Acknowledgement

We would like to thank and praise Allah for giving us the power and knowledge to understand and build electronic systems. Alhamdulillah for the knowledge we have earned. We would like to thank all faculty members specially Electronic Department members for their efforts in teaching us and maintaining high scientific level in the department. Special thanks for Dr. Ahmad Dagamseh whose supervision, directions and recommendations enrich our project.

Thanks from the heart for our families. They always stand behind any success weve done and thanks for the colleagues and all people who helped us through this project, as well.

Thanks for All

1. Introduction
In this chapter, an introduction to this report is presented. Firstly talking about the meaning of Solar Cells and shows a quick glance about it. Thereafter in section 1.2 an outline of the report is presented.

1.1 What is Solar Cells: (also called photovoltaic cells or photoelectric cells) solar energy begins with the sun. it used to convert light from the sun, which is composed of particles of energy called "photons", into electricity that can be used to power electrical loads. Light from the sun is a renewable energy resource which provides clean energy, produced by solar panels. Solar panels use light energy (photons) from the sun to generate electricity through the photovoltaic effect. The structural (load carrying) member of a module can either be the top layer or the back layer. The majority of modules use wafer-based crystalline silicon cells or thin-film cells based on cadmium or silicon. The conducting wires that take the current off the panels may contain silver, copper or other non-magnetic conductive transition. The cells must be connected electrically to one another and to the rest of the system. Cells must also be protected from mechanical damage and moisture. Most solar panels are rigid, but semi-flexible ones are available, based on thin-film cells. Electrical connections are made in series to achieve a desired output voltage and/or in parallel to provide a desired current capability.

1.2 Outline :

The outline of this report is as follows. In the second chapter of this report, talking about how does the solar cells works by converting sun lights into energy. Thereafter in chapter 3 we can see the types of solar cells witch determined 6 types and explain all of them by words and pictures. Chapter 4 covers several applications of some types of solar cells and explains how we can get benefits of it. During talking about benefits chapter 5 covers all the benefits of solar cells around the world. chapter 6 shows how the world always need the solar cells in our natural life and we can't ignore it because we use it every day. Finally, chapter 7 shows the functions and the applications of solar cells witch use it in our life like street lighting systems , water heating , water pumping , greenhouse, calculators and a lot of applications use it and need it in our life . and there is an (appendix) after chapter 7 talking about an experiment of solar water heater which construct a water heater with a collector and storage tank and it's required a lot of materials and equipment which is determined , then show how to make a simple thing like making a coffee cup by using solar cells.

2. How does solar cell works:

Solar panels collect clean renewable energy in the form of sunlight and convert that light into electricity which can then be used to provide power for electrical loads. Solar panels are comprised of several individual solar cells which are themselves composed of layers of silicon, phosphorous (which provides the negative charge), and boron (which provides the positive charge). Solar panels absorb the photons and in doing so initiate an electric current. The resulting energy generated from photons striking the surface of the solar panel allows electrons to be knocked out of their atomic orbits and released into the electric field generated by the solar cells which then pull these free electrons into a directional current This entire process is known as the Photovoltaic Effect.

3. Types of solar cell and how it made:

There are four types of solar cells : 3.1 Crystalline Silicon(single crystal ) Crystalline silicon cells are quite widely used in most solar power plants. These types of cells contain two layers, positive layer and negative layer just like in most semiconductors. Positive layer exist on the top side whereas negative layer exists on button. Electric field is created with in these layers. Photons from sun light strikes on semiconductors in result electrons are released, electrons are electric charge. This electricity is transferred as direct current (DC) in panel, and it's a very expensive process with high efficiency. There are some cells available which are made from polycrystalline silicon, these type of cells are made of multiple but small in size silicon crystals, these kind of cells are relatively cheaper to be produced but there efficiency is compromised, where as single silicon crystal cells have better performance.

3.2 Thin Film(Amorphous Silicon) Thin film solar cells are simple, durable lighter and easier to assemble when we compare it with silicon module solar cells. Amorphous is used to build best quality thin film cells. In these form of solar cells atoms arrangement is not in particular order. It is very efficient type of cell; it can convert over 90% of usable solar energy to electricity when it is exposed to light only by using amorphous silicon thin film cell which is only one micron thick. Thin film is a low cost process but the cells have a much lower efficiency than crystalline cells .

3.3 Concentrators One can easily understand the working of concentrator cells, they works just as optical lens do. Concept is very much same as in magnifying glass. In concentrator cells light is concentrated using lens to fall on solar cells to produce maximum energy as possible. By using concentrator cells lights intensity is increase by targeting on certain area, which in result increases electricity production.

Most of concentrator cells produced these days are made up of crystalline silicon material. But there are materials like gallium arsenide and gallium indium phosphide have proven to be much more effective in performance when compare with silicon in solar cells, there are chances for these cells will increase in use in future.

3.4 Thermo-photo-voltaics Thermophotovoltaics cells uses different technology to produce electricity. Thermomeans heat, these cells converts heat into electricity,rest of it works as same as photovoltaic cells which converts light into electricity. The only difference between thermo-photovoltaic and photovoltaic is that thermo photovoltaic cells uses semiconductor which are designed for long wavelength, invisible light like infrared rays released by hot objects. This way of generating electricity is very neat and clean.

3.5 Mono-crystalline Silicon Right now, these are the most efficient type of solar panel. In other words, when sunlight hits these puppies, more of it turns into electricity than the other types above. As a result of their high silicon content, theyre also more expensive, but you need fewer of them. Thats why theyre ideal for roofs. You can tell if you have a mono-crystalline solar panel by its square-ish cells.

3.6 Polycrystalline silicon (multi-crystalline, multi-silicon, ribbon) Poly panels have lower silicon levels than mono panels. In general, that makes them less expensive to produce, but theyre also slightly less efficient. The good news is that their overall construction design can often make up for the efficiency loss, so theyre also good for roofs. You can tell poly-silicon panels by their groovy mlange of silicon woven through thin rectangular conduit wires.

4. Applications for some famous types of solar cells:

4.1 Applications of Silicon Solar Cells: Ordinary silicon cells are smaller in size hence produce small amount of electricity. One silicon cell can be used for powering up calculator or wrist watch. To produce enough energy from these types of cell for lightening up entire home modules of silicon cells are require to be made in which these cells are connected together. These modules are building blocks for solar power. More and more modules are connected together for increasing solar electric power capacity. Arrays of modules are made for power generation in satellites.

4.2 Application of Thin Films: These types of cells are not produced individually, but they are developed in modules and then joint together to frames and rest of the plant. Thin layers of semiconductors are used to manufacture thin films by using backing materials like plastic or glass. These backing materials are directly coated with anti-reflected materials and protective layers. Thin films are designed to match the shape of backing materials; this enabled these types of cells to be extremely flexible in using in innovative and different shapes note that it's a low cost process and it has low efficiency.

4.3 Application of Concentrator Cells: Concentrator cells are widely used in high tech industries like space and satellites etc, concentrator cells are reliable cells thats why these cells used in such sensitive and expensive space operations. These cells produce way more energy even by using low quality and less expensive semiconductors materials comparing other solar electric cells. A normal concentrator cell is consist of lens which help focusing sun on perfect spot of cell, assembly of solar cell, device to waste of extra heat, wires for connectivity etc. These units are capable of combining with other units of different shapes and sizes to form bigger modules. Concentrator cells best works in direct sunlight, dry climates. Tracking devices must be used with these types of cells so that they can manage to keep their direction towards sun.

4.4 Applications for Thermo photovoltaic Cells: These kinds of cells are very useful as they do not require much of maintenance works. They cannot only convent heat energy from sun into electricity but can also convert heat from any source into electric energy. Heat sources like fuel combustions, combustions of gasses etc. thermophotovoltaic cells like all other types of solar cells do not release any by product which can harm environment, thats why they are clean sources of energy. Thermophotovoltaic cells can be used in furnaces in future to produce their own electricity, can also be useful in battery charging and power generators.

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5. The Benefits of Solar Panels:

Using solar panels is a very practical way to produce electricity for many applications. The obvious would have to be off-grid living. Living off-grid means living in a location that is not serviced by the main electric utility grid. Remote homes and cabins benefit nicely from solar power systems. No longer is it necessary to pay huge fees for the installation of electric utility poles and cabling from the nearest main grid access point. A solar electric system is potentially less expensive and can provide power for upwards of three decades if properly maintained. Besides the fact that solar panels make it possible to live off-grid, perhaps the greatest benefit that you would enjoy from the use of solar power is that it is both a clean and a renewable source of energy. With the advent of global climate change, it has become more important that we do whatever we can to reduce the pressure on our atmosphere from the emission of greenhouse gases. Solar panels have no moving parts and require little maintenance. They are ruggedly built and last for decades when properly maintained. Last, but not least, of the benefits of solar panels and solar power is that, once a system has paid for its initial installation costs, the electricity it produces for the remainder of the system's lifespan, which could be as much as 15-20 years depending on the quality of the system, is absolutely free! For grid-tie solar power system owners, the benefits begin from the moment the system comes online, potentially eliminating monthy electric bills or, and this is the best part, actually earning the system's owner additional income from the electric company. How? If you use less power than your solar electric system produces, that excess power can be sold, sometimes at a premium, to your electric utility company.

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6. The Need of Solar Cells:

The development of solar cell use has been stimulated by the need for: 1. Low maintenance, long lasting sources of electricity suitable for places remote from both the main electricity grid and from people, e.g. satellites, remote site water pumping, outback telecommunications stations and light houses. 2. Cost-effective power supplies for people remote from the main electricity grid,e.g. Aboriginal settlements, outback sheep and Cattle stations and some home sites in grid connected areas. 3. Non-polluting and quiet sources of electricity; e.g. tourist sites, Caravans. 4. A convenient and flexible source of small amounts of power; e.g. Calculators, watches, light meters and cameras. 5. Renewable and sustainable power, as a means of reducing Greenhouse gas emissions and global warming. Together, these needs have provided a growing market for photovoltaics and this has stimulated innovation. As the market has grown, the cost of Solar cells and PV systems has decreased, and new applications have been discovered.

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7. What is Solar Cells used For:

7.1 Power light motors: If you're looking to power a light electric motor for a project, you can use a solar cell. The solar cell produces direct current (DC), so for efficiency and simplicity, the motor must run on DC. For the motor to work, the cell must provide sufficient electricity at the motor's rated voltage and current. One cell may not have enough by itself, but if you connect multiple cells together, they will collectively produce the required power.

7.2 Solar Powered Water Pumping: Water pumping is one of the simplest and most appropriate uses for photovoltaic, Using in farms and villages to pump the water from wells and rivers by using solar cells to power an electrical motors to pump the water.

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7.3 Solar Water Heater (Water Treatment System) : Solar water heaters use the sun to heat water in collectors mounted on the roof of a house. One type of solar water heater is called a thermo siphon system. As water in the collector heats, it becomes lighter and rises into the tank above. Meanwhile, cooler water in the tank sinks down pipes to the bottom of the collector, causing circulation throughout the system. This is known as thermo siphoning. The storage tank must be above the collector for the thermo siphoning to work. This method used ultraviolet light to kill bacteria in drinking water and reduce the high cost in electrical method to heat the water.

7.4 Remote lighting system : Lighting is often required at remote locations where the cost of power is too high. To consider using the grid such applications include security Lighting, navigation aids (e.g. buoys and beacons), illuminated road signs, railway crossing signs and village lighting. Solar cells are suited to such applications. Remote lighting systems usually consist of a PV panel plus a storage battery, power conditioner and a low voltage, high efficiency DC fluorescent lamp.

7.5 Calculators and watches. 7.6 Light meters and cameras. 7.7 Greenhouse (Solar farms).

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References:
[1] Photovoltaics Special Research Centre, University of NSW. (http://www.pv.unsw.edu.au/). [2] Centre for Sustainable Energy Systems, Australian National University. (http://solar.anu.edu.au/). [3] Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, Scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_cells). [4] Murdoch University Amorphous Silicon cell research. (http://www.eepe.murdoch.edu.au/areas/energy/) . [5] Energy Australia (http://www.ausgird.com.au/). [6] National renewable Energy (usa) (http://www.nrel.gov/ncpv/). [7] Energy efficiency and renewable energy (http://www.energysavers.gov/your_home/electricity/index.cfm/mytopic). [8] other websites : { (http://www.scientificamerican.com) , (www.solarpowernotes.com/how-solarcells-works.html). (http://science.howstuffworks.com/environmental/energy/solar-cell.htm) (http://encyclobeamia.solarbotics.net/articles/solar_cell.html) ( http://www.solar-power-answers.co.uk/basics.php)
(http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/tech/solarpv).

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