Chapter 4

VIBRATION SOURCES
All machinery with moving parts generates mechanical forces during normal operation. As the mechanical condition of the machine changes due to wear, changes in the operating environment, load variations, etc., so do these forces. Understanding machinery dynamics and how forces create unique vibration frequency components is the key to understanding vibration sources. Vibration does not just happen. There is a physical cause, referred to as a forcing function, and each component of a vibration signature has its own forcing function. The components that make up a signature are reflected as discrete peaks in the FFT or frequency-domainplot. The vibration profile that results from motion is the result of a force imbalance. By definition, balance occurs in moving systems when all forces generated by, and acting on, the machine are in a state of equilibrium. In real-world applications, however, there is always some level of imbalance and all machines vibrate to some extent. This chapter discusses the more common sources of vibration for rotating machinery, as well as for machinery undergoing reciprocating andor linear motion.

ROTATINGMACHINERY
A rotating machine has one or more machine elements that turn with a shaft, such as rolling-element bearings, impellers, and other rotors. In a perfectly balanced machine, all rotors turn true on their centerline and all forces are equal. However, in industrial machinery, it is common for an imbalance of these forces to occur. In addition to imbalance generated by a rotating element, vibration may be caused by instability in the media flowing through the rotating machine.

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Vibration Fundamentals

Rotor Imbalance

While mechanical imbalance generates a unique vibration profile, it is not the only form of imbalance that affects rotating elements. Mechanical imbalance is the condition where more weight is on one side of a centerline of a rotor than on the other. In many cases, rotor imbalance is the result of an imbalance between centripetal forces generated by the rotation. The source of rotor vibration also can be an imbalance between the lift generated by the rotor and gravity. Machines with rotating elements are designed to generate vertical lift of the rotating element when operating within normal parameters. This vertical lift must overcome gravity to properly center the rotating element in its bearing-support structure. However, because gravity and atmospheric pressure vary with altitude and barometric pressure, actual lift may not compensate for the downward forces of gravity in certain environments. When the deviation of actual lift from designed lift is significant, a rotor might not rotate on its true centerline. This offset rotation creates an imbalance and a measurable level of vibration.
Flow Instability and Operating Conditions

Rotating machines subject to imbalance caused by turbulent or unbalanced media flow include pumps, fans, and compressors. A good machine design for these units incorporates the dynamic forces of the gas or liquid in stabilizing the rotating element. The combination of these forces and the stiffness of the rotor-support system (i.e., bearing and bearing pedestals) determine the vibration level. Rotor-support stiffness is important because unbalanced forces resulting from flow instability can deflect rotating elements from their true centerline, and the stiffness resists the deflection. Deviations from a machines designed operating envelope can affect flow stability, which directly affects the vibration profile. For example, the vibration level of a centrifugal compressor is typically low when operating at 100% load with laminar airflow through the compressor. However, a radical change in vibration level can result from decreased load. Vibration resulting from operation at 50% load may increase by as much as 400% with no change in the mechanical condition of the compressor. In addition, a radical change in vibration level can result from turbulent flow caused by restrictions in either the inlet or discharge piping. Turbulent or unbalanced media flow (Le., aerodynamic or hydraulic instability) does not have the same quadratic impacts on the vibration profile as that of load change, but it increases the overall vibration energy. This generates a unique profile that can be used to quantify the level of instability present in the machine. The profile generated by unbalanced flow is visible at the vane or blade-pass frequency of the rotating element. In addition, the profile shows a marked increase in the random noise generated by the flow of gas or liquid through the machine.

Vibration Sources Mechanical Motion and Forces

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A clear understanding of the mechanical movement of machines and their components is an essential part of vibration analysis. This understanding, coupled with the forces applied by the process, are the foundation for diagnostic accuracy. Almost every unique frequency contained in the vibration signature of a machinetrain can be directly attributed to a corresponding mechanical motion within the machine. For example, the constant end play or axial movement of the rotating element in a motor-generator set generates an elevated amplitude at the fundamental (lx), second harmonic (2x), and third harmonic (3x) of the shafts true running speed. In addition, this movement increases the axial amplitude of the fundamental (1x) frequency. Forces resulting from air or liquid movement through a machine also generate unique frequency components within the machines signature. In relatively stable or laminarflow applications, the movement of product through the machine slightly increases the amplitude at the vane or blade-pass frequency. In more severe, turbulent-flow applications, the flow of product generates a broadband, white noise profile that can be directly attributed to the movement of product through the machine. Other forces, such as the side-load created by V-belt drives, also generate unique frequencies or modify existing component frequencies. For example, excessive belt tension increases the side-load on the machine-trains shafts. This increase in side-load changes the load zone in the machines bearings. The result of this change is a marked increase in the amplitude at the outer-race rotational frequency of the bearings. Applied force or induced loads can also displace the shafts in a machine-train. As a result the machines shaft will rotate off-center which dramatically increases the amplitude at the fundamental (1 x) frequency of the machine.

RECIPROCATING AND/OR LINEAR-MOTION MACHINERY

This section describes machinery that exhibits reciprocating and/or linear motion(s) and discusses typical vibration behavior for these types of machines.
Machine Descriptions

Reciprocating linear-motion machines incorporate components that move linearly in a reciprocating fashion to perform work. Such reciprocating machines are bidirectional in that the linear movement reverses, returning to the initial position with each completed cycle of operation. Nonreciprocating linear-motion machines incorporate components that also generate work in a straight line, but do not reverse direction within one complete cycle of operation.

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Vibration Fundamentals

Few machines involve linear reciprocating motion exclusively. Most incorporate a combination of rotating and reciprocating linear motions to produce work. One example of such a machine is a reciprocating compressor. This unit contains a rotating crankshaft that transmits power to one or more reciprocating pistons, which move linearly in performing the work required to compress the media.
Sources of Vibration

Like rotating machinery, the vibration profile generated by reciprocating and/or linear-motion machines is the result of mechanical movement and forces generated by the components that are part of the machine. Vibration profiles generated by most reciprocating and/or linear-motion machines reflect a combination of rotating and/or linear-motion forces. However, the intervals or frequencies generated by these machines are not always associated with one complete revolution of a shaft. In a two-cycle reciprocating engine, the pistons complete one cycle each time the crankshaft completes one 360degree revolution. In a four-cycle engine, the crank must complete two complete revolutions, or 720 degrees, in order to complete a cycle of all pistons. Because of the unique motion of reciprocating and linear-motion machines, the level of unbalanced forces generated by these machines is substantially higher than those generated by rotating machines. As an example, a reciprocating compressor drives each of its pistons from bottom-center to top-center and returns to bottom-center in each complete operation of the cylinder. The mechanical forces generated by the reversal of direction at both top-center and bottom-center result in a sharp increase in the vibration energy of the machine. An instantaneous spike in the vibration profile repeats each time the piston reverses direction. Linear-motion machines generate vibration profiles similar to those of reciprocating machines. The major difference is the impact that occurs at the change of direction with reciprocating machines. Typically, linear-motion-only machines do not reverse direction during each cycle of operation and, as a result, do not generate the spike of energy associated with direction reversal.