PROGRESS REPORT 1 STUDENT:48540358 1.1.

PROBLEM STATEMENT The problem being experienced at DELTA Beverages Chinhoyi is of continual increase in the cost of steam due to inefficient combustion in the coal fired boiler. Chemical analysis of combustion products revealed that there are very high percentages of combustibles in the flue gas and coal ash. DELTA Beverages use an overfeed motor driven stoker, high pressure boiler where coal is fed from the top through the coal inlet hopper through an oscillating chute while air is supplied from the bottom of the furnace. Air and exhaust gases control is achieved by a balanced draft system, with air control into the furnace l being achieved by manually adjusted dampers for front, rear and underground air ducts. Combustible gases are drawn out of the furnace using an induced draft fan installed at the bottom of the chimney stack. The coal ash is discharged into the ash hopper and falls by gravity onto the motor driven conveyor system through the ash paddle that quenches the ash by using water. The steam produced by the boiler is supplied to the production and packaging plant. Steam is used for process heating and for cleaning empty containers used for packaging containers. There is no fuel to steam control system thus fuel is burnt uneconomically. 1.2. BACKGROUND THEORY Energy Auditing and Management rationale indicates the effective and efficient use of energy with emphasizes on reducing energy wastage and cost intensity on the organisation. The use of energy in a rationale manner helps to eliminate uneconomical energy losses and enhance sustainable development which is the development that can meet the requirements of the present without compromising that of the future generations. (Ambika 2007:1).For an industrial plant that used boilers for process heat generation optimisation of combustion is paramount to reduce steam generation costs through reduction of energy loss caused by inefficient combustion. Boilers are used by many food processors to provide steam and hot water. Steam generated by boilers is generally used for heating equipment or processes directly or

indirectly through heat exchangers. Boilers use large amounts of water and energy and their efficient operation can provide significant savings to food processors. A boiler as the name suggests is a device that boils water by converting the chemical energy in the fuel into heat energy in steam .There are four inputs supplied into the boiler namely water, air, fuel and chemicals. (Rayaprolu 2009:3) and for optimal operation of the boiler, there must be a balance between these four parameters. To achieve optimum control the process need to be controlled through a well defined process control system. Process control system refers to a control system that oversees some industrial process so that a uniform, correct output is maintained. It does this by monitoring control parameters (i.e. temperature and flow) to ensure that the product remains as it should be.(Kalian 2003:11). Combustion in Boilers Combustion is a high speed, high temperature chemical reaction in which there is rapid union of a fuel with oxygen to liberate heat controlled heat explosion. There are basically three types of combustion namely perfect combustion, complete combustion incomplete combustion. Perfect combustion is achieved when all the fuel is burnt using the stochiometric air requirements of fuel. Complete combustion is achieved when all fuel is burnt using a minimum amount of excess air. Complete combustion with minimum excess air is always good since heat losses due to excess air are always unaffordable and unacceptable from an efficiency point of view. Incomplete combustion occur when the fuel is not completely burnt and some escapes in flue gases as carbon monoxide and some in ash as unburnt which results in high energy losses and low efficiency. The most critical key result areas for combustion efficiency are: operating with minimum excess air for fuel economy, operating with minimum amounts of combustibles in flue gas and ash, achieve optimum combustion conditions to cater for the heterogeneous properties of coal, and to operation with variable speed options for fan motors to achieve precise air regulation into the furnace.

2.0. LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1. THEORY OF PROCESS CONTROL. To achieve process control the designer must first establish a good understanding of the process to be controlled. Most basic control systems consist of a control loop having four main components as shown in Fig.1 below.

Fig. 1 above shows: i. ii. iii. iv. Measurement of the state or condition of the process A controller calculating an action based on this measured value against a preset or desired value (set point). An output signal resulting from the controller calculation, which is used to manipulate the process through some form of actuator. The process itself is reacting to this signal, changing its state or condition.

The two most important signals used in process control are called process variable and manipulated variable.(Altmann 2005:8) 2.2. Process modelling To perform an effective job in controlling a process, we need to know how much the control input we are proposing to use will affect the output of the process. If we change the input conditions we shall need to know the following: Will the output rise or fall? How much response we will get? How long will it take for the output to change?

What will be the response curve or trajectory of the response?

The answers of the above questions are best obtained by creating a mathematical model of the relationship between the chosen input and the output of the process in question. Process designers use a block diagram technique to assist the representation of a process and its control system.(Altmann 2005:26) 2.3. Control system design In designing and setting up a practical process control system, one of the most important tasks is to establish the true factors making the loop gain and then calculate the gain.Typically, the constituents part of the entire loop consists of a minimum of four functional items namely: Process gain (Kp), Controller gain (KG), measuring transducer or sensor gain (Ks), and the valve gain (Kv).The total loop gain will be the product of these four operational blocks.(Altmann 2005:26). 2.4. Control systems There are five basic forms of control available in process control. These are discussed below. i. ii. On off control Modulating

If the output of a control can move through a range of values, we have a modulating control. It is understood that the modulating control take place within a defined operating range (with upper and lower) limit only. (Altmann 2005:14). Modulating control can be used in both open and closed loop control systems. iii. Open loop control

We have an open loop if the control action output signal is not a function of the process variable. The open loop control is not self correct where the process variable shift. (Altmann 2005:26). iv. Feed forward control

Feed forward control is a form of control based on anticipating the correct manipulated variables necessary to deliver the required output variable. It is seen as a form of open

loop control as the process variable is not used directly in the control of the action. In some applications, the feed forward signal is added to the feedback control signal to drive the manipulated variable closer to its final value. (Altmann 2005:14).Consider fig 2 below showing the feed forward control system.

Fig.2.Feed Forward Control system.

v.

Closed loop or feedback control loop

We have a closed loop system if the process variable, the objective of the control is used to determine the control action. The idea of closed loop is to measure the process variables, compare it with the desired settings and determine the control action which results in a change of the operating value of an automatic controller. (Altmann 2005:14). vi. Proportional, Intergral and Derivative control modes.

Most closed loop controllers are capable of controlling with three control modes which can be used separately or together. Proportional control

This is the main and principal method of control. It calculates a control action proportional to the error. The proportional control cannot eliminate error completely. Integral control

This is the means to eliminate the remaining error or offset value, left from the proportional actions, completely.This may result in reduced stability in the control action.

Derivative or rate control

This is sometimes added to introduce dynamic stability to the control loop. Automatic control systems Programmable Logic Controllers Programmable logic controllers, also called programmable controllers or PLCs, are solidstate members of the computer family, using integrated circuits instead of electromechanical devices to implement control functions. They are capable of storing instructions, such as sequencing, timing, counting, arithmetic, data manipulation, and communication, to control industrial machines and processes.(Bryan 1997:11) Distributed Control Systems. Distributed control system architecture offers the best features of both local control and centralized control. In a distributed control system, controllers are provided locally to systems or groups of equipment, but networked to one or more operator stations in a central location through a digital communication circuit. Control action for each system or subsystem takes place in the local controller, but the central operator station has complete visibility of the status of all systems and the input and output data in each controller, as well as the ability to intervene in the control logic of the local controllers if necessary. (Bryan 1997:11). Types of distributed control systems Plant distributed control system (DCS): While the term DCS applies in general to any system in which controllers are distributed rather than centralized, in the power generation and petrochemical process industries it has come to refer to a specific type of control system able to execute complex analogy process control algorithms at high speed, as well as provide routine monitoring, reporting and data logging functions. In most applications, the input and output modules of the system are distributed throughout the facility, but the control processors themselves are centrally located in proximity to the control room. These systems typically use proprietary hardware, software and communication protocols, requiring that both replacement parts and technical support be obtained from the original vendor. (Bryan 1997:11)

Direct digital control (DDC): DDC systems are used in the commercial building heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) industry to monitor and maintain environmental conditions. They consist of local controllers connected to a network with a personal computer (PC) based central station which provides monitoring, reporting, data storage and programming capabilities. The controllers are optimized for economical HVAC system control, which generally does not require fast execution speeds. Their hardware and control software are proprietary, with either proprietary or open protocols used for network communication. (Bryan 1997:11). Remote terminal unit (RTU) based SCADA: RTU-based systems are common in the electric, gas and water distribution industries where monitoring and control must take place across large geographical distances. The RTUs were developed primarily to provide monitoring and control capability at unattended sites such as substations, metering stations, pump stations, and water towers. They communicate with a central station over telephone lines, fiber-optics, radio or microwave transmission. Monitored sites tend to be relatively small, with the RTU typically used mainly for monitoring and only limited control. Hardware and software are proprietary, with either proprietary or open protocols used for data transmission to the central station. (Bryan 1997:11). Programmable logic controller (PLC) based systems: PLCs, which are described in greater detail in the next section, can be networked together to share data as well as provide centralized monitoring and control capability. Control systems consisting of networked PLCs are supplanting both the plant DCS and the RTU-based systems in many industries. They were developed for factory automation and have traditionally excelled at high speed discrete control, but have now been provided with analog control capability as well. Hardware for these systems is proprietary, but both control software and network communication protocols are open, allowing system configuration, programming and technical support for a particular manufacturers equipment to be obtained from many sources. (Bryan 1997:11).

SCADA SCADA interface is uses DCS control system drivers.

2.5. THEORY OF COMBUSTION PROCESS CONTROL Controlling of the air fuel ratio is the most important tool for managing energy efficiency and atmospheric emissions of a boiler system. This is achieved by controlling the excess air. The density of air and volatile matter must be taken into account with temperature and pressure changes in the control of the air fuel ratio. Variations in pressure and temperature can be corrected by sophisticated air fuel control systems. Such systems are expensive, so simpler systems are often used to avoid expenses. They are less precise and are set up with large margins of excess air control to avoid insufficient combustion conditions. They cannot ensure optimum continuous operation due to high heat losses associated with cruder sophisticated systems. It pays to evaluate the economics of investing in a high quality control system. For existing combustion equipment, measuring and minimising excess air is the primary way to optimise boiler efficiency and optimise energy utilisation. Optimising excess air means adjusting the furnace air flow to match the fuel flow or quality. Also, carbon monoxide and oxygen levels in excess air are sensitive indicators of incomplete combustion. Therefore boiler systems should have oxygen analysers, oxygen trimmers, carbon monoxide and Nitrogen oxide analysers. 2.5. Market research of combustion controls A brief description of combustion control systems follows in order of sophistication and cost. i. On off and high low controls.

This is a discontinuous form of control action, and is also referred to as two-position control. The technique is crude, but can be a cheap and effective method of control if a fairly large fluctuation of the process variable (PV) is acceptable. A perfect onoff controller is on when the measurement is below the set point (SP) and the manipulated variable (MV) is at its maximum value. Above the SP, the controller is off and the MV is a minimum. Onoff control is widely used in both industrial and domestic applications.

ii.

Mechanical jackshaft controls

The simplest type of modulating burner control is used in small burners, where the cost of more complex systems is not justified. The controls cannot measure the air flow and linkages needs settings with higher that excess air to ensure safe operation under all conditions. The range of oxygen controls is limited. The control response must be slow to ensure that the burner reaches a steady state before oxygen trim acts. (Dockrill 2001:4) iii. Parallel controls

Separate drives in parallel controls adjust fuel flow and air flow, taking their signals from the master controller. The operator can adjust the flows individually and override the automatic control settings. These controls are usually applied to older and medium sized boilers equipped with pneumatic controls.Thier performance and operational safety can be improved by adding alarms that indicate if an actuator has slipped or calibration has lost.Also, an additional control can be added to provide oxygen trim. Parallel controls have similar disadvantages to mechanical jackshaft controls. (Dockrill 2001:5). iv. Cross limiting control

Usually applied to larger boilers, cross limiting control can sense and compensate for some of the factors that affect optimum air to fuel ratio. This control measures the flow of air and fuel and adjusts airflow to maintain optimum value determined by calibration tests. Operations are safer when airflow cannot drop below the minimum needed for the existing fuel. They are also safer when fuel flow cannot be increased more than the existing air flow can burn. Oxygen trim is possible but, it has a limited range of adjustment. It must also respond slowly enough to allow the primary air controls to reach equilibrium. (Dockrill 2001:3)

v.

Variable speed controls for motor driven systems

This refers to the control of the flow of air into the furnace by using variable speed drives. Variable speed drives replace air control dampers found in boiler air system ducts. Variable speed drive systems help in optimisation of process so as to reduce investments costs, operational and maintenance costs. (Gupta 2010:363). The advantage of variable speed drives motor control system is as follows:

Energy saving Soft start and reduced mechanical stresses High power factor correction

The disadvantages variable speed drive systems are as follows. (Gupta 2010:363). Supply harmonics Noise pollution Motor losses and heating

2.6. THEORY OF PROCESS MEASURING DEVICES. The controlled variables in process control measured using transducers are pressure, temperature, flow rate, composition and liquid level. A transducer is a device that obtains information in the form of one or more physical quantities and converts this into an electrical signal output. The transducer consists of two parts namely the sensor and the transmitter. The characteristics that are used for design and selecting transducers are: sensor dynamics, reliability, precision, sensitivity resolution, rangeability, resolution and cost just a few to mention.((Altmann 2005:14). i. Temperature measurement

Temperature is the most common process variable measured in process control. Due to vast temperature ranges that need to be measured, there is a vast range of devices used to measure temperature namely: Thermocouples, resistance temperature detectors, IC sensors and radiation pyranometers. (Altmann 2005:14). ii. Pressure measurement

Pressure measurements are done using strain guage,reasonant wire transducers, capacitance pressure detector, linear variable differential transformer, optical pressure transducers just a few to mention. (Altmann 2005:14). iii. Air flow measurement

Air flow and liquid flow is afforded by energy-extractive flow meters (orifice plate, turbine or rotor flow transducer), energy additive flow meters (magmeters, Ultrasonic flow measurements). (Altmann 2005:14).

DRAFT CONTROL THEORY. Draft in combustion system The function of the draft in combustion systems is to supply air and exhaust combustion products into the atmosphere. There are two types of draughts common in boilers and these are natural draft, mechanical draft (induced and forced draft and Balanced Draft). The draft systems are operated by electric motors and dampers are used to regulate the flow of air into the furnace. i. Natural draft It is draft produced by the chimney alone. It is caused by the difference in weight between the column of hot gases inside the chimney and the column of atmospheric air outside at the same height and crossection. (Black 1996:207). ii. Mechanical draft It is the draft artificially produced by fans and is categorised into three types below: Forced draft It is draft which used a fan to deliver the combustion air into the furnace and to force combustion products to pass through the boiler furnace up the stack. (Black 1996:207). Induced draft An induced draft system provides suction at the chimney, to evacuate products of combustion through the furnace. The furnace is kept at a constant slight negative pressure below atmospheric pressure. (Black 1996:207). Balanced draft A balanced draft is a combination of a forced draft and induced draft system where a forced draft fan pushes air into the furnace and an induced draft fan draws flue gases into the chimney, thereby providing a draft below to remove gases from the boiler. (Black 1996:207). iii. Dampers A damper is a device that controls the airflow in air systems by changing the angle of the blades and therefore the area of its flow passage. Damper position control is afforded by electric motors, pneumatic control and manual control.(ASHRAE 1995:157).