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THE PARTS OF SPEECH:

Learning about the eight parts of speech is the first step in grammar study just as learning the letters of the alphabet is the first step to being able to read and write. From learning the parts of speech we begin to understand the use or function of words and how words are joined together to make meaningful communication. To understand what a part of speech is, you must understand the idea of putting similar things together into groups or categories. Let's look at some examples of categories. Colors, fruits, drinks, and languages are categories. If I tell you that Grebo is a language, you would understand exactly what Grebo is. If we did not have the category language, it would be hard to explain what is meant by the word Grebo. It is very convenient to have categories to talk about similar things. Let's look at some more examples of categories. In the list below, which does not belong with the others? a) violin c) hammer e) drums b) piano d) guitar
If you chose hammer, you are right. Violin, drums, piano, and guitar are used to make music, but a hammer is not used to make music. Hammer doesn't fit with the other words because it is a tool and all of the others are musical instruments.

Which of these does not belong with the others? a) hammer c) saw b) screwdriver d) wrench

e) violin

This time, the word violin does not belong because it is not a tool. It is very useful to have categories like musical instruments and tools to organize our ideas.

The parts of speech are categories used to organize or classify words according to how they are used. We use parts of speech as a way to make it easier to talk about language. The philosopher Aristotle and later scientists studied animals and classified them according to what they have in common. For example, eagles, robins and sparrows are kinds of birds; sharks, salmon and tuna are kinds of fish; and dogs, horses and elephants are kinds of mammals. Aristotle and others also studied language and classified words according to what they have in common. We usually use 8 categories or parts of speech to classify all the words we use in English. This classification is not perfect. Sometimes it is hard to tell which category a word belongs in. The same word may belong in different categories depending on how it is used. There may be better ways to classify English than by using the parts of speech. But this classification has been used for a long time and many grammar books use it, so it is easier to keep on using it. It is possible to speak or learn a language without knowing the parts of speech, but for most of us, knowing about parts of speech makes things easier. When you look up a word in a dictionary, you will find not only the meaning of the word but also what part of speech it is. This information is very helpful in understanding the full meaning of the word and knowing how to use it. The parts of speech that are used to describe English words are: Nouns Pronouns Verbs Adjectives Adverbs Prepositions Conjunctions Interjections

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NOUNS:
A noun names something. It may name a person, place, thing, or quality.
E.g. girl, Edward, New York, desk, beauty, decision

It may name a collection of persons, place, or thing.

E.g. team, mob, battalion, jury

A noun may be expressed in plural form.

E.g. girls, desks, decisions

A noun may be uses a subject or an object.

E.g. Martha found an apartment

A noun may be used as a predicate nominative, which means the same thing as the subject but is separated from it by a verb.
E.g. Ira is the boss

A noun may be used as an appositive. When a noun means the same thing as some other noun in the sentence and stand next to that word, it is an appositive.
E.g. My sister, Betty, loss her ring.

KINDS OF NOUNS
A proper noun refers to a specific person, place, or thing. It is always capitalized.
Alaska is a large state. George Washington was the first President of the United States. Boeing builds airplanes.

A common noun is generic. It shares its name with others in its class.
Every mother wishes for a healthy child. All the swings in the park were broken.

A concrete noun names something with can be seen, felt, heard, or tasted.
The dishes were stacked on the counter near the sink. After the snow fell, we took our sleds to the big hill.

An abstract noun names a quality or idea that can be perceived by the mind rather than the senses.
Sorrow descended upon the family. Many have knowledge without possessing wisdom.

A collective noun names a group or collection.

Irvine highs winning team was honored at City Hall. A somber jury filed into the courtroom.

A compound noun is made up of two or more words. Some are written as one word, some as two words, and some with hyphens.
E.g. guidebook, common sense, all-star, doorman, dining room

Verbal nouns are verbal forms that act as nouns. These include gerunds and infinitives.
Teaching is a rewarding profession. To speak with thinking is asking for trouble.

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NOUNS PLURALS
Most nouns are changed to their plural forms by adding an s to the singular.
book lion skyscraper books lions skyscrapers

Nouns that end in ss, ch, s, sh, x, add es to their plurals.

glass church brush box quiz stomach glasses churches brushes boxes quizes stomachs

If ch is pronounced like k, just add s

To form the plural of words ending in y in which a vowel precedes the y add an s.
day monkey valley days monkeys valleys

To form the plural of words ending in y in which a consonant precedes the final y, change the y to an i and add es.
fly enemy lady flies enemies ladies

To form the plural of most words ending in f or fe add an s.

chief roof safe chiefs roofs safes

There are some nouns ending in f or fe that change their endings to ves.
calf half knife life leaf loaf self sheaf shelf thief wife wolf elf calves halves knives lives leaves loaves selves sheaves shelves thieves wives wolves elves

To form the plural of words ending in o in which a vowel precedes the o add an s.
radio rodeo zoo radios rodeos zoos

To form the plural of words ending in o in which a consonant precedes the final o add es.
hero mosquito heroes mosquitoes

Some nouns have irregular plurals which must be memorized.

goose ox man woman tooth geese oxen men women teeth mouse foot louse alumnus phenomenon mice feet lice alumni phenomena

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Some nouns have the same form for both singular and plural.
e.g. deer, fish, sheep, species, corps, series, shrimp

To from the plural of numerals and letters which are used as words, add an apostrophe and an s.
There are two 8s in 16s. There are three es in cemetery. Cross your ts and dot your is.

Some nouns ending in s are used with singular verbs.

e.g. mathematics, economics, news, civics, semantics

POSSESSIVES
Except in the possessive case, nouns in English do not change their forms to show which case they belong to. Use apostrophes to from the possessives of nouns.
The girls dress is pretty. The wifes property was more valuable.

Nouns that do not end in s, whether singular or plural, form the possessive by adding an apostrophe and s.
car man mouse cars engine mens intentions mouses tail

Singular nouns that end in s usually add an apostrophe and s to form the possessive.
Jamess tie The glasss contents

Plural nouns ending in s usually add just an apostrophe to show possession.

The boys teachers The managers conference Note: the possessive forms of pronouns do not add an apostrophe he his book it its cover she her family

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PRONOUNS:
A Pronoun is a word used in place of a noun. Usually pronouns refer to something that was already mentioned in previous sentence or understood by the listener or reader. They are very useful words because when you use them, you do not need to repeat nouns all the time. There are seven types of Pronouns:
Personal Pronouns: When speaking we distinguish First Person.- Person Speaking Second Person.- Person Spoken to Third Person.- Person Spoken about
Subject Case Object Case

Demonstrative Pronouns: They refer to no one in particular

Singular

this that

Plural

these those

Relative Pronouns: Substitute a noun and connect the relative clause to this noun.

First Person Second Person Singular Third Person First Person Plural Second Person Third Person

I you he she it we you they

me you him her it us you them

who whom whose whoever whomever that which what whatever whichever
Indefinite Pronouns: They refer to no one in particular all another any anyone anything both each each other either neither everybody everyone everything few little many more most much anybody nobody none no one nothing one one another other several some somebody someone something

Possessive Pronouns: They express possession and at the same time they substitute what is being possessed Personal Possessive I mine you yours he his she hers it its we ours they theirs Reflexive Pronouns: They are used when the action goes back to the doer, when something is done without help, or when we want to give emphasis to an action First Person Second Person Singular Third Person First Person Second Person Third Person I you he she it one we you they myself yourself himself herself itself oneself ourselves yourselves themselves

Plural

Interrogative Pronouns: They are used to ask questions

who whom whose what which

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CONFUSION IN PRONOUN CASE

Many errors occur because of confusion about the case of the pronoun to be selected.
Just between you and me, business is bad. since the pronoun is the object of the preposition between, it must be in the objective case. Don spoke to Vernon and her about the problem. since the pronoun is the object of the preposition to, it must be in the objective case. We students disagree with the new regulation. since the pronoun is the subject of the sentence it must be in the nominative case. It would be incorrect her to say Us students since us is in the objective case and may not be used as a subject. It is difficult for us. here us is the object of the preposition for.

AMBIGUOUS USE OF PRONOUNS

Since pronouns take the place of nuns, our sentences must be clear about which nouns are being replaced.
When Lisa acted with her sister, she forgot her lines. was it Lisa or her sister who forgot? William jointed Jonathan at the ball game where he bought hot dogs. was it William or Jonathan who made the purchase? Note: these ambiguities can be eliminated if we remember that each pronoun should refer to a single antecedent (word, phrase or clause to which a pronoun refers). By placing the pronouns closer to their antecedents, we can make our meaning clear. Lisa forgot her lines when she acted with her sister. William bought hot dogs when Jonathan jointed him at the ball game.

A common error is to write its to show possession. The apostrophe is used for the contraction of it is and never in the possessive form of it.
The cat is chasing its tail. Its so adorable!

Often there is confusion between whose and whos. Remember that whose is a possessive while whos is the contraction of who is.
Whos the woman whose husband is on the phone?

The use of who and whom can be confusing, unless you remember that whom is always the object and never the subject.
Whom did you see? since you is the subject of the verb see, the objective pronoun needs to be used for the object. She was the manager whom I wanted to work with. i.e. I wanted to work with her. Substitute who/whom with him/her or he/she to decide whether to use who or whom. If the objective pronouns him/her fit, use whom. If the nominative pronoun he/she fit. Use whom.

Be careful when using who, that, and which remember that who is used to refer only to people, which is used to refer things and animals, and that is used to refer to things, animals, and in some case people (when referring to a class or type of people).
The investors are the ones who run the risk. The rabbit which ravaged the garden is dead. It was the basketball team that donated the money.

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EXAMPLES
I like coffee. John helped me. Do you like coffee? John loves you. He runs fast. Did Ram beat him? She is clever. Does Mary know her? It doesn't work. Can the engineer repair it? We went home. Anthony drove us. Do you need a table for three? Did John and Mary beat you at doubles? They played doubles. John and Mary beat them. Robert made this T-shirt himself. Lisa did the homework herself. We helped ourselves to some cola at the party. Emma, did you take the photo by yourself? I wrote this poem myself. He cut himself with the knife while he was doing the dishes. The lion can defend itself. My mother often talks to herself. Tim and Gerry, if you want more milk, help yourselves. Alice and Doris collected the stickers themselves. All are welcome to attend the concert. Mary gave the book to another. I don't have any. Does anybody have a clue? Anyone can play that game. Peter didn't see anything suspicious. Each brought a dish to pass. Everybody left town for the weekend. Everyone enjoyed the movie. Everything is taken care of. Few visited that park. Many called for information. Jennifer told nobody her secret. None came forward to claim the prize. One could see the mountains from miles away. Several signed the card. he room is too gloomy for some. Somebody called the store. Joe gave the form to someone. ho entered the room? What was the noise? Which came first? Whom should we give the prize to? Whoever came to the door? Whatever are you doing? Whomever should we invite? Whichever came first? Who entered the room? What was the noise? Which came first? Whom should we give the prize to? Whoever came to the door? Whatever are you doing? Whomever should we invite? Whichever came first? I don't know who called. Brad asked to whom he should give the package. Pat knew that she had won the match. Jerry didn't know which was his. Emily told whoever came first to open the gate. Josh told Alex to ask whomever he wanted. Sarah took whichever was left over. I gave myself plenty of time to get to work. You should let yourself into the house. Jim bought himself a shirt. Jill read to herself. The dog scratched itself. We treated ourselves to pizza. You can make yourselves at home. The children are able to dress themselves.

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V E R B S
Verb is a word which is concerned with what people and things do, and what happens to them. Verbs express action or otherwise (state of being) help to make a sentences. A verb combines with a noun or pronoun used as the subject to express a thought.
I speak English John speaks Spanish She spoke about it yesterday We have spoken about it before

A verb may also express a state of being.

He is here She remained my friend

Most people can find verbs by asking if the word in question shows action or estate of being. However, if you arent sure after you try that method, perhaps this will help. Verbs generally add s to form the third person singular. Thus, if you put a word in this tense and the word ends in s, it is evidence that the word is used as a verb
Tommy called his mother on the phone frequently.

Suppose you think the word called is the verb, but you are not sure, you would say, he calls right now. (this is just a simple way to make sure you have the verb in the third person singular). Now look at phone as it is used in this sentence. At times phone can certainly be used as a noun. But how is it used in this sentence? It may be enough for you to say it is the name of something, and, therefore, a noun. However, a further clue is that in this sentence, if we added s to phone, it would form the plural, phones. Nouns often add s to form plurals. In this sentence phone is a noun. In this sentence, the first names is singular to agree with the singular subject he, and is, therefore, a verb. The second names is plural and is, therefore, a noun. Plays is a verb Plays is a noun

He names all his children with names that begin with A.

Tony plays with his little brother every day. We saw five plays in London.

TRANSITIVE VERBS, INTRANSITIVE VERBS AND LINKING VERBS

Depending on the type of object they take, verbs may be transitive, intransitive, or linking. The meaning of a transitive verb is incomplete without one whom receiver the action (direct object).
subject verb
Mary bought The shelf holds The committee named The child broke Sow

direct objet a book. three books and a vase of flowers. a new chairperson. the plate. her friend.

The meaning of an intransitive verb is complete without any additional nouns beyond its subject; it does not have a direct object.
subject verb
Mary bought My house collapsed

direct objet a book.

We would like to stay longer, but we must leave. The cook watched while the new dishwasher surreptitiously picked up the fragments of the broken dish.

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Many verbs can be used either transitively or intransitively.

subject verb
The train left I Left

direct objet left is intransitive verb. the book on the desk. Left is transitive verb.

A linking verb (also known as a copula) is a special kind of intransitive verb which connects the subject to a noun, pronoun, or adjective in predicate. The verb to be is the most common linking verb.
subject verb
Tom is The play is Some of us thought that the play was Others thought it became The cast appears

noun, pronoun, or adjective in predicate the captain. waiting for Godot. very good. tedious after the first fifteen minutes. disorganised and confused; perhaps Beckett intended this.

VERBALS
A verbal is a noun or adjective formed from a verb. The fundamental difference between verbals and other nouns and adjectives is that verbals can take their own objects, even though they are no longer verbs. This different verbals are: the participle (which acts as an adjective), the gerund (which acts as a noun), and the infinitive (which also acts as a noun).

A participle is an adjective formed from a verb. To make a present participle, you add "-ing" to the verb, sometimes doubling the final consonant:
think fall run

thinking falling running

To make a past participle, is a little more complicated, since not all verbs form the past tense regularly. The following are all past participles:
sink ruin misspell

the sunken ship a ruined city a misspelled word

Note that only transitive verbs can use their past participles as adjectives, and that unlike other verbals, past participles do not take objects (unless they are part of a compound verb).

A gerund ends in ing and serves as a noun in that it can be the subject or object of a verb.
Dig

Digging is hard work. Digging ditches is hard work.

They started digging.

But it is still like a verb in that it can have an object or be modified an adverb.
Dig Dig

They were fined for carelessly digging up a power line.

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An infinitive begins with the word to and is followed by the root from of the verb. It acts as a verb-noun, a verbadjective, or a verb-adverb.
To fly was Johns greatest ambition. The rich kid had plenty of money to spend on trip. The mourners came to pay their respects.

to fly is the subject of the verb was. to spend qualifies the noun money. to pay modifies verb came.

The perfect infinitive puts the action of the infinitive in the past.
go

to have gone there by train would have taken four hours. He will not move the stone, because he is too weak. He couldnt have moved the stone, because he is too weak.

Notice the contrast in the following examples.

He is too weak to move the stone. He is too weak to have moved the stone.

ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VERBS

A verb is active when the subject does the action.
Bruce hit the ball. The boy was eating ice cream.

A verb is passive when the action is being done to the subject. The passive forms of verbs are constructed using a form of be and the past participle of a verb.
The ball was hit by Bruce. The award will be made at noon. Why was the boy suspended?

REGULAR AND IRREGULAR VERBS

Most verbs simply add ed or d to form the past tense or past participle.
jump

Yesterday I jumped over the wall.

I have jumped over the wall every morning this week.

There are, however, many irregular verbs in English whose past tense and past participles are formed in different ways. Review these familiar irregular ways.

Present arise be is are bear beat

Past Arose was were

Past Participle arisen been borne beaten

bore beat

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Present begin bite blow break bring catch choose cling come cut do drink drive eat fall feel fly freeze get go hang hold hide hit hold keep know lay lead leave lend lie lose

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Past began bit blew broke brought caught chose clung came cut did drank drove aet fell felt flew froze got went hung held hid hit held kept knew laid led left lent lay lost

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Past Participle begun bitten blown broken brought caught chosen clung come cut done drunk driven eaten fallen felt flown frozen gotten or got gone hung held hidden hit held kept known laid led left lent lain lost

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Present mean meet pay put quit ride rise ring run see sell shake shine show sing speak spend sting steal strike swear swim take tear think throw wake wear win write

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Past meant met paid put quit rode rose rang ran saw sold shook shone showed sang spoke spent stung stole struck swore swam took tore thought threw woke wore won wrote

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Past Participle meant met paid put quit ridden risen rung run seen sold shaken shone shown sung spoken spent stung stolen struck sworn swum taken torn thought thrown woken worn won written

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MOODS OF VERBS
There are three generally recognized moods of verbs: indicative, impetrative and subjunctive. A verb in the indicative mood asks a question or state a fact.
He went home. Has he gone home?

A verb in the imperative mood is used to convey orders and requests. It is always in the second person as the subject is always you.
Turn that volume down! Please turn that volume down. Study hard and you will succeed.

Sometimes the imperative mood is used to express a condition. This mean: if you study hard, you will succeed. Normally no subject is expressed with an imperative verb, but it is sometimes added for emphasis.

You be quiet! Never you mind. Praise ye the lord.

The use of subjunctive mood is very limited. In formal English, it is used to express doubts, wishes, and statements contrary to fact.
If I were king, I would banish her from the country. I demand that he finish the job.

AGREEMENT OF SUBJECTS AND VERBS

A verb must agree with its subject in number. If for example, the subject is singular (he, boy, suggestion), then the verb must be singular also (has, plays, was). But if the subject is plural (we, boys, suggestions), then verb must be plural in order to agree in number (have, play, were). Phrases that follow the subject usually do not influence the number of the verb. The verb generally agrees only with the main subject (although there are exceptions, such as indefinite pronouns).
The list of approved books is on my desk. Mrs. Bensons portrait of the twins hangs in her den. Marvin, together with his cousin, raises homing pigeons.

Compound subjects (e.g. Joe and Marilyn) require plural verb forms.
Both the house and the senate are in session today. More independence and initiative are given to todays children.

When two or more singular subjects are connected by or or nor, the verb form should be singular.
Either Jack or Jill is a suitable candidate. Neither Joseph nor Linda is the answer.

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When two or more plural subjects are connected by or or nor, the verb form should be plural.
Either the policemen or the firemen are doe for a raise. Neither the secretaries nor the executives were on duty.

When one subject is singular and the others is plural, the verb should agree in number with the subject nearest to it.
Neither the secretaries nor their boss was on duty. Neither the doctor nor the nurses were present.

When the subject is each, nobody, everyone, etc., the verb should be singular.
Each of the girls has her uniform in her locker. Nobody, not even the detectives, knows who turned out the lights. Everyone in the surrounding houses is under suspicion.

Subject which are modified by each and every also require a singular verb form.
Each plumber and carpenter in this room is a member of our union. Every boy and girl was dressed up for the occasion.

When the verb comes before the subject of the sentence like the following, it stll agrees with the subject.
Here are all the pencils you will need. As for the children, there is nobody to care for them. Theres more than one way to skin a cat. There are lots of ways to accomplish this.

When using collective nouns (e.g. committee, family, jury, orchestra, etc.) choose a singular verb form when the unit is acting together.
The choir reports here every Tuesday. The jury has re-entered the courtroom.

But you can also use a plural verb form when the members of the group are acting as separate individuals. The choir have been straggling in all evening. The jury are unable to agree on a verdict.

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ADJECTIVES
An adjective is a word that gives more information about a noun or pronoun. In other words, adjective describe or limit nouns and pronouns. Adjective in English have only one form, which is use with singular and plural, masculine and feminine nouns. The only exceptions are the demonstrative adjectives this and that, which chance to these and those before plural nouns.

Adjective in English usually come before their nouns: When there are two or more adjectives before a noun they are not usually separate by and except when the last two adjectives describe the same kind of thing. When several adjectives come before a noun, they usually have to be put in a particular order. Unfortunately, there are no definite rules for the order of adjectives before nouns. It can be said that the order is generally as follows. Demonstrative Article Quality Size Age Nationality Origin Composition
(Made of)

Color

(Another noun)

Purpose

Noun

There are three degrees of comparison: Positive Comparative Superlative Dark Darker the Darkest

One-syllable adjectives from their comparative and superlative by adding -er and -est to the positive form. Those ending in -er, -y, or -ly usually add -ier, and -iest Three or more syllables form their comparative and superlative by putting more and the most before the positive. When expressing equivalence we use asas in order to form the description. With the positive form of the adjective. When comparing we use than.

Its very common to use nouns as adjective by putting them before others nouns: When two nouns are used together like this, they are sometimes written as one word, sometimes a hyphen is used, or the words are written separately. When a noun is used as an adjective before another noun, it is almost always singular. Plural expressions with numbers also become singular when they are used as adjective. In certain expressions, we turn nouns into adjectives adding -ed. Certain adjectives describing human character or condition can be pretended by the end used as nouns.

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An article is a kind of adjective used to signal, limit, or individualizer nouns and to specify their use. Article is the term used in grammar for the words a, an, and the. Rules for use of the (definite article).The points out particular person, places, or things. In general, we used it to indicate that a noun refers to someone or something in particular, or that the noun has already been mentioned before. It can be used with all types of nouns. The is not used with proper nouns -people, nations-. The use of this article is also omitted when we are referring to concepts that express generality. In case of possessives (when we use s), the usually signals the immediately adjacent noun, even if the expression refers to the second one. Therefore, if this first word is a proper name, the is not normally used. When we use the title of a person along with his/her name, this title can be considerate as part of the name, so we should not use the. The is normally used for musical instruments. Rules for use of a and an (indefinite article).A and an (actually two forms of the same article) are used to indicated that a noun is one of a general group, but it does not represent a particular person, thing, or place. I is used ehen we mention someone or something for the first time. It can only be used with singular count nouns. A is use before consonant sounds. An is used before vowel sounds. A and an are not normally used before proper nouns. For the reason, a/an cannot be used for possessive or names with titles in the cases mentioned for the definite article. A and an should always be used before the names of professions. Although a/an are similar to the word one, they are not always interchangeable. One is a number and it means only one/no more than one, while a/an mean something like any (one)/one of a general group. When counting or measuring time, distance, weight, etc. we can use either a/an or one for the singular. Singular count nouns must always have an article or another adjective. Golden rules for using articles.- Most mistakes with articles are made through breaking one of these rules. Do not use the to talk about things in general. Do not use a/an before plural nouns (use some o no article). Use a/an to say what peoples professions are.

EXAMPLES
My house is bigger than yours. This flower is more beautiful than that one. This is the most interesting book I have ever read. Non-smokers usually live longer than smokers. Which is the most dangerous animal in the world? A holiday by the sea is better than a holiday in the mountains.

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He is a careful driver.

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It is strange but often a coke is more expensive than a beer. Who is the richest woman on earth? The weather this summer is even worse than last summer. He was the cleverest thief of all. This is a nice cat. It's much nicer than my friend's cat. She's six years old. Her brother is nine, so he is older. This is a difficult exercise. But the exercise with an asterisk (*) is the most difficult exercise on the worksheet. He has an interesting hobby, but my sister has the most interesting hobby in the world. In the last holidays I read a good book, but father gave me an even better one last weekend. School is boring, but homework is more boring than school. Skateboarding is a dangerous hobby. Bungee jumping is more dangerous than skateboarding. This magazine is cheap, but that one is cheaper. We live in a small house, but my grandparents' house is even smaller than ours. Yesterday John told me a funny joke. This joke was the funniest joke I've ever heard. My father is heavy. My uncle is much heavier than my father. The test in Geography was easy, but the test in Biology was easier. Florida is sunny. Do you know the sunniest place in the USA? Stan is a successful sportsman, but his sister is more successful than Stan. My mother has a soft voice, but my teacher's voice is softer than my mother's. Amy has a beautiful baby, but my daughter has the most beautiful baby on earth. I live in a large family, but my grandfather lived in a larger family. We have only little time for this exercise, but in the examination we'll have even less time. Lucy is clever, but Carol is cleverer than Lucy. Have you visited the old castle? It was the oldest castle we visited during our holidays. He quickly reads a book. Mandy is a pretty girl. The class is terribly loud today. Max is a good singer. You can easily open this tin. It's a terrible day today. She sings the song well.

He drives the car carefully. The dog barks loudly. The bus driver was seriously injured. Kevin is extremely clever. This hamburger tastes awful. Be careful with this glass of milk. It's hot. Robin looks sad. What's the matter with him? Jack is terribly upset about losing his keys. This steak smells good. Our basketball team played badly last Friday. Don't speak so fast. I can't understand you. Maria slowly opened her present.

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ADV E R B S
Adverb modify verbs, indicating, how, where, when, or to what extent an action was done.
She dresses neatly. I went there. Martha arrived early. They chatted endless.

How Where When to What extent

Adverbs also modify adjectives.

Eric is a very bright individual. The explanation was perfectly clear. I found the movie quit interesting.

Adverbs also modify others adverbs.

Im very much involved in politics. Carmen speaks too quickly to be understood. It cost considerably more than it did last year.

KINDS OF ADVERBS
There are eight kinds of adverbs. Adverbs of Manner Adverbs of Place Adverbs of Time Adverbs of Frequency Adverbs of Certainty Adverbs of Degree Interrogative Adverbs Relative Adverbs

Adverbs of Manner: tell us how an action is done. Well, high, easily, slowly, and beautifully
My girlfriend dances beautifully. The little boy ran quickly. The girl ran slowly. The class did well.

Adverbs of Place: tell us when an action takes place. Here, there, near, behind, above, up
I sat down there. Did you see my keys anywhere? She went up in the elevator. He is a long way behind.

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Adverbs of Time: tell us when an action was done. Now, then, today, tomorrow, later, still
We didnt go to church yesterday. Did you bring your car today?

Adverbs of frequency: tell us how often an action is done. Always, usually, once, never, sometimes
I always get up at 6 oclock. My mother sometimes cooks meatballs.

Adverbs of Certainty: tell us how we are about an action or a description. Apparently, surely, presumably, obviously, undoubtedly
They certainly worked hard. He is undoubtedly more intelligent than his brother..

Adverbs of Degree: can give or reduce intensity to an adjective or another adverb. Well, high, easily, slowly, and beautifully
Romario plays soccer very well. Your son is pretty intelligent. I hardly know him.

Interrogative Adverbs: are used to ask questions. Why, when, where, and how
Where do you live? Why did you do that?

Relative Adverbs: are interrogative adverbs used to connect parts of a sentence or phrase. When, where and why
The day when they arrived. The hotel where they are staying.

EXCEPTIONS, MEANING, AND USE OF CERTAIN ADVERBS

The adverb of good is well. Some adjectives and in -ly and should not be confused with adverbs: Cowardly, deadly, friendly, ghostly, likely, lonely, lovely, lowly, orderly, silly, and ugly

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Some words can be used as adjectives or adverbs: High, low, deep, nerd, far, fast, hard, early, late, much, little, direct, straight, pretty, wrong, kindly, and enough
Notice that the forms highly, nearly, hardly, lately, directly, and wrongly exist, but they have a slightly different meaning from their corresponding adjectives.

Fairly and rather mean moderately (between a little and very), but fairly is chiefly used with favorable adjectives and Adverbs (such as good, nice, well, bravely, etc.), while rather is chiefly used before unfavorable adjectives and adverbs (such as bad, ugly, stupid, etc.)
Tom is fairly clever, but peter is rather stupid. You did fairly well on your exam, but Ann did rather badly.

With adjectives or adverbs which are not favorable or unfavorable in themselves (such as fast, slow, thin, think, hot, cold, etc.), the speaker can express approval by using fairly and disapproval by using rather:
You look fairly thin. You look rather thin.

I like your shape. You are not fat at all. I do not like the way you look. You look feeble.

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PREPOSITIONS
A preposition is a word or a group of words that shows the relationships of a noun or a pronoun to some other word in the sentence. One way to identify preposition is to look for words that indicate connection between others words. Most prepositions are short words. Their forms never change; no matter they appear in sentences. The following is a list of the most common prepositions: at in on aboard about above across according to after against along along with amid among anti apart from around as as for as of aside from because of before behind below beneath beside besides between beyond but by by means of by way of center on common to compatible with concerning considering consist of capable of depend on despite different from down dream of during except except for excepting excluding following for from in addition to in back of in case of in front of in place of in regard to in spite of interior to instead of including inside into like minus near next to of off onto on account of on behalf of on top of opposite opposite of
Note many words in this list can also works as other part of speech

out out of outside over owing to past per plus prior to regarding regardless of rely on round save similar to since substitute for than think of through throughout till to toward towards under underneath unlike until up upon versus via with with regard to within without

Several prepositions present usage problems, mainly because in many cases the only rule to know which preposition to use is by habit. At, in, and on are all used to talk about position in space. The different between them are rather complicated, and it is not always easy to know which of the three is correct.
At

is used when we talk about position at a point. If youre at the north pole, every direction in south. is used to talk about position on a line or a surface. There is a good restaurant on the Glasgow read.
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On

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In

is used to talk about position in a place that has three dimensions. I think I left my tennis racket in the bathroom.

But

the situation is not quite as simple as this. There are some specials uses of at that should be studied. We use at when the size of the place is not important, not necessarily because it really is a point. A person who comes from a small Pennsylvania city like Harrisburg would probably say:
I live in Harrisburg. (Harrisburg is a place with streets, houses, shops, etc.)

But a person who is traveling from Cleveland to New York, just passing through, would say:
I stopped at Harrisburg. (Harrisburg is just a point on the way to New York.)

For the first person, the place is well known and important; it has streets, houses, churches, etc. but for the traveler, it is just a point on the journey. We often use at with the name of a place when we are interested in the activity that happens there, and not in the exact shape or dimensions of the place. For this reason, at is very often used when we talk about places of entertainment, cafes, restaurants, and about the places where people works or study. We also use at in addresses when the number of the house is given.
Most

of the time prepositions are not interchangeable.

NOT: could you write that in the blackboard? on, not in, is the preposition needed here.

Using one preposition when another is needed is mistake.

In some cases, using one preposition or another will make very little difference.
Professor Shaw is an expert in marine biology. Professor Shaw is an expert on marine biology.

However, keep in main that most of the time prepositions are not interchangeable, so be carful when choosing one.
Another

two common mistakes are omitting preposition when they are needed, and including prepositions when they are not needed. As it was mentioned before, there are some cases in which omitting or including prepositions does not make a difference. In the following sentence, the meaning does not change whether the preposition in is include or not.
A mosquito can travel more than ten miles (in) a day.

Most of the time, however, the correct preposition should be included.

NOT. Karen and I are going the store. In this sentence, the proposition to is required. Karen and I are going to the store.

In the following sentence, the preposition off is sufficient by itself and does not require the help of the additional word of.
NOT. Take your feet off of the table. Here, Take your feet off the table is correct.

Some

verbs and adjectives are followed by specific prepositions, not because the two are logically connected but because good speakers and writers have always used them that way. The preposition with the adjective capable is of, as in the following sentences.
Ralph is capable of doing much better work than he has done so far. Using another preposition instead of capable of (such as capable to) would be awkward

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EXAMPLES
I will tell you a story about a lion. The plane flies above the clouds. They walked across the field. After lunch, I shall complete the remaining task. I helped her going against the wishes of my loved ones. All along the way, she did not speak a word. The profit was shared among the shareholders. Due to the snow, we turned around to return home. The land is at war with its neighbor. She had decided to quit before Christmas, but changed her plan. The church is located behind the supermarket. The temperatures have dipped below freezing point. The water level is beneath the average level. When we were in school, I used to sit beside her in class. Besides maths, I am very fond of history. The profit was shared between the three of them. The play was beyond my expectations. Everyone but her agreed with the arrangement. A house by the sea, to retire, is my dream He is always curious about anything concerning her. Despite the snowfall, she decided to carry on with her journey. Jimmy lives down the street. She works during the day and studies at night. Except her no one has any objections to the plan. I jog for 10 miles everyday. She comes from Argentina. When in Rome, do as the Romans do. Inside the tough exterior, lies a gentle soul. As soon as she stepped into the room, there was pin drop silence. She looks like her father. Ten minus eight equals two. They have bought a new home near the school. A friend of mine recommended the beautician to me. To regain her lost health, it is important; she stays off her fad diet programs. There is an apple on the table. He always climbs onto the table. Her desk is located diagonally opposite my desk. Out of sheer curiosity, I asked her the question. Outside the house lies a beautiful garden. The journey cost me way over my budget. She walked past me, but refused to acknowledge my presence. What was the per person cost incurred? Eight plus six equals fourteen. She was waiting for him since ten in the morning. I slept all through the day. Throughout winter, she has been sick. I am going to Atlanta, before I head back home. It started raining towards the evening. The road is under repair. She found her earring underneath the carpet. I did not get the documents until 5 pm. Once upon a time, there lived a king. I walked up the stairs, to see the problem. The decision is up to the both of them. The last game was England versus France. I will go via Sydney. She walked in with her new boyfriend. She caters to customers within a radius of 5 miles. I never leave my house without an umbrella, due to the uncertain weather.

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CONJUNCTIONS
A conjunction is a word that joins words, phrases, or sentence. A conjunction relates a nouns or pronouns following it to a word that comes before it. There are three kinds of conjunctions: coordinating conjunctions, correlative conjunctions, and subordinating conjunctions.

COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS
They consist of only one word, and they always joint items of the same kind. They may join single words, or they may join groups of words. And But For Nor Or So Yet
Alice played the piano and Marry sang a song. Father rented a truck, but it wasnt large enough. He didnt understand the sign, for it was in Chinese. He never ate meat, nor drank alcohol. You must work hard or you will not learn grammar. Nobody was in the house, so he decided to break in. Sarah did the job rapidly jet correctly.

Correlative Conjunctions
They also connect items of the same kind, but they are always used in pairs. Both Either Neither Whether and but also or nor or
Both Jim Thorpe and Roberto Clemente were outstanding athletes. We want to go not only to Ontario, but also to Quebec. Either we will buy it now, or we will wait for the next sale. Neither do I want to go myself, nor do I want you to go. I do not care whether you come along or you do not.

Not only

SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS
They join mini-sentences in order to form complex sentences. They can clarify time sequences, express possibilities, compare ideas, add information on location and manner, and explain cause-and-effect relationships. Relative pronouns and relative adverbs also act as subordinating conjunction. Apart from these, other subordinating conjunctions are. After:

After the train left, we went home. After Josie studied the lab reports, she determined that Glen would need further treatment.

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Although:

Although it was after midnight, we did not feel tired.

As:

As he is my friend, I will help him. We watched as the plane took off.

As if:

As if the bank robber dodged the bullet, Joey was shot seventeen times in the tibia. She talks as if she knows everything.

As long as:

As long as we cooperate, we can finish the work easily. He has lived there as long as I have known him.

As soon as:

Write to me as soon as you can.

As though:

I had a funny feeling as I saw the house disappear, as though I had written a poem and it was very good and I had lost it and would never remember it again. It looks as though there will be a storm.

Because:

We had to wait, because we arrived early. Because Norman was constantly late, Mr. Russell cut him from band practice.

Before:

I arrived before the stores were open.

Even:

Im going out even if it rains.

For:

He is happy, for he enjoys his work.

In case:

Take a sweater in case it gets cold.

If:

If everyone demanded peace instead of another television set, then there would be peace. If she is here, we will see her.

Lest:

I watched closely, lest he make a mistake.

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In order to:

I am always doing that which I cannot do, in order that I may learn how to do it.

Or else:

Please be careful, or else you may have an accident.

Once:

Once the test starts, you will not be able to talk

Provided that: Since:

I can believe anything, provided that it is quite incredible.

Since you are here, you can help me. I have been here since the sun rose.

So:

It was raining, so we did not go out. I am saving money so I can buy a bicycle.

So as to:

I hurried so as to be on time.

Still:

I was still studying at six o'clock in the evening

Supposing:

Supposing that happens, what will you do?

Than:

He is taller than you are.

Though:

Though Susan appreciated the flowers, a Corvette would be a finer gift.

Unless:

Unless we act now, all is lost. Unless he helps us, we cannot succeed.

Until:

A platitude is simply a truth repeated until people get tired of hearing it. I will wait until I hear from you

When:

While the State exists, there can be no freedom. When there is freedom there will be no State.

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Whereas:

He is short, whereas you are tall. Whereas this is a public building, it is open to everyone. These are white-looking figures, whereas the men who are about to spar have on dark head guards that close grimly around the face like an executioner's hood.

While:

Jerry passed the exam first time while I had to retake it three times. While it was snowing, we played cards. He is rich, while his friend is poor. While I am not an expert, I will do my best.

Whether:

Whether you win this race or lose it doesn't matter as long as you do your best. I do not know whether she was invited.

Wherever:

Every man, wherever he goes, is encompassed by a cloud of comforting convictions, which move with him like flies on a summer day.

Who:

The candidate, who ran a clean race, was elected by a wide majority.

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INTERJECTIONS
An interjection is a word, or group of words we use to express a sudden feeling, for example, surprise, pleasure, pain, etc. Interjections have no grammatical relationships to the rest of the sentences. They are usually set apart from the sentences b y an exclamation point or by a comma when the feeling isnt as strong. Ah Pleasure Realization Resignation Surprise Alas Grief or pity Dear Pity Surprise Eh Asking for repetition Enquiry Surprise Agreement Er Hesitation Hello, hullo Greeting Surprise Hey Attention Surprise, joy etc. Hi Greeting Hurrah Surprise Hurrah! We won the game again. Hi! What's new? Hey! Look at that! Hey! What a good idea! Hello John. How are you today? Hello! My car's gone! Lima is the capital of er Peru. Its hot today. Eh?" "I said its hot today." What do you think of that, eh? Eh! Really? Let's go, eh? Oh dear! Does it hurt? Dear me! That's a surprise! Alas, she's dead now. Ah, that feels good. Ah, now I understand. Ah well, it can't be helped. Ah! I've won!

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Hmm Hesitation, doubt or disagreement How interesting Surprise, joy etc. Oh, my God! OMG! Surprise Oh, Surprise Pain Pleading Ouch Pain Uh Hesitation Uh-huh Agreement Um, umm Hesitation Well Surprise Introducing a remark Well I never! Well, what did he say? 85 divided by 5 is um 17. Shall we go? Uh-huh. Uh I don't know the answer to that. Ouch! That hurts! Oh! You're here! Oh! I've got a toothache. Oh, please say 'yes'! Oh, my God! It is an earthquake. How interesting! You have been to Italy. Hmm. I'm not so sure.

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