Chapter 1 Study of biomechanics is primarily focused on the musculoskeletal system as it is the load bearing system of the body.

Roles of the human skeleton 1. Provide structure and support 2. Protect vital organs 3. Store minerals 4. Hematopoiesis (form red blood cells) Human skeleton has 206 bones Long bones femur tibia Short bones wrist and ankle bones Flat bones skull Irregular vertebral Human body has 700 muscles Skeletal (voluntary and striated) Cardiac (involuntary and striated) Smooth (involuntary and not striated) Anatomical planes Median plane (any plane parallel is called sagittal plane) Transverse plane Coronal plane

Optimization Redundant systems have infinite number of solutions. Optimization is used to solve redundant systems by finding the best solution. Other methods attempt to find equal number of unknowns and equations to produce a statically determinant system. Muscle activation patterns of different people performing the same well-learned tasks are very similar which are assumed to be optimal. Components of optimization are: cost function and constrain equations. The cost function (or the objective function) is a mathematical representation of the performance criterion, which depends explicitly or implicitly on the unknown forces. The constrain conditions represent the necessary conditions to be met by any candidate solution and are independent of the performance criterion. Limitation for optimization: Models are incomplete Enslaving Cost function is unknown Muscles affect more than one joint Parameters are ill-defined How to validate Consider part in isolation Validation methods: Experiments to find force density which is not always applicable Pattern of muscle activation through EMG signals Since it is difficult to find the cross section of muscles in different situations it is better to use PCSA, which is defined at volume of muscle/length. Genetic algorithm is a search method based on evolutionary principals, which are inheritance, mutation, selection and cross over. Genetic Strength -No continuous or differentiable requirements. -Doesnt get trapped by local mins. Weakness -May never find ideal solution -Less efficient -Outcome sensitive to analysis parameters -Enforcing constraints is challenging Newtons -Systematic -If solution exists it converges -More efficient -May get trapped by local mins. -Function must be continuous and differentiable

Challenges of genetic algorithm is randomness and deciding about: number process variables, number of guesses, number of points and number of cycles.

Newtons method: To find zero point: To Find minimum or maximum: Genetic algorithm: To generate guesses: To generate children using parents:

Hertz Contact Theory We have been treating contacts by point forces, equal and opposite in direction and we have been ignoring deformations. Deformation is very important in biological problems because of: Impact mechanisms (for protective equipment used for absorbing and distributing the force of impact) Joint loading (for cartilage surface and joint implants) Hertz contact theorem allows us to map multi-axial pressures and stress developed between two bodies in contact. Critical assumption for Hertz Contact Theory is: 1. Small contact area relative to the size of bodies 2. Frictionless contact 3. Bodies have similar properties 4. Continues and conforming shapes 5. Deformations are elastic Contact area decreases as elastic modulus increases or bodies become less conforming. Pressure goes up as area decreases. For conforming contacts (hip) stress becomes independent of elasticity modulus as conformity increases. For spherical bodies the max pressure occurs at the center of the contact area. From the 2 graphs we learn: Tensile stresses occur in radial direction at the edge of the contact area. At the center of contact area hydrostatic stress state occurs. Maximum shear stress occurs under the surface of the contact area but beneath the surface. Types of implants: knee implants, him implants, invertebral implant. Knee implant: upper part is called femoral components, the lower parts is called tibial component and the material between is called the bearing surface made of UHMWPE. Why UHMWPE: low friction, biocompatible, strong and compliant (less brittle) UHMWPE bearing surfaces are subjected to high stress, which may fail due to wear or delamination.