HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY

Davis & Palladino: CHAPTER 1

Religion

Philosophy

Physiology

PSYCHOLOGY

Science

Art

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History of Psychology Davis/Palladino: Chapter 1 pp. 24-37 Exercise I A. B. Contributions of Wundt and James Professions in Psychology

A. Briefly describe the contributions of Wilhelm Wundt and William James to the development of the field of psychology.

Name

______________________________

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B. List and describe the Psychological Specialties (specialization in the field of Psychology).

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The History of Psychology Psychology is a relatively new science and has grown from a varied background. The first psychological laboratory was established by Wilhelm Wundt in 1879 in Liepzig, Germany. Prior to this point, mans attempt to understand himself, his fellow man, and his environment was based primarily on speculations. Earlier views of behavior can be found in the writings of ancient civilizations and outstanding religious figures. Philosophers of other centuries introduced many ideas that today serve as a foundation for modern psychology. The roots of psychology are to be found primarily in philosophy and physiology. Structuralism & Reductionism - Wundt was the first person to attempt to apply research to psychology. His method of research was based on introspection or self-observation. His work became known as structuralism. Wundts most prominent student, Edward Tichner, furthered his ideas and Tichners viewpoint became known as reductionism. Functionalism In 1890, William James, the first American psychologist, wrote the first psychological textbook. James felt that psychology should focus on the methods people use to adapt to the environment, satisfy their needs, and increase their abilities. James was particularly interested in consciousness, which he saw as a tool that enables people to select appropriate courses of action. He thought that everything had a function, and his views became known as functionalism. Psychoanalytic This early period in psychology was also marked by the appearance of Sigmund Freuds writings. Freud developed a comprehensive theory of personality based on the concept of unconscious motivation. He believed that the unconscious (thought processes not in our awareness) actively influences behavior. He found evidence for this in his clinical observations of patients in whom unconscious problems showed themselves in disguised forms, often as physical disorders. Freud concluded that most of their unconscious problems were caused by the frustration of basic instinctual urges. While Freuds psychoanalytic theory has tended to dominate the study of personality and abnormal behavior, studies in sensation, perception, and learning continued to develop. Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist, identified the principles of classical conditioning, a type of learning. This set the stage for the development of behaviorism and for the experimental psychology of learning. Behaviorism (Learning Theory) No movement or development in psychology has been more vigorous or more influential than behaviorism. In the early twentieth century, John B. Watson, the founder of behaviorism, realized the importance of classical conditioning to human behavior. Watson, Pavlov, and other early behaviorists felt that psychology should be concerned solely with observable and measurable behavior. Watson argued that psychology was looking at the wrong problems in the wrong ways. At that time, psychology relied almost exclusively on the technique of introspection, which Watson through was inadequate. Observers who studied only themselves could not possibly produce reliable data for comparison. Watson felt that psychology should not ignore the study of consciousness but should concentrate on the prediction and control of behavior. His observations of the ways in which organisms respond to stimuli in the environment led him to believe that by controlling the environment he could control behavior. Watsons contribution was to apply the principles of classical conditioning to human behavior. In the 1940s and 50s B. F. Skinner recognized that classical conditioning could explain some basic behaviors that people have, but it did not explain more complex behaviors. Skinner went on to develop the principle of operant conditioning, which states that the frequency of occurrence of a bit of behavior is dependent on the consequences of that behavior.

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Humanism At approximately the same time that behaviorism was beginning in the United States, Gestalt psychology was developing in Germany. The Gestalt psychologists- Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Kohler, and Kurt Koffka felt that the mind cannot be analyzed by breaking it down into the elements of sensation as Wundt and Tichner thought. They argued that breaking down mental events into elemental parts as artificial, because people perceive wholes, not elements. The whole is thus the basic unit of perception and thought (Gestalt means whole). According to the Gestalt psychologists, the proper subject to be emphasized in psychology is perception. To understand an individual, you must understand how that individual perceives. Gestalt psychologists are thus interested in the principles of perceptual organization. Because of the rise of the Nazis, the Gestaltist movement was short lived in Germany. Most of its members fled to the United States where their work became the foundation for the study of sensation and perception. One of these people who has been extremely influential was Frederick Perls. Perls has been credited with supplying the methodology for therapy to the theory of Gestalt psychology. Humanistic Psychology, often called the third force after psychoanalytic and behaviorism, is a movement that has attempted to build on these other two. Humanists reject the idea that people are governed solely by unconscious forces, and they do not believe that human behavior is merely the result of environmental conditioning. While acknowledging the effects of the unconscious and societys teaching, they feel that every individual is capable of choosing his or her own course of action, above and beyond that which has been dictated. In other words, unlike B. F. Skinner, the humanists recognize the existence of free will. One of the early influences on humanism was Abraham Maslow. Maslow felt that too much of psychologys efforts were concentrated on the maladjusted personality. He led the way in this relatively new branch of psychology by focusing attention on healthy people and the way they think, feel, and solve problems. Maslow stressed the unique goals and values of human beings, and is best known for his work on selfactualization, the process of reaching ones fullest potential. Out of the work of the Gestaltists and Maslows has come a related view of man from Carl Rogers. Rogers has become one of the leading spokespersons for the Humanistic school of thought. Rogers theory of personality developed from his own techniques of psychotherapy. His work is often called phenomenological because his approach centers on subjective experience, the personal and separate reality of each individual. Unlike behaviorists, who study human behavior primarily from an external point, Rogers concentrates on meanings, values, and feelings that an individual is experiencing. New Trends Recently two offshoots have emerged from third force, or humanistic psychology, which are Cognitive psychology and Transpersonal psychology. Cognitive psychology might be considered an offshoot of the Gestalists in the sense that it focuses on overall mental functioning. Psychologists oriented toward the cognitive school study thinking, memory, language development, perception, imagery, and other mental processes in order to understand human problem solving and insight abilities. Transpersonal psychology, which may emerge as the fourth force in psychology, is the newest and perhaps most controversial of the approaches. Transpersonal psychology, also an offshoot of Abraham Maslows work, focuses on the study of personal experiences that seem to transcend ordinary existence. Psychologists in this field are interested in altered states of awareness and the thoughts and feelings that arise during periods of sleep or meditation, while under the influence of drugs, during religious experiences, and while in states of great happiness. Special areas investigated by transpersonal psychology are ESP and other supersensory phenomena that until recently were not considered valid subjects for psychological study.

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History of Psychology I. In primitive cultures, demons, spirits, ghosts, and other supernatural forces are held responsible for human actions. Shamans, witchdoctors, and priests intervened. II. Greeks were among the first to look inside the human being for clues to behavior. Socrates asked questions about the nature of man. Plato speculated about emotion, perception, and learning. Aristotle proposed that behavior is subject to the same principles as other natural phenomena and there fore can be scientifically studied. III. After the fall of the Roman Empire, the insights of the Greeks were lost. Only beliefs in the percepts of the Catholic Church could save a person. Disbelievers were burned at the stake, books were destroyed, and all thinking at odds with the church was stifled. IV. In the Seventeenth Century, there is still no field of Psychology but the movement shifts from philosophy to science (later physiology). Psychology emerged from: Philosophy/Physiology The field of Psychology begins to emerge from these two disciplines. 1879 Wilhelm Wundt (1879 is the birthdate of Psychology) Wundt opened the first psychological laboratory in Liepzig, Germany (GDR). He hoped to uncover the natural laws of the mind by studying perception and other mental functions. Wundt introduced measurement and experiment into psychology. His efforts were an attempt to understand the structure of the mind and his type of thinking became known as structuralism. 1880s Edward Tichner Tichner was a student of Wilhelm Wundts and brought his ideas back to the United States. He was a college professor until 1927. Tichner said that Psychology was the science of consciousness, or the study of experience. His movement became know as reductionism. 1890 William James (First American Psychologist) James was a physiologist and read a lot of philosophy. He felt the two converged into psychology and he wrote the first Psychology textbook entitled The Principles of Psychology. James attempted to apply biological principles to the mind. He was concerned not only with learning and sensation, but rather with how an organism uses its learning and sensory abilities to function in its environment. He felt we should focus on everyday life. He realized that all activity is functional, therefore, his movement became know as functionalism.

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NOTES Psychoanalytic Perspective Biological/Instinctual theory. Focus is on unconscious processes controlling conscious behavior. Behavior is the result of the workings of the unconscious. Sex is the key determinant of all behavior. The first theory. The first therapy. The most comprehensive Theory to date. Behavioral Perspective Behavior is explained as a result of learning and conditioning. The focus in this theory is on the environment and how the Circumstances in the environment control behavior through learning. The theory focuses on only concrete observable measurable behavior. Most scientific of the three theories. Humanistic (Cognitive) Perspective Recognizes instincts and learning as a part of the explanation of behavior, however believes that in addition to that there is something more that human being have which is free will. The ability to choose our behavior. Focus of this theory is on the concept of self. Behavior follows how we see our self.
Positive

Superego
EGO

Conscious Reality

Conflict Negative ID

Unconscious Instincts

Stimulus/ Response Consequences Imitation

Perceptual Experience Approval Open Modify/ Change Self

Choice

Ideal Self Perceived Self Real Self Disapproval Rigid Maintain self structure

Self Self Actualize

Additional Viewpoints: Other influences on behavior. The Biological Perspective An approach to Psychology that explains feelings, thoughts and behavior as a result of biological processes. This additional causal factor in behavior would look at things like Genetics, Biochemistry, Anatomy and Physiology as influences on behavior also.

The Sociocultural Perspective An approach to Psychology that explores how cultural values and economic political systems influence behavior. This causal influence considers things like Social Norms, Economic and Political Systems and Interpersonal Relationships as additional causal factors. Bio/Psycho/Social

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Three Schools of Thought in Psychology Psychoanalytic Biological/Instinctual Behaviorist Most Scientific Humanism Most Philosophical Basic Belief Human beings have a free will. Behavior is a reflection of our self-concept. MAJOR THEORIST Early Gestaltists

Basic Belief We cant understand Basic Belief Behavior is not what goes on inside people so the necessarily what it seems but is based emphasis is on observable, on unconscious processes. measurable behavior. MAJOR MAJOR THEORIST Sigmund Freud THEORIST B.F. Skinner Psychoanalytic Theory Sigmund Freud Respondent Conditioning Ivan Pavlov

Carl Rogers Kurt Koffka Max Wertheimer (1930s) Wolfgang Kohler

Followers of Freud

Alfred Adler Carl Jung

Applied Conditioning to Human Behavior Operant Conditioning

John Watson

B.F. Skinner Self Actualization (1950s) Gestalt Psychology (1960Present) Humanism

Neo Freudians

Karen Horney Erich Fromm Observational Learning Albert Bandura

Abraham Maslow Fritz Perls

Carl Rogers

Scope of Theory Study of the unconscious, including inner drives, urges and thoughts.

Scope of Theory Studies the observable external environmental influences that control behavior through learning. (Focus in on the environment)

Scope of Theory Studies the more abstract nature of people. Interests in both the dynamic and behavioral aspects of behavior only as they relate to the betterment of humankind. (Focus is on the self)

(Focus in on the Unconscious) Name of Therapy Psychoanalysis Area of Influence Hospitals, Clinics, Private Practice (Influence declining)

Name of Therapy Behavioral Therapy Area of Influence Education (all types) Therapy, Control of Behavior

Name of Therapy Client Centered Therapy Area of Influence Counseling, Education, Human Potential Offshoots

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Cognitive Psychology Study: Thinking Memory Language

Transpersonal Psychology Altered States of Consciousness, ESP, Sleep, Meditation, Peek Experiences, Drug Experiences, Imagery

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The Profession of Psychology Psychologists and the profession of psychology have often been misunderstood. The field emerged from older disciplines, yet in and of itself is new. The American Psychological Association (APA) was founded in 1892. Today this organization has over 52,000 members and over forty specialized divisions. Twenty of these divisions have more than 1,000 members. People are curious about psychology, yet it also seems mysterious. Partly this is because the psychologists work, more than most professions, seems to influence us directly. It is precisely because psychology is seen as touching us so intimately that the public has developed ideas of its own about the profession, its members, and their objectives.

Estimated Number of Clinically Trained Professionals Providing Mental Health Services in the United States Profession Psychiatrists Clinical psychologists Social workers Marriage and family therapists Psychiatric nurses Counselors Psychosocial rehabilitation providers Number 40,900 77,500 194,600 47,100 16,600 111,900 100,000

The field of Psychology has changed so rapidly that the publics view of it is often outdated. The psychology of 1980 is not the psychology of 1940; it is not even the psychology of 1960. The field has changed drastically in the last two decades. When changes take place so rapidly, it can easily lead to confusion. In the 1990s, Psychology has become more acceptable than ever before. In the minds of most people, psychology is associated with correcting something that has gone wrong. It is true that sometimes this is their role, but they are also involved in many other things. The psychologist may work not only with the very maladjusted, but the very well adjusted. From the laboratory animal to the human being, and from infancy to old age. Today psychology is not only interested in abnormal behavior, but are as concerned with potentialities as with limitations. The lay person seems to have the opinion that psychologists have all the answers. Their roles are many, but only one of which may involve providing answers, or what is commonly called treatment. Treatment is probably a poor term though, because psychologists dont treat people as much as work with them to help a person change a behavior. Psychologists and psychiatrists are not the same. Psychiatry is a branch of medicine, and the psychiatrist has a medical degree, as well as further training in psychiatric treatment. Their treatment methods include the use of medication in addition to psychotherapy techniques.

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The psychologist, on the other hand, is not a medical doctor. In the state of Pennsylvania, a person must be licensed (by the state) in order to practice psychology. A license can be obtained by passing a national exam. Specific degrees and supervised training are required before a person can take the exam. A minimum of a Ph.D. degree is necessary to obtain a license. A person can have a Ph.D. degree in psychology, however, and not be a licensed psychologist. Most psychologists specialize in a certain area. His/her training emphasizes general overall knowledge as the necessary condition for later specialization. The psychologists training, at least in the early years, involves much that is broad and general, rather than narrow and specialized. Specialization, however, usually takes place after the doctoral degree. Everyone sees himself as a psychologist in some ways. It is the nature of man to have ideas and feelings about how children are best reared, what makes for a successful marriage, or how the student should study, etc. This can make psychology a difficult profession. Most people would not think of telling the physician how he should practice, or what he should prescribe, but the attitude towards the psychologist is a different one. Where problems of human behavior are involved, however, there is noticeably less reluctance on the part of the average person to diagnose a situation, prescribe a solution, or even treat what seems like the problem. The future of psychology is bright indeed. Professionals in this field are increasingly being called upon to help improve the human condition whether its in the family, the workplace, or schools, or for individuals. Where behavior, attitude, or motivation is, psychology is. If the present direction continues, the field of psychology will become less and less mysterious and awe oriented, and move towards becoming the field that helps make peoples lives better.

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What Psychologists Do Experimental Psychologists use scientific methods to carry out experiments designed to develop a basic understanding of such concepts as learning, memory, motivation, sensation, and perception. Clinical Psychologist generally focuses on abnormal behavior in an effort to understand, diagnose and change it. Social Psychologist usually a researcher concerned with the behavior of people in social situations, that is, in the presence of at least one other person. Personality Psychologist studies the whole person in an effort to discover the basic underlying dimensions of behavior such as introversion-extroversion and to find means of measuring and describing individuals on those dimensions. Counseling Psychologist helps people to improve personal or educational difficulties that they are experiencing. Industrial Psychologist usually works for a business enterprise, applying psychological knowledge to such areas as personnel policies, working conditions, production efficiency, and decision-making. Developmental Psychologist studies normal behavior development from infancy to adulthood, including the development of learning, perception, social behavior, and motivation. Educational Psychologist studies the educational process with the hope of developing better educational systems and is responsible for implementing these systems. School Psychologist generally works with a single school or school system, helping teachers with classroom problems of a psychological nature and providing some student counseling and guidance.

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Emerging Fields of Specialization Forensic Psychology applying psychological principles to the problems of law enforcement and the courts. Environmental Psychology the study of the relationship between people and their physical settings. Program Evaluation psychologists evaluate the effectiveness and cost of government programs meant to alleviate social problems. Quantitative Psychology specializing in measurement and statistics. Where Psychologist Work Subfield Clinical-counseling Educational Experimental Industrial Personality-social Developmental Quantitative Physiological Other Total Employment Setting Colleges Hospitals and clinics School districts Business-industry Consulting and private practice Criminal justice system Research establishment Government agencies Other Total Percent 49.0 15.1 9.9 7.7 7.2 4.2 2.6 2.0 2.3 100.0 Percent 46.3 18.4 10.3 3.2 8.0 1.1 1.0 5.1 6.6 100.0

Membership of the American Psychological Association General Psychology Teaching of Psychology Experimental Psychology Evaluation and Measurement Physiological and Comparative Psychology Developmental Psychology 1-14

Personality and Social Psychology Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues (SPSSI) Psychology and the Arts Clinical Psychology Consulting Psychology Industrial and Organizational Psychology Educational Psychology School Psychology Counseling Psychology Psychologists in Public Service Military Psychology Adult Development and Aging Society of Engineering Psychologists Rehabilitation Psychology Consumer Psychology Philosophical and Theoretical Psychology Experimental Analysis of Behavior History of Psychology Community Psychology Psychopharmacology Psychotherapy Psychological Hypnosis State Psychological Association Affairs Humanistic Psychology Mental Retardation Population and Environment Psychology Psychology of Women Psychologists Interested in Religious Issues (PIRI) Child and Youth Services Health Psychology Psychoanalysis Clinical Neuropsychology Psychology and Law

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