associated legislation were created to reduce the number of work related injuries, and dictate (amongst other things) specific responsibilities for both employers and employees for safety in the workplace. Workplace safety is not optional: it is a legislated requirement that must be adhered to. The Act incorporates fines and imprisonment for noncompliance. The legal responsibility for safety is clearly designated amongst a number of parties. The following sections outline the various parties and their obligations.
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Employers (OH&S Act Section 15)

Employers are responsible for ensuring the health, safety and welfare of their employees. Employers must ensure that hazard identification and risk assessments have been done, control measures applied, and safe working practices put in place, before starting work. All of these precautions must be reviewed on an ongoing basis. What type of safety measures might you (as an employer) provide if you expected one of your employees to work (safely) on a roof?
Employers and self employed persons (OH&S Act Section 16)

Employers and self employed people must ensure the health and safety of people visiting the workplace who are not their employees. This covers all types of visitors, such as passers by, or likely visitors to each work site. Why do you think high rise building sites are often cloaked in mesh or cloth screens? Why would you bother to board up or fence off a building site in a shopping centre when it would be much easier not to do this?
Supervisors (OH&S Act Section 15)

Supervision is the process of providing guidance and training. An employer is required to provide whatever supervision may be necessary. The level of supervision is determined by the need to ensure the work is done safely.
Employees (OH&S Act Section 19)

Employees must comply with any safety procedures prescribed by the employer. This includes correct use and maintenance of personal protective equipment, special tools or related safety gear. The employee is also expected to identify and report workplace hazards as they become known to ensure they are addressed.
Duty of care
Under the Act, everyone, not just employers and supervisors have a responsibility not only for their own health and safety while at work, but a duty of care for the health and safety of others. If you noticed an unsafe work practice by a work or school colleague, or found a dangerous or faulty piece of equipment, what do you think your duty of care requires you to do?
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Australian standards
The Australian Standards are a large collection of documents that cover an enormous variety of situations. They prescribe what precautions and measures are considered appropriate for anything from paint and building materials through to electrical appliances. Almost any device, product or service you can think of is likely to have some components subject to an Australian Standard. There are a large number of Standards documents that relate to electrical equipment and installations. Some of these include: AS 3000 1994: Electrical installations buildings, structures and premises (SAA Wiring Rules). AS 2243.7 1991: Safety in laboratories Part 7: Electrical aspects, electrical safety in the workplace. AS 1674.2 1990: Safety in welding and allied processes Part 2: Electrical. AS 3003 1999: Electrical installations - patient treatment areas of hospitals and medical and dental practices. AS/NZS 3760 1996: In-service safety inspection and testing of electrical equipment.
These documents prescribe anything from the distance a power point must be located away from a source of water, to how deep an electrical cable must be buried in the ground. The standards change regularly as new equipment and methods evolve.
Hazard assessments
Hazard assessment is the process of identifying all the hazards that are present in a particular working area. These are prioritised in order of seriousness of potential injury arising from each hazard, from fatal through to minor injury. Having listed all of the identified hazards and assessed their potential severity, the next step is to estimate the exposure: that is the number of times and/or the length of time in which a worker is exposed to each hazard. A combination of long or frequent exposure and the possibility of severe injury would mean the hazard should be placed high on the priority list. The purpose of prioritising the hazards is only for the order of addressing them. All hazards must be considered, irrespective of risk. The combination of potential injury and level of exposure determines the level of risk.
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What level of risk would you assign to and safety precautions would you take for a worker who required access to a steeply pitched rooftop daily, as opposed to a worker who required access to the same rooftop yearly? Turn to the exercise section and complete exercise 4.1 questions 17 to 20.
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Electrical safety in lifting devices
The passive and reactive electrical protection devices, mentioned in Part 1 of Household appliances, are commonly used in a wide variety of electrical installations and appliances, including electrical lifting devices. In addition to standard safety devices, lifting equipment often requires additional safety features, some of which are outlined in the following examples.
Automatic garage door opener

An automated garage door opener is a relatively common example of a lifting device. A small electric motor commonly drives the door open and closed through a mechanical gear box, between two limits. The upper limit is when the door is fully open, the lower is when the door is fully closed. Opening and closing the door is normally automatic, and once started, the door normally opens completely, followed by a pause, or awaits a command to reclose, after which the motor normally runs until the door is fully closed. What happens if someone gets caught under the door, or the car is not completely clear of the door when it starts to close. Without an automated safety feature this could be quite dangerous. Most door openers keep track of how hard the door was to open over the last four or five times it was opened. The opener learns how stiff the door is and knows the average motor current that is normally required to open the door. If the door contacts a person or object unexpectedly in opening or closing, it will add an additional load to the motor, and the motor will attempt to increase the current drawn from the supply to overcome the obstacle. Dedicated electronics in the opener detects the abnormal change in current and either stops or automatically reverses the door. Is this electrical safety feature in a garage door opener, a passive or active protection device?
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Building elevator
An elevator or lift in a multi storey building is another common example of an electrical lifting device, and it too has a number of specific additional safety features. Commonly the lift is driven up and down by an electric motor connected through a mechanical gear box and system of steel cables and counter weights. Just as with the garage door opener, a lift also automatically detects objects (or people) caught between its doors as they attempt to close. This can be done by detecting the door closer current or by a switch bar which contacts the obstacle before the door does. On detection of an obstacle the door automatically reverses. Again, once the doors are closed, what happens if something goes wrong? What happens if there is a power failure with people in the lift? A lift commonly does not have windows, so in the event of power failure, the lift is likely to be particularly dark. Lifts (and indeed buildings in general) will often have an emergency lighting system. A small light, usually powered by a small battery, automatically comes on if the ambient light levels fall below a certain threshold or the mains power is removed. When the mains are operating normally, the battery is kept charged. Many power failures are relatively short in duration, but what if the power is off for a significant length of time? People in the lift will need to be able to contact someone outside for help. Most elevators contain either an alarm, that can be triggered by people in the lift to alert those outside to their plight, or a telephone. Most telephone systems are actually battery powered for this very reason. Ever noticed that during a power blackout, your telephone at home will still work? The telephone network is powered by a large bank of batteries that are kept charged at your local exchange. What about the lift drive system itself? What happens if the motor or control system malfunctions? Many elevators contain additional safety devices for the event of the hoist system failing. There are sometimes redundant hoist systems, safety cables, automated detection of cable breakages, or slack cables, manual overrides to
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open doors or to control the elevator hoists directly in the event of a control system failure. Elevators and other building electrical systems are often interlocked with a building fire alarm. Elevator doors will permanently open if the fire alarm is triggered and the lift disabled. Air conditioning systems will often switch off to prevent smoke from a fire circulating through the building. Turn to the exercise section and complete exercise 4.3.
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Exercises
Exercise 4.1 Select the alternative A, B, C or D that best answers the question. Circle the letter. 1 The feedback loop in a control system allows comparison of: a b c d 2 actual inputs and actual outputs actual inputs and desired inputs desired inputs and actual outputs desired ouputs and actual outputs.
A MISO control system has: a b c d a single input and a single output a single input and multiple outputs multiple inputs and a single output multiple inputs and multiple outputs.
A car is an example of a: a b c d SISO system SIMO system MISO system MIMO system.
In a MISO system: a b c d the output is a function of multiple inputs the output is a function of only one input the output is independent of the inputs cannot tell from the information given.
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The purpose of motor control is to regulate: a b c d torque speed position any or all of the above depending on the application.
In an analogue control system: a b c d the inputs can take only one of two possible values the inputs can take on only one of a finite number of possible values the inputs are infinitely adjustable there are no system inputs.
Digital control systems: a b c d are built by the Digital Corporation are used to control the Digital Corporation have a finite number of inputs and outputs have inputs and outputs that can take on only a finite number of possible values.
The torque produced by a DC motor depends on: a b c d the current in the rotor the current in the stator the number of turns in the stator and rotor coils all of the above.
The speed of a DC motor is determined by the: a b c d frequency of the electrical supply to the rotor frequency of the electrical supply to the stator direction of rotation of the machine torque produced by the machine, and the size and nature of the load.
10 The driver of a DC powered train needs to: a b c d regulate the speed and torque separately regulate speed to get the desired torque regulate the torque to get the required speed let the train regulate itself.
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Lifting devices
11 A synchronous motor can be made to run at variable speed by: a b c d varying the magnitude of the stator current varying the magnitude of the rotor current varying the frequency of the stator current varying the frequency of the rotor current.
12 Pole slipping in a synchronous machine results from: a b c d insufficient motor torque to match the given load too much motor torque for the given load too much grease on the motor shaft incorrect meshing of polymer gears.
13 An induction motor: a b c d has separate stator and rotor power supplies uses one power supply connected to both stator and rotor doesn't need any power in the rotor induces power in the rotor as described by Faraday's Law.
14 An induction motor connected directly to the mains supply will: a b c d not run at all run at a fixed speed run at a speed determined by the size and nature of the load cause a short circuit and catch fire.
15 PWM is an abbreviation of: a b c d perfectly wound motor perfect width motor pulse width modulation precisely weighted magnets
16 The principal use of PWM in control systems is to: a b c d emulate analogue control using switching devices blind people with flickering lights feature electric motors in cinematography confuse Engineering Studies students.
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17 The responsibility for electrical safety rests with: a b c d the government the bosses the workers everyone.
18 Australian Standards: a b c d set prices for goods and services prescribe appropriate social etiquette prescribe minimum specifications for a wide range of situations is a range of paint colours.
19 A duty of care applies to: a b c d ministers of religion towards their congregation nurses towards their patients teachers towards their students everyone towards each other to promote personal safety.
20 The potential risk of a given hazard: a b c d decreases with time decreases with exposure increases with exposure only matters after an accident has occurred.
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Lifting devices
Exercise 4.2 Suppose you are engaged as an engineering consultant to oversee the design of a moving walkway to be installed in a new international airport. The proposed walkway is quite long (around 200 metres) and should run at a constant speed in normal operation. In considering the following factors, state any assumptions you make about the walkway, its design or about the people who will use it. a State the number of electric motors that should be used to power the walkway and justify the reason for your proposed selection ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ b Indicate the type/s of motors that should be used for this application and explain the reason for your choice of these particular motor types. ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ c State how many output parameters do you need to control in terms of a control system. ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ d List the input variables do you need to control the motors to achieve the desired outputs. ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ e Indicate if the control system should be fully automatic, or employ skilled operators to control the walkway. ______________________________________________________ f Indicate if you propose to use analogue or digital techniques to implement your controller and explain the reasons underlying your decision. ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________
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Exercise 4.3 a Identical who is responsible for the safety of the passengers on the moving walkway. _______________________________________________________ b Indicate if you propose to schedule regular and/or routine maintenance as an integral component of your safety regime and outline maintenance or checking would you specify. _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ c Explain how your system should react if too many people crowd on the walkway overloading it. _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ d Outline the options that should be available to stop the walkway in case of an emergency. _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________
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Progress check
During this part you examined different control systems for different motor types with applications to lifting devices. You have also examined several safety systems that are used with electric devices. Take a few moments to reflect on your learning then tick the box which best represents your level of achievement.
I have learnt about: engineering electricity/electronics applications found in appropriate lifting devices motors, motor control
electronic safety I have learnt to: describe the basic principles and applications of electrical components to lifting devices.
During the next part you will investigate some more drawing techniques, including how to represent repeated features and how to itemise parts and provide materials lists.
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Name: _____________________________
Check!
Have you have completed the following exercises? Exercise 4.1 Exercise 4.2 Exercise 4.3 Locate and complete any outstanding exercises then attach your responses to this sheet. If you study Stage 6 Engineering Studies through a Distance Education Centre/School (DEC) you will need to return the exercise sheet and your responses as you complete each part of the module. If you study Stage 6 Engineering Studies through the OTEN Open Learning Program (OLP) refer to the Learners Guide to determine which exercises you need to return to your teacher along with the Mark Record Slip.
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Part 5:
Lifting devices communication
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Part 5 contents
Introduction..........................................................................................2
Orthogonal projection, AS 1100 standards ....................................3

Representation of repeated features ........................................... 3 Materials lists and itemising parts ............................................... 6
Exercises ...........................................................................................19 Progress check .................................................................................33 Exercise cover sheet........................................................................35
Part 5: Lifting devices communication
Introduction
This module will consolidate the communication content covered in previous modules in both the Preliminary Course and the HSC Course. You will further develop your freehand sketching by designing solutions to orthogonal drawing problems. Some of the drawings will require you to use CAD. However, the option will be there to complete these drawings using instruments. You will learn to produce orthogonal drawings associated with lifting devices, involving the use of AS 1100 standards, and again be introduced to some new AS 1100 standards including the standard representation of repeated features and parts. Materials lists, the method of itemizing and the use of leader lines will be covered along with the representation of threads other than vee threads, including square threads. You will utilize your knowledge of AS 1100 standard dimensioning techniques and be introduced to tangency, circles in contact with other circles and with lines.

You will learn about: communication Australian Standard AS 1100 sectioning of orthogonal views orthogonal assembly drawings. You will learn to: produce orthogonal drawings applying appropriate australian standard (AS 1100) computer graphics/computer assisted drawings. apply dimensions to AS 1100.
Extract from Stage 6 Engineering Studies Syllabus Board of Studies, NSW, 1999. Refer to <http://www.boardofstudies.nsw.edu.au> for original and current documents.
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Orthogonal projection, AS 1100 standards
Representation of repeated features

When a component contains a regular pattern of repeated features such as holes or slots, the AS 1100 standard allows these repeated features to be shown as full outline of all of the features or alternatively by a conventional representation. Using the conventional representation, one of the holes or slots may be shown in full outline, and the position of the remainder by centrelines. The number and size of the holes or slots must be indicated using a note and leader line. The method of conventional representation is far quicker to use and also makes the drawing much simpler. The advantage in using this standard is a great saving of time, especially in your HSC examination. Figures 5.01 and 5.02 show the true representation then the conventional representation of eight drilled and counterbored holes in a circular locking cap.
4 ON
8 6 40 PCD
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Figure 5.1 True drawing of the top view of the circular locking cap
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8x
40
20 Figure 5.2 Conventional representation of repeated features
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What do the drawings convey to you? What does the dimensioning mean? Which drawing is the quicker and easier to draw? While you are considering each drawing you should revise the AS 1100 standards used in the drawings; the use of a half-section, the use of full dimensioning, the standard dimensioning methods and the use of a detail drawing. These will all be used in Exercise 5.1. Consider the two views of the circular locking cap and the dimensioning of the holes. Both top views show a regular pattern of eight, counterbored, through holes of diameter four millimeter, counterbored diameter eight millimeters to a depth of six millimeters. Figure 5.1 shows the true representation of the repeated features, dimensioned using the symbol methods from AS 1100.101-1992. You should revise this dimensioning work from your previous module. The reason for the use of symbols when dimensioning is to avoid the use of written language, and also to make the drawing simpler to read and quicker to draw. Similarly, the conventional representation of the repeated features in the top view in figure 5.2 makes the drawing simpler to read and quicker to draw. To save you time you should learn the standards for this conventional representation of repeated features. Remember that you must use a note and leader line to indicate the number of holes or features and the dimensions required for those holes or features. Preparing for Exercise 5.1 The following section explains the approach you should use when attempting Exercise 5.1. You should read the section and then attempt the exercise. You should also be aware that the exercise number is shown in the title block for each exercise, not at the top of the page. Look at Exercise 5.1. The exercise requires you to draw to a scale of 1:1, a detail drawing of the Screw Jack Head. You are required to use a top view, incorporating the conventional representation for repeated features, a half-sectioned front view, and to completely dimension the drawing. Your first step should be to consider the shape and size details given on the drawing. The screw jack head is circular in shape, the top is diameter 75 mm and has twelve 5 mm x 3 mm grooves. The head has a through 25 mm hole, counterbored 36 mm to a depth of 8 mm. A radius of 25
mm joins the diameter 75 mm top to the circular 50mm diameter base. The inside portion of the base is rounded to a radius of 3 mm. Turn to the exercise sheet and complete exercise 5.1, completing a freehand sketch showing the top view and half-sectioned front view. For practice you should draw a quality sketch then design the dimensioning of the drawings.
Materials lists and itemising parts

A materials or parts list should be used where several components are detailed on the one drawing, or where a number of components are shown in an assembly drawing. The materials list should be positioned close to the title block. AS 1100 standards are again used to simplify the drawing, making it easier to locate information on the drawing. The alternative was to name and give details of all the components using notations on the drawing sheet, making the sheet very cluttered, and difficult to read and interpret. Materials lists should include the following details: item or parts number of the component as itemized on the drawing name or description of the part or component quantity of the component required for manufacture material or material specification of the component.
The drawing number should also be included. However, you have already included this in the title block, so there is no need to repeat it. The stores or parts number can also be included if applicable. It is not applicable for the exercises in this course. You have previously been introduced to materials lists in the preliminary course. However, as with the title block, the sizes and information provided will now be modified to suit the HSC course. The figure below shows dimensions and details for the modified materials list to be used in the HSC course. Note the standard abbreviations used to name the columns.
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15
75
15
20
ITEM
NAME OR DESCRIPTION
QTY
MATL
Figure 5.3 Materials list
Materials lists
The completed materials list and title block shown in the figure below are from Exercise 5.2, the screw jack assembly. They show the following: positioning of the materials list; above, and touching the title block standard abbreviations used to name each column of the materials list itemizing numbers used for each component name or description of each component quantity or number required of each component materials to be used in the manufacture of each component.
3 2 1 ITEM
LIFTING SCREW LOCATING SCREW SCREW JACK HEAD NAME OR DESCRIPTION SCREW JACK ASSEMBLY DISTED STUDENT
1 1 1 QTY
MS MS CI MATL EX 5.2 A4
12 - 5 - 01
SCALE 1:1
Figure 5.4 Title block and materials list for Exercise 5.2
Itemising of parts or components

Item number
An item number is a number assigned to a component on an assembly drawing. It is used to identify components, enabling information regarding the components to be referenced from the materials or parts list. Capital, that is, upper case letters may be used in addition to numbers where necessary. The height of the numbers should be twice the height of dimensioning used on the drawing. The item number should be enclosed in a circle to further differentiate it from any dimensioning. The circle should be drawn using thin dark lines and a diameter equal to twice the height of the numbering. Where no confusion would occur, the number may be drawn without the use of a circle. The numbers should be arranged in sequential order to assist in easy identification of the components, and should be positioned in vertical columns and/or horizontal rows on the drawing.
Leaders
Leaders are thin dark continuous lines drawn from the itemizing circle or number to the component or item on the assembly drawing. They are used to clearly identify the component. Leaders should: not intersect dimension lines or other leaders be kept as short as possible be drawn at an angle to the itemizing number be drawn radially from the itemizing circle terminate in an arrow or a dot.
In assembly drawings, dots are the preferred method to be used as terminators of leader lines. The dots should be; of diameter twice the thickness of the leaders they terminate, but not less than diameter 1 mm within the outline of the component.
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Where arrow heads are used to terminate the leaders, the point of the arrowhead should touch the first point of reference of the component. Note that on any drawing, all leaders should have the same terminators, either arrowheads or the preferred method, dots.
Figure 5.5 Itemizing methods, using dots and arrowheads
Square screw threads

Where screw threads are used to transmit large forces, such as in lifting devices, square threads are used rather than the standard v-thread. To differentiate the representation of the standard v-thread and threads other than v-threads, a section or other detail view is drawn to illustrate the thread form. A square thread is represented by drawing the standard thin dark line for the thread then drawing part of the thread in section to show the profile of the thread.
Figure 5.6 Standard representation of a square thread
Preparing for Exercise 5.2 Look at Exercise 5.2. The exercise requires you to draw to a scale of 1:1, an assembly drawing of the Lifting Screw Assembly. You are required to draw a sectioned front view of the assembled parts , incorporating the conventional representation for a square thread, and both a full-section of the head and a part-section of the top of the lifting screw.
Your first step should be to consider the shape and size details given on the drawing, and the method of assembly. The screw jack head has been drawn in Exercise 5.1, and should present no problems. The head is to be fully sectioned. The head fits onto the top of the lifting screw and the M15 x 1 mild steel screw is used to secure the head onto the top of the lifting screw. When you commence the drawing, you should start by drawing the fullsection of the head, then positioning the lifting screw. The drawing of the lifting screw requires you to know, and if not, to revise, the following drawing methods and standards for: part-sectioning the top of the lifting screw to show the MS screw and the thread details showing the tapped hole and the engaged thread (see preliminary course) the standard representation of a square thread for the threaded spindle a standard break for the threaded spindle the diamond knurl on the boss of the lifting screw the curved line of intersection where the diameter 15 mm hole intersects the boss of the lifting screw.
The drawing of the M15 x 1 mild steel screw requires you to know, and if not, to revise, the following drawing methods and standards for: the M15 x 1 thread the engaged thread 1.5 x 45 chamfer.
You are also required to itemize the components and complete the materials list. The majority of these standards that may need revising can be found in the previous module, and should be researched and revised prior to commencing the drawing. Turn to the exercise sheet and complete exercise 5.2, completing a freehand sketch showing the required front view. As practice for your HSC you should draw a quality sketch, carefully showing all standards, and return this sketch to your teacher. Note that you are not required to dimension the drawing, however you need to design the positioning of the itemizing numbers and leaders.
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Preparing for Exercise 5.3 You have now completed most of the AS 1100 standards appropriate to your Engineering Studies course. However, you need to practise the application of these standards. Exercise 5.3 does not introduce any new standards, but requires you to revise and apply previously covered standards. Look at Exercise 5.3. The exercise requires you to draw to a scale of 1:1, an assembly drawing of the Pulley Block Assembly. You are required to draw a sectioned front view of the assembled parts. Your first step again should be to consider the shape and size details given on the drawing, and the method of assembling the components. To assemble, the pulley is positioned inside the block and the shaft is pushed through the diameter 20 mm holes in both the block and the pulley. The shaft protrudes evenly on both sides of the block. Care should be taken with the dimensions of the webs; they slope from the top bosses, a distance of 62 mm apart, to the bottom bosses, 60 mm apart. Your next step is to design the drawing, completing a freehand sketch showing the required sectional front view. Again, you should complete a quality freehand drawing as practice for your HSC. Turn to the exercise sheets and complete exercise 5.3 as an accurate freehand drawing.
Tangency and circles in contact

Many orthogonal drawing exercises involve tangency or circles in contact, so you would be expected to be able to construct and draw these exercises. Tangency involves circles or arcs in contact with, or touching a straight line. Both tangency, and circles in contact, involve a similar basic method of construction. The basic method: locate the centre of the arc or circle locate the point of contact draw the arc or circle.
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Tangency; an arc touching a given straight line

To locate the centre for the arc, draw a line parallel to, and a distance equal to the radius of the arc from the given straight line. To locate the contact point, draw a line from the located centre perpendicular to the given straight line. Worked example 5.1 Drawing an arc of radius 15 mm to touch the two given straight lines, AB and DE.
B B
E A C Parallel lines, R15 from AB, DE B D A C Perpendicular lines from E D
A C R 15 arc
Figure 5.7 Worked example 5.1 Arc touching two lines
Manipulation of set squares

Parallel lines
Any edge of a set square is placed on the given straight line AB. The tee square is placed on another edge of the set square as shown.
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The set square is moved along the tee square, to position C, to enable a line to be drawn through Point C, parallel to the given line AB.
A B
A B C B
Position the set square on AB
Position the tee square
Slide the set square
Figure 5.8 Drawing parallel lines by manipulating set squares
Perpendicular lines
An edge of a set square, containing a right angle, is placed on the given straight line AB. The tee square is positioned on another edge of the set square as shown. The set square is moved along the tee square to position C, to enable you to draw the perpendicular from point C to the given straight line.
A A B B B C
Position the set square on AB
Position the tee square
Slide the set square
Figure 5.9 Drawing a perpendicular to a line by manipulating set squares
Worked example 5.2 Drawing an arc of radius 25 mm to touch a point A, and a straight line, BD.
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R 25
C A A
Parallel line, 25mm from BD R 25 arc from A Perpendicular from C R 25 arc Figure 5.10 Worked example 5.2 arc touching a point and a straight line
Circles in contact, external circle

To construct an arc or circle to touch a given circle, the same basic method applies; locate the centre, locate the contact point then draw the arc or circle. To locate the centre for the arc, a concentric circle having a radius equal to the sum of the radii of the two touching circles is drawn from the centre of the given circle. Concentric circles have the same centre. If the arc is to touch the given circle and: i ii a given point; the centre is located a distance equal to the radius of the arc from the given point a given straight line; the centre is located on a parallel line, a distance equal to the radius of the arc from the given line
iii another given circle; the centre is located on a concentric circle having a radius equal to the sum of the radii of the arc and the second circle. Having located the centre in each case, the contact point of the touching circles is located. The contact point of two touching circles is on the line of centres of the two circles. Therefore, a line is drawn from the centre of the given circle to the located centre. Now the point of contact is located for: i the point ii the straight line iii the other circle, using the appropriate method. The required arc or circle is now drawn.
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Worked example 5.3 Drawing an arc of radius 25 mm to externally touch a given circle of centre A, and a straight line, BD.
r C
R+r
B Parallel line, R 25 from BD
D B R + r arc from A
Contact points from C
D R 25 arc
Figure 5.11 Worked example 5.3 arc externally touching a given circle and a straight line
Worked example 5.4 Drawing an arc of radius 25 mm to externally touch two given circle of centre A, and centre B.
B r1 r
r R+ 1
A
R+ r
C R + r arc from A R + r1 arc from B
C Contact points from C R 25 arc
Figure 5.12 Worked example 5.4 arc externally touching two given circles
Circles in contact, internal

To construct an arc or circle to internally touch a given circle, the same basic method applies; locate the centre, locate the contact point then draw the arc or circle.
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To locate the centre for the arc, a concentric circle having a radius equal to the difference of the radii of the two touching circles is drawn from the centre of the given circle. If the arc is to touch the given circle and: i ii a given point, the centre is located a distance equal to the radius of the arc from the given point a given straight line, the centre is located on a parallel line a distance equal to the radius of the arc from the given line
iii another given circle, externally, the centre is located on a concentric circle having a radius equal to the sum of the radii of the arc and the second circle iv another given circle, internally, the centre is located on a concentric circle having a radius equal to the difference of the radii of the arc and the second circle. Now having located the centre in each case, the contact point of the touching circles is located. The contact point of two touching circles is again on the line of centres of the two circles. Therefore, a line from the centre of the given circle to the located centre is drawn. Now locate the points of contact for each exercise and draw the arc. Worked example 5.4 Drawing an arc of radius 55 mm to internally touch two given circle of centre A, and centre B.
C
R r
R r arc from A R r1 arc from B
Figure 5.13 Worked example 5.4 arc internally touching two given circles
R r
B r A
r1 B
Contact points from C R 55 arc
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Preparing for Exercise 5.4 Look at Exercise 5.4. The exercise requires you to draw to a scale of 1:1, a front view of the crane hook. The front view requires you to use many of the tangency and touching circle methods described above. You are required to show full construction for centres and contact points. Your first step should be to consider the shape and size details given on the drawing, and in particular the details given for the position of each of the centres for the touching circles. Note that you have been given a detail drawing of the crane hook plus a pictorial drawing. The pictorial drawing shows the shape of the hook, prior to being fitted into the pulley block assembly, as well as the diameter of the shaft. It should also be noted that the hook has to be shaped after it is positioned in the pulley block. The top is to be peened over as shown in the detail drawing, shaping the top and reducing the length of the shaft. Your next step is to design the drawing, completing a freehand sketch showing the required sectional front view. Again, you should complete a quality freehand drawing, and send it to your teacher, as practice for your HSC. The following notes should be used as a guide to completing the exercise. i You have been given the position of the R14 circle to commence the drawing, so you should draw this circle using a light construction line. Locate the centre for the R38 arc, 10 mm below the horizontal centerline, and a distance of 14 + 38 mm from the given centre of the R14 circle. Locate the contact point by joining the line of centres. ii Locate the centerline position for the R40 arc, 6mm to the left of the given centerline, and lightly draw the arc.
iii Locate the centre for the R35 arc, a distance of 40 + 35 mm to the right of the R40 centreline, and on the same horizontal position. Lightly draw the R35 arc, noting that the contact point for the R35 and the R40 arcs is on the common horizontal centerline. iv Mark off the distance 25 mm above the horizontal centerline, to locate the maximum size for the point of the hook. Use your radius curves to draw a convenient sized curve for the rounded end of the hook. v Measure 52 mm above the given centerline to locate the position of the top of the upset collar and also the position for the horizontal centerline for the R50 arc. Measure 6 mm below the centerline to mark off the size of the upset collar. Cut this horizontal centerline
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with an arc of radius 14 + 50, from the R14 centre. Join this point to the R14 centre to locate the contact point and draw the R50 arc. vi Now mark out the size of the shaft, diameter 22 mm, height 35 mm, and draw the peened head. vii The upset collar can now be completed, the R3 rounds finished and the R3 curve drawn to complete the shape of the hook. viii Complete the thick dark outline of the drawing. Turn to the exercise sheets and complete exercise 5.4, using drawing instruments. Preparing for Exercise 5.5 You should now turn to, and attempt Exercise 5.5. The given drawing shows a front view and sectioned right side view of a supporting screw assembly, drawn to a scale of 1:1. The components have been itemized and a materials list included. Turn to the exercise sheets and complete exercise 5.5 answering the multiple choice questions with reference to the given drawing.
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Exercises
Exercises 5.1 to 5.3 require you to represent each object using freehand orthogonal sketching. AS 1100 standards for representing features must be applied. Accuracy to within 1 mm would be expected. Exercise 5.4 is an instrument drawing exercise. Use all technical drawing equipment as required. Exercise 5.5 requires features on a drawing to be identified and the correct option (a to d) to be selected.
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Shape and size details of a screw jack head are given below in a pictorial drawing. Draw using a scale of 1:1, a detail drawing of the screw jack head.
The detail drawing must include: (i) a top view incorporating the conventional representation for repeating figures, (ii) a half-sectioned front view, (iii) full dimensioning including the use of symbols where appropriate.
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SCREW JACK HEAD SCALE 1:1
EX 5.1 A4
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Draw in orthogonal projection, using a scale of 1:1, a front view of the assembled components, showing: (i) a full-section of the head, (ii) a part-section of the lifting screw to show details of the M15 x 1 MS screw, (iii) itemise the components and complete the materials list.
ITEM
NAME OR DESCRIPTION LIFTING SCREW ASSEMBLY
QTY
MATL EX 5.2 SCALE : A4

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Shape and size details of components from a crane hook pulley block assembly are given below in a pictorial drawing. With the components assembled, draw, in orthogonal projection, using a scale of 1:1, a full-sectioned front view of the pulley block assembly.
PULLEY BLOCK ASSEMBLY SCALE 1:1
EX 5.3 A4
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Instrument drawing
Shape and size details of a crane hook are given below in a detail drawing and a pictorial drawing. Draw, in orthogonal projection, using a scale of 1:1, a front view of the crane hook, with the top peened over as shown in the detail drawing. Show full construction for centres and contact points.
CRANE HOOK SCALE 1:1
EX 5.4 A4
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4 3 2 1
SPINDLE 40 X 6 SQ THREAD M10 X 2 HEX BOLT M10 X 2 HEX LOCK NUT SCREW JACK VEE HEAD SUPPORTING SCREW ASSEMBLY DISTED STUDENT
1 1 1 1
MS MS MS CI EX 5.5 SCALE 1:1 A4

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Exercise 5.5 The following statements refer to the drawing of the supporting screw assembly in the drawing sheet labelled exercise 5.5. Select the alternative, a, b, c or d that best completes the statement or best answers the question. Circle the letter corresponding to your selection. 1 The sectioning method used for the vee head is: a b c d 2 a part-section a half-section a removed-section a full-section.
The hole in the vee head has been: a b c d counterbored drilled counterdrilled not drilled.
The vee head is: a b c d free to rotate about the spindle unable to rotate about the spindle made from mild steel fabricated from two pieces and welded.
The spindle is: a b c d sectioned on the bottom end part-sectioned to show a square thread only 52 mm in length stuck tightly into the vee head.
The lock nut: a b c d tightly secures the bolt to the vee head tightly secures the bolt to the spindle does not secure the bolt to either the vee head or the spindle is made from cast iron.
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The vee thread: a b c d gives its name to the vee head is tapped internally through the drilled hole in the vee head is only tapped partly through the drilled hole in the vee head has a pitch of 6 mm.
The drawing of the supporting screw assembly: a b c d is a detail drawing is a pictorial drawing shows a front view and a sectioned right side view shows a front view and a sectioned left side view.
Item #3 is: a b c d a 10 mm hexagonal bolt, having a metric thread with a pitch of 2mm drawn to AS 1100 standards of width 1.8D and height 0.8D the M10 x 2 hex lock nut not shown in the left side view.
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Progress check
During this part you practised freehand sketching and CAD/instrument drawing using the AS 1100 standards and were introduced to some new techniques including the standard representation of repeated features and parts. Take a few moments to reflect on your learning then tick the box that best represents your level of achievement.
I have learnt about: communication Australian Standard AS 1100 sectioning of orthogonal views orthogonal assembly drawings. I have learnt to: produce orthogonal drawings applying appropriate australian standard (AS 1100) computer graphics/computer assisted drawings. apply dimensions to AS 1100.
During the next part you will investigate some lifting devices in order to write your engineering report.
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Name: _______________________________
Check!
Have you have completed the following exercises? Exercise 5.1 Exercise 5.2 Exercise 5.3 Exercise 5.4 Exercise 5.5 Locate and complete any outstanding exercises then attach your responses to this sheet. If you study Stage 6 Engineering Studies through a Distance Education School/Centre (DEC) you will need to return the exercise sheet and your responses as you complete each part of the module. If you study Stage 6 Engineering Studies through the OTEN Open Learning Program (OLP) refer to the Learners Guide to determine which exercises you need to return to your teacher along with the Mark Record Slip.
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Part 6: Lifting devices engineering report
Part 6 contents
Introduction..........................................................................................2
Engineering reports............................................................................3 Sample engineering report................................................................9 Exercise .............................................................................................19 Progress check .................................................................................21 Exercise cover sheet........................................................................23 Bibliography.......................................................................................25 Module evaluation ............................................................................27
Introduction
The engineering report in this part compares two styles of car jacks. The comparison is based on one criteria efficiency. The report you write for the exercise also investigates lifting devices. However, you may decide the criteria to evaluate the devices against, and the relative importance of each using a weighting. Your report should aim to: present information clearly, concisely and in a form easily understood by the reader justify the conclusion/recommendation by presenting research data, calculations and other appropriate evidence. use charts and graphics to display data.

You will learn about: engineering report writing.
You will learn to: research information complete an engineering report based on the analysis and synthesis of information using software and computer assisted drawing where appropriate.
Lifting devices
Engineering reports
Engineering requires compromise. There are always conflicting criteria and specifications. The design engineer must evaluate and select. Any design can only be judged as the best solution based on the set criteria. If the criteria change, so might the best solution change. What is the best car?
The best car might be: the most fuel efficient the easiest to manufacture the most recyclable the fastest the one with the most powerful motor the best colour the most reliable the safest the most versatile the car with the most accessories.
The answer to this question depends entirely on what criteria you select to base the evaluation. The list seems endless. If you select more than one criteria to base your evaluation, the best might be decided on what weight you give to the criteria. Recyclability might be given a weighting twice that of best colour. It is important to remember that an engineering report will be based on the authors analysis of the collected data, not on a personal opinion. For instance, to find the best colour, the author would need to carry out research and collect data, such as sales figures over the past year and a public survey. The author would report on the data collected, not on their favourite colour!
Researching an engineering report

You will need to demonstrate in your report that you have used many types of sources to research information for your report. Include Internet sites as well as CD ROM journals, phone interviews or industry visits where possible, books and the encyclopaedia. All the references should be listed at the back of the report under the heading references. Source information should be cited on the relevant pages in the report where you have used the source.
The engineering report sections

The engineering report should be written under the following headings: title abstract introduction analysis result summary conclusions acknowledgments bibliography appendices.
Title page The title page gives the title of the report, identifies its writer or writers and the date when the report was completed. You might add a drawing of the object on the title page. Abstract The abstract is a very concise summary of the report. The purpose of the abstract is to allow a reader to decide if the report contains information about which they are researching. The abstract should be no more than two or three paragraphs of text, and shorter if possible. It should cover the scope of the report (what it is about), and the approach or approaches used to complete the analysis (how the information was assembled).
Lifting devices
Introduction The Introduction should cover two basic areas. Firstly it should put the problem under consideration into a context that most readers will understand. For example, suppose you were writing a report on the best type of car jack for use in a mechanics workshop. The Introduction should explain what is meant by the term car jack and explain what is meant by mechanics workshop. You should then explain why you might use a car jack. This sets the background for the report, and allows the reader to focus in on what you are investigating. You should also identify the criteria with which car jacks are going to be evaluated. The second part of the introduction should outline what is contained in the rest of the report. This allows the reader to understand each part of the remainder of the report in the context of the overall document, and if necessary, to quickly jump straight to the part of most interest. It is always reassuring to know what to expect on the next page! Analysis This is sometimes considered to be the main part or body of the report. You may be tempted to start writing at this point without first putting the problem into a proper perspective. The analysis and calculations should contain the information required to satisfy the aim and purpose of the report, including evidence of research and experimentation. For example, relevant information about materials and the mechanics of products should be collected or calculated in this section. The criteria that are being evaluated should be stated and defined. Tables and graphs, used to summarise detailed data in a concise form, are common features of an engineering report. Presenting information this way is much more effective than trying to describe physical quantities in words alone. If it is necessary to supply all of the detailed information for reference purposes it is usually preferable to put this type of data in an appendix. Appendices are not meant to be read in the same way that the main body of the report is designed to be read: appendices need only contain scientific formulae, detailed experimental results or other information that needs to be recorded somewhere in case it is required again in the future.
Result summary This section presents the results concisely (the details can be set out in an appendix). The results will be used as the basis for your conclusions and recommendations. This section should also note any limitations on the results obtained. For example, if you conduct an experiment to find out the average temperature in your home, you might measure the temperature every hour for three days in succession, and then calculate the average. In the results section, when stating the average temperature for your home, you should also point out that the figure might be different at other times of the year due to seasonal variations. Conclusions This section requires the writer to draw conclusions based on data collected. If the purpose of the report was to select the best.., then the selection is now stated and the reason for the selection is explained. Remember the best jack will be determined based on the criteria you have set to evaluate each jack. Acknowledgments The acknowledgment section provides the opportunity to acknowledge, or thank, other people who have contributed to the completion of the report. For example, a local mechanic may have demonstrated their hydraulic jack. While the mechanic may not have helped you directly with the calculations, without their contribution the investigation would not have been possible. Hence an acknowledgement would be appropriate. Bibliography This section is most critical for two reasons. Firstly you must demonstrate that the report is well researched. This can be demonstrated by including references to the most important sources of information relevant to the investigation. Secondly, it is important to acknowledge the various sources of information you have used. Sometimes we think it is cheating to use other people's work. This is not true. If we did not use other peoples work, and did everything ourselves from scratch, we would never progress very far. Real progress is made by building on the work of others.
Lifting devices
If you use someone else's work you must reference the fact accordingly. This is the literal basis for 're-search' : to re-find a result that someone else discovered. If you use someone else's work without referencing the fact, you are implicitly claiming it to be your own. This is "cheating", or as it is more usually called, 'plagiarism'. The Harvard system is a standard academic method of referencing. A sample of how to reference this way is given in the following section. Follow this technique accurately. Higgins, R.A 1977, Properties of Engineering Materials, Edward Arnold, Sydney. Standards for bibliography entries must follow the strict guidelines. All references must be included. Appendices This section contains information that has been separated from the main body of the report because it is not essential that every reader look at this information. It is information that enhances the other data. An example would be engineering drawings of the appliances being compared. The overall dimensions of the product may not have been part of the report, but some readers may need this specific information. During the engineering course this section will always contain a technical drawing and will often contain pamphlets collected from organisations and Internet page copies. As this is the last part of this module you should demonstrate all the skills you have gained to produce the best possible report.
Lifting devices
Lifting devices
Title: Author/s: Date: Abstract: Efficiency of lifting jacks Jack Advantage June 2000 This report analyses two different types of lifting jacks, a caliper screw jack and a hydraulic jack, and compares their relative efficiency.
Introduction
Car jacks are used to raise the wheels of a vehicle off the ground. This report analyses two different types of car jack by comparing their efficiency to lift the front section of a medium sized utility. The research involved estimating the mechanical advantage and velocity ratio of both jacks and then using this data to estimate the efficiency of each device as a percentage. This allowed an objective assessment to be made regarding the most efficient device. The jacks analysed are a caliper screw jack and a hydraulic jack. Details of both of these are shown in the Appendices.
Analysis
The calculations for this report are based on estimating the load lifted by the jacks and then establishing the Velocity Ratio and Mechanical Advantage of the two jacks when lifting this load. Once this has been calculated, the formula for efficiency can be used to make a comparison between the two jacks: Efficiency = Mechanical Advantage Velocity Ratio
The load lifted by the jacks is an estimation based on the mass given under the bonnet of the car on the compliance plate. This is shown as 2350 kg on the vehicle used in this research which was a Toyota Hilux four wheel drive. The load lifted by the jacks has to be estimated because the centre of gravity of the utility will be towards the front of the vehicle due to the effect of the motor which is nearer to the front.
As shown below in Figure 6.1 the centre of gravity of the vehicle is estimated to be 1metre from the centre of the front wheels.
c of g
1 2.8 Figure 6.1 The vehicle and the estimated position of the centre of gravity
Once the centre of gravity is estimated, a sum of the moments can be taken about the rear wheels to establish the load lifted by the jacks. The Mechanical Advantage and the Velocity Ratio can be determined using the following formulae: Mechanical Advantage = Load(Newtons) / Effort (Newtons)
Velocity Ratio = Distance moved by Effort / Distance moved by Load The approach taken to compare a caliper screw jack to a hydraulic jack can be summarised as follows: establish a common load to be lifted by the jacks lift the load by the same distance for both jacks establish the mechanical advantage and velocity ratio for both jacks under the same conditions calculate the efficiency of the two jacks.
Caliper screw jack

The caliper screw jack, shown below in figure 6.2, is based on the principle of a screw thread. As the handle of the jack is turned the threaded shaft in the centre rotates to bring together the two arms of the jack causing the top to rise and therefore the load to lift. The turning crank used on the caliper jack is shown in figure 6.3, it has an offset handle as shown of 140 millimetres giving a turning diameter of 280 millimetres. This adds a lever advantage to this jack. An orthogonal drawing showing the Front View of a caliper screw jack is given in the Appendix, figure 6.10.
Figure 6.2 Caliper screw jack
Figure 6.3 The turning crank for the caliper screw jack showing the turning radius of 140 mm 2.5 mm pitch
Figure 6.4 Details of the square thread on the caliper jack showing a pitch of 2.5mm
140 mm
The hydraulic jack shown below in figure 6.5 is based on the principle that fluid is incompressible. As the lever is depressed the piston on the right hand side forces hydraulic fluid through a valve to lift the ram which causes the load to lift. A sketch showing the operation of a hydraulic jack is given in figure 6.6.
Figure 6.5 Hydraulic jack Piston (effort) Ram (load)
Figure 6.6 Schematic diagram of a hydraulic jack
The effort required to lift the load supported by each jack was calculated by using spring balances, calibrated in N. A picture of these spring balances in use is shown in figure 6.2 and figure 6.5. The maximum force measured by the spring balances was 50 N, this required two spring balances to be arranged in parallel. A reading of 90 N (2 x 45 N) was obtained.
Calculations
Establishing the load lifted by the jacks:
Data
Distance between the axles = 2.8 metres Mass of the utility = 2350 kgs If it is assumed that the centre of gravity of the utility is 1 metre from the front axle, due to the fact that the motor is towards the front, the load lifted by the jacks can be calculated by taking moments about the rear axle as follows:
23500 N 1m
15107 N
8393 N
Figure 6.7 Freebody diagram of load lifted by jacks
Weight
= = =
m g 2350 10 23500 N Fd + Fd - (23500 x 1.8) + (RF x 2.8) 15107 N
M R
= =
RF
From the calculations above it is estimated that a load of 15 107 Newtons will be lifted by each jack when it is placed in the position shown below in figure 6.8.
Figure 6.8
A jack in position lifting the load calculated above
From figure 6.3 it can be seen that the radius of the handle used on the caliper screw jack is 140 mm. The diameter is thus 280 mm. This means that the distance moved by the effort is D or the circumference of the circle the effort will travel in as the jack is raised. When the thread on the jack is rotated one revolution the caliper jack shown in figure 6.2 rises 2.5 mm, this is the distance or lead the thread moves through one revolution of the handle, which is also equal to the pitch of the thread. Using the information given above the Velocity Ratio and Mechanical Advantage and efficiency of a caliper screw jack can be calculated as follows: Velocity Ratio = Distance moved by Effort/Distance moved by Load = = Mechanical Advantage D / 2.5 (millimetres) x 280 / 2.5
= 351.8 = Load / Effort = 167.8
Efficiency
= Mechanical advantage / Velocity ratio = 168 / 352 = 47.7 %
Hydraulic jack
The Velocity Ratio of the hydraulic jack needs to be calculated in a different way to the caliper screw jack as it works on a different principle. The basic features of the hydraulic jack can be seen in figure 6.6. As the piston on the hydraulic jack is depressed the ram will move upwards so that the volume of the piston (effort) which is pushed into the oil must equal the volume of the ram (load) that is displaced by the oil as it moves upwards, therefore ( d2 /4)h = ( D 2 /4)H. Where d= the diameter of the piston, h = distance moved by the piston and D = the diameter of the ram, H = the distance moved by the ram. Therefore: Velocity ratio = Distance moved by Effort/Distance moved by Load
h / H = ( D 2 /4) / ( d2 /4) = D2 /d 2 For the hydraulic jack therefore: Velocity Ratio = D2 of the ram / d2 of the piston = 502 / 102 = 2500 / 100 = 25
Applied force 50 N
pivot 40 mm
A Reaction force 560 mm
Figure 6.9
Freebody diagram of lever forces in the hydraulic jack handle
The force applied to the lever of the jack was found to be 50 Newtons. The Mechanical Advantage gained by the hydraulic jack occurs in two stages. Firstly the lever has a mechanical advantage that is applied to the piston and secondly the hydraulic system creates an M.A. between the piston and the ram of the jack. The effort that is applied by the lever to the piston can be calculated by taking moments about point A in figure 6.9, as follows M A = = F = = Mechanical Advantage = = = Efficiency = = = (F d) + (F d) (F 0.04) (50 0.56) 28 / 0.04 700 N Load / Effort 15107 / 700 21.58 Mechanical Advantage / Velocity Ratio 21.58 / 25 100 86%
Result summary
From the calculations above it can be seen that the caliper screw jack has an estimated efficiency of 48% whereas for the hydraulic jack it is 86%.
Conclusions
This report on the efficiency of a caliper screw jack as compared to a hydraulic jack indicates that the hydraulic jack is clearly the most efficient by a margin of 38%. Therefore, in any situation where efficiency is required a hydraulic jack should be used. There are some disadvantages however in that a hydraulic jack is more expensive than a caliper screw jack and usually heavier due to the more robust construction and the hydraulic fluid used to operate it.
Also, the caliper screw jack can be compressed into a smaller space when it is wound in compared to the hydraulic jack allowing it to take up a relatively smaller space. In conclusion then, whilst the hydraulic jack is more efficient there are other factors which may make the caliper jack more suitable in situations where a lighter load needs to be lifted and space is critical. The caliper screw jack may be the better choice for example, as an accessory for a car where it is mainly used when changing tyres.
Glossary
centre of gravity a term used to describe the point that is the centre for the mass of an object metal plate under the bonnet indicating details such as the mass of a vehicle Operated by or employing water or other fluid the piston that lifts on a hydraulic jack
compliance plate
hydraulic
ram
Bibliography
Holden, R. 1991, A Guide to Engineering Mechanics, Science Press, Sydney. Schlenker, B. McKern, D. 1976, Introduction to Engineering Mechanics, John Wiley & Sons, Sydney. <www.motojacks.com/> <www.bobstools.com/prd0129.htm> <www.sktoolstore.com/astro/500fc.html> <www.autoramps.com> <www.ralmikes.com.catalog/temp_top_right.cfm?Familyid=mv46sj2000>
Appendices
Figure 6.10 Caliper Jack
Ram
Handle lever Piston
Reservoir
Fluid gates Figure 6.11 Hydraulic Jack
Exercise
You have read the sample engineering report comparing the efficiency of two different types of lifting devices. It is now time to begin your engineering report. In the sample report, efficiency was the only criteria on which the jacks were compared. There are numerous qualities that could be used for a comparison. For instance, you could compare two jacks to find the best jack for off road conditions. You might therefore include in your criteria evaluation: the initial cost the weight the reliability the maximum height of the lift maintenance requirements.
The more criteria you add to your evaluation, the more complex the analysis becomes. In addition, not all criteria are likely to be of the same importance. The criteria are therefore weighted on their importance. The height of the possible lift might be twice as important as maintenance. A table of the criteria should be created and a score recorded for each jack in each criteria. The weighting for the criteria is then calculated. The score for each jack in each criteria is then totalled, determining the best jack. In the conclusion the author should note how the criteria and the weighting of criteria would influence the result. Exercise 6.1 Write an engineering report that compares two lifting devices. The lifting devices should perform a similar task but use different techniques to achieve the result. You should compare the devices based on three criteria that you determine are the most important characteristics/requirements of the devices. Use a weighting system for the criteria. The results should show clear evidence of the research completed by the author. Data might be collected, depending on the criteria, using calculations, surveys, experimentation and text information.
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The report should be word processed. Be sure to take all safety precautions if you use a jack to lift an object. If you are lifting a vehicle, make sure the hand brake is on and the vehicle is in gear. Wedges should be placed on either side of the wheels that will not be raised. Also, seek advice and supervision before you undertake any lifting operations.
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Part 6: Engineering report for lifting devices
Progress check
During this part you have examined the structure and format of a typical engineering report. Take a few moments to reflect on your learning then tick the box that best represents your level of achievement.
I have learnt about engineering report writing.
I have learnt to research information complete an engineering report based on the analysis and synthesis of information using software and computer assisted drawing where appropriate.
Congratulations! You have completed the module on Lifting devices.
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Exercise 6.1
Name: _______________________________
Check!
Have you completed the following exercise? Exercise 6.1 a title page an abstract introduction analysis and calculations result summary conclusions acknowledgments references in bibliography format appendices.
Locate and complete any oustanding exercised then attach your response to this sheet. If you study Stage 6 Engineering Studies through a Distance Education Centre/School (DEC) you will need to return the exercise sheet and your response as you complete each part of the module. If you study Stage 6 Engineering Studies through the OTEN Open Learning Program (OLP) refer to the Learners Guide to determine what you need to return to your teacher along with the Mark Record Slip. Please complete and return the module evaluation that follows.
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Bibliography
Avner, S.A. 1974, Introduction to Physical Metallurgy, McGraw-Hill, Singapore. BHP Steel, http://www.ezysteel.com Board of Studies, 1999, Stage 6 Engineering Stuidies Examination, Assessment and Reporting, Board of Studies NSW, Sydney. Board of Studies, 1999, Stage 6 Engineering Stuidies Support Document, Board of Studies NSW, Sydney. Board of Studies, 1999, Stage 6 Engineering Stuidies Syllabus, Board of Studies NSW, Sydney. Eide, Jenison, Marshaw & Northup, 1998, Introduction to Engineering Designn, McGaw Hill, United States. Crane (machine), http://encarta.msn.com, Encarta Encyclopeadia Article Titled Crane (machine) Davis, Troxell, Wiskocil 1964, The Testing and Inspection of Engineering Materials , McGraw-Hill, Tokyo. DeGarmo, E.P. 1966, Materials and Processes in Manufacturing, Macmillan, New York. Die Casting in Australia, http://www.diecasting.asn.au/about.html Drop Forging, http://bdl-mc.qc.ca/processes/mprg/drop_forging.html General Floor Jacks, http://www.hyjacks.com Guy, A.G. 1972, Introduction to Materials Science, McGraw-Hill, Tokyo. Harding, D.W, and Griffiths, L 1970, Materials, Longman, London. Hiab Cranes, http://www.redaustralia.com Higgins, R.A 1987, Materials for the Engineering Technician, Edward Arnold, London. John, V.B. 1985, Introduction to Engineering Materials , MacMillan, London. Manufacturing, http://www.wichard-usa.com/manufacture.html
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National Centre for Excellence in Metalworking Technology, Material Standards for Powder Metallurgy Alloys, http://www.ncemt.ctc.com Otis Elevator Company, http://www.otis.com.html Otis Elevator Company, Student Information, Otis Pty Ltd, Minto, NSW. Rochford, J. 1999, Engineering Studies A Students Workbook, K.J.S. Publications, Gosford. Schlenker, B.R. 1974, Introduction to Materials Science, Wiley, Sydney. Teaching Resources, 1981, Cranes, lift, loft and slew, Division of Services NSW Department of Education The Correspondence School, 1993, Engineering Science 2 Unit Course, Learning Materials Production Centre, Redfern Van Vlack, L.H. 1973, A Textbook of Materials Technology, Addison-Wesley, Massachusetts. Hibbler, R C. 1989, Engineering Mechanics Statics, Macmillan, Sydney. Holden, R. 1991, A Guide to Engineering Mechanics, Science Press, Sydney. Mullins, R K. 1983, Engineering Mechanics, Longman Cheshire, United Kingdom. Rochford, J. 2000, Engineering Studies Students Handbook, KJS Publications, Gosford. Schlenker, B. McKern, D. 1976, Introduction to Engineering Mechanics, John Wiley & Sons, Sydney. Schlenker, B. McKern, D. 1983, Introduction to Engineering Mechanics, Jacaranda Press, Sydney. Taylor, A. Barry, O. 1975, Fundamentals of Engineering Mechanics, Cheshire, Wolf, L. 1990, Statistics and Strength of Materials: a parallel approach to understanding structures, Merrill, New York. Otis Elevator Company, Otis student package. http://www.ph.unimelb.edu.au/lecdem/fa1.htm www.howstuffworks.com (enter hydraulic crane into search box) http://www.sasked.gov.sk.ca/docs/physics/u6c3phy.html www.motojacks.com www.bobstools.com/prd0129.htm www.sktoolstore.com/astro/500fc.html www.autoramps.com www.ralmikes.com.catalog/temp_top_right.cfm?Familyid=mv46sj2000
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Learning Materials Production Training and Education Network Distance Education NSW Department of Education and Training

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Subject overview ................................................................................ iii Module overview................................................................................vii Module components.......................................................................... vii

Bibliography.......................................................................................25 Module evaluation.............................................................................27

Engineering Studies Preliminary Course

HSC Engineering Studies modules

Figure 0.2 Preliminary pages

Figure 0.3 Teaching/learning section

Figure 0.4 Additional materials

20% 20% 20% 20% 20%

Approximate number of hours 24 hr 24 hr 24 hr 24 hr 24 hr

20% 20% 20% 20% 20%

billet boom (telescopic) bows notation brinell brittleness

buoyancy force centre of buoyancy centre of gravity

compliance plate compressibility conventional representation core coring

density derrick cranes derricking drum ductility

elevators escalator factor of safety fillet curve

fluid fly jib

forklifts funicular polygon governor

hardenability hydraulic hydraulics item number

lifting lifting device

low carbon steel luffing machinability

mass materials list

non-concurrent forces outrigger

patenting piezometer platform lifts

pneumatics prefinished ram ray

relative density repeated features resilience

resultant force Rockwell

sheave slewing space diagram specific gravity specific volume strength

surface tension tangency tangent telescopic extension crane toughness

vacuum Vickers viscosity

Part 1: Lifting devices developments

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Exercises...........................................................................................35 Progress check.................................................................................43 Exercise cover sheet.......................................................................45

Part 1: Lifting devices developments

What will you learn?

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Part 1: Lifting devices developments

Three types of corkscrew

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Common lifting devices

An early Greek hoist

Part 1: Lifting devices developments

NSW Department of Education

A timber-framed crane from the 1300s

NSW Department of Education

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Stronger materials increase the lifting capacity

An early steam powered, metal framed crane from 1879

NSW Department of Education

A heavy lift crane from the late 1800s

NSW Department of Education

Part 1: Lifting devices developments

A truck mounted crane from 1922

NSW Department of Education

A mobile crane from 1932

NSW Department of Education

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The first mobile crane to break the 100 tonne barrier

NSW Department of Education

Part 1: Lifting devices developments

Figure 1.10 A telescopic crane demonstrating luffing NSW Department of Education