Nuclear Terminology

In our communication efforts at Westinghouse, we endeavor to clarify terms unique to the nuclear power industry. Sometimes, though, it may be convenient to have a glossary. Here are a few terms and some links that may help you.

Boiling Water Reactor (BWR) A nuclear reactor in which water is boiled in the reactor vessel; the resulting steam drives a turbine to generate electricity

Cladding Tubing, usually an alloy of zirconium, which encapsulates nuclear fuel pellets in a reactor core

Coolant A fluid, usually water, used to cool a nuclear reactor and transfer heat energy. The water also moderates, or slows down, the fission of neutrons

Criticality The condition at which a nuclear reactor is just capable of sustaining a chain reaction

Enriched Fuel Uranium that has been modified by increasing the concentration of the fissionable isotope U-235

Fuel Cycle The sequence of steps involved in supplying, using, and disposing of the fuel used in nuclear reactors

Half-life The time during which any radioactive substance will lose one-half of its radioactivity

Megawatt A measure of electrical power equal to one million watts

Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR) A reactor in which water, heated by nuclear energy, is kept at high pressure to prevent the water from boiling. Steam is then generated in a secondary loop

Spent Fuel Nuclear fuel, containing fission products, which can no longer economically sustain a chain reaction

Some terms commonly encountered in describing PWR technology that may be of use include:

Fuel Rod/ Fuel Assembly A cylindrical rod, 12 to 14 feet in length, made up of fuel pellets containing enriched uranium in cladding. Fuel rods are bundled into fuel assemblies

Core The central heat-producing part of a nuclear reactor which contains the fuel assemblies

Control Rod A device in the core of a reactor which absorbs neutrons, and is used to control the rate of fission and to stop the chain reaction

Primary Loop A closed system which provides cooling water to the reactor and transfers heat to the secondary loop

Reactor Coolant Pump A piece of equipment designed to move the coolant through the primary loop so that the heat generated in the core can be transferred to the steam generator

Reactor Vessel A cylindrical steel vessel that contains the core, control rods, coolant, and the structures that support the core

Secondary Loop A system of piping that carries non-radioactive water, which then absorbs heat through steam generator tubes, is boiled and, as steam, is used to spin the turbines

Steam Generator A piece of equipment within which heat is generated from the primary loop to the secondary loop without the water of the two systems actually touching

Pressurizer A high-strength tank containing steam and water used to control the pressure of the reactor coolant in the primary loop

Containment Building Houses the reactor, pressurizer, reactor coolant pumps, steam generators, and other equipment or piping containing reactor coolant.

wind power plant Airfoil--The cross section profile of the leeward side of a wind generator blade. Designed to give low drag and good lift. Also found on an airplane wing. Air Gap--In a permanent magnet alternator, the distance between the magnets and the laminates. Alternating Current--Electricity that changes direction periodically. The period is measured in Cycles per Second (Hertz, Hz). Alternator--A device that produces Alternating Current from the rotation of a shaft. Amperage--A unit of electrical current, equal to Coulombs per second. This is the flow rate of electrons moving through a circuit, very roughly analogous to gallons per minute flowing from a faucet. Ampere-Hour--A measure of energy quantity, equal to amperes times hours. Also used to measure battery capacity. Anemometer--A device that measures wind speed.

Homebrew Wind Power by Dan Bartmann and Dan Fink.The best book out there about building and flying do-it-yourself wind turbines. We know, because we wrote it! Order it from our Online Store HERE. Angle of Attack--The angle of relative air flow to the blade chord. Annealing--A heat treatment process that makes Cold-rolled steel more suitable for forming and bending.

Area of a Circle--Pi multiplied by the Radius squared. Armature--The moving part of an alternator, generator or motor. In many PM alternator designs, it carries the magnets and is attached to the blades and hub. Also called a Rotor. Axial Alternator--An alternator design where a flat disc carrying magnets on the face (the Armature) rotates near a flat disc carrying coils (the Stator). Axis--The centerline of a rotating object's movement. Balancing--With wind turbine blades, adjusting their weight and weight distribution through 2 axes so that all blades are the same. Unbalanced blades create damaging vibration. Battery--An electrochemical device for storing energy. Battery Bank--An array of Batteries connected in series, parallel, or both. Bearing--A device that transfers a force to structural supports. In a wind generator, bearings allow the Shaft to rotate freely, and allow the machine to Yaw into and out of the wind. Belt--A device for transferring power from a rotating shaft to a generator. Allows the use of Pulleys to change the ratio of shaft speed to and from the generator. Betz Coefficient--59.3 percent. This is the theoretical maximum efficiency at which a wind generator can operate, by slowing the wind down. If the wind generator slows the wind down too much, air piles up in front of the blades and is not used for extracting energy. Blade--The part of a wind generator rotor that catches the wind. Brakedrum Windmill--A home-built wind generator design by Hugh Piggott of Scotland. Braking System--A device to slow a wind turbine's shaft speed down to safe levels electrically or mechanically. Bridge Rectifier--An array of diodes used to convert Alternating Current to Direct Current. Single-phase bridge rectifiers use 4 diodes, 3-phase bridge rectifiers use 6 diodes. Brushes--Devices for transferring power to or from a rotating object. Usually made of carbon-graphite. Ceramic Magnets--See Ferrite Magnets. Chord--The width of a wind turbine blade at a given location along the length. Coercivity--The amount of power needed to magnetize or demagnetize a permanent magnet. Measured in MegaGauss Oersted (mGO) Cogging--The cyclic physical resistance felt in some alternator designs from magnets passing the coils and gaps in the laminates. Detrimental to Start-up.

Coil--A length of wire wound around a form in multiple turns. Cold-Rolled Steel--Steel processed by working at room temperatures. More expensive than hot-rolled steel. Commutator--The rotating part of a DC generator. Concave--A surface curved like the interior of a circle or sphere. Convex--A surface curved like the exterior of a circle or sphere. Cowling--See Nacelle. Current--See Amperage. Cut-In--The rotational speed at which an alternator or generator starts pushing electricity hard enough (has a high enough voltage) to make electricity flow in a circuit. Cyanoacrylate--A fast-setting, hard and brittle adhesive. See Superglue. Cycles per Second--Measured in Hertz. In electricity, it is the number of times an AC circuit reaches both minimum and maximum values in one second. Darrieus--A Vertical Axis Wind Turbine design from the 1920s and 1930s by F.M. Darrieus, a French wind turbine designer. DC--See Direct Current Delta--A 3-phase alternator wiring configuration in which all phases are connected in Series. Diameter--A straight line passing through the center of a circle, and ending on both edges. Equal to 2 times the Radius. Diode--A solid-state device that allows electricity to flow in only one direction. Downwind--Refers to a Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine in which the hub and blades point away from the wind direction, the opposite of an Upwind turbine. Drag--In a wind generator, the force exerted on an object by moving air. Also refers to a type of wind generator or anemometer design that uses cups instead of a blades with airfoils. Dump Load--A device to which wind generator power flows when the system batteries are too full to accept more power, usually an electric heating element. This diversion is performed by a Shunt Regulator, and allows a Load to be kept on the Alternator or Generator. Duty Cycle--In a circuit, the ratio of off time to on time. Dynamo--A device that produces Direct Current from a rotating shaft. See Generator.

Eddy Currents--Currents that flow in a substance from variations in magnetic induction. See also Lenz Effect. Laminates are used to prevent eddy currents, which cause physical and electrical resistance in an alternator or transformer, therefore wasting power. Efficiency--The ratio of energy output to energy input in a device. Electromagnet--A device made of wire coils that produces a magnetic field when electricity flows through the coils. Epoxy--A 2-part adhesive system consisting of resin and hardener. It does not start to harden until the elements are mixed together. NOT compatible with Fiberglas Resin. Excitation--Using an electric current to create a magnetic field. See Electromagnet. Fatigue--Stress that causes material failure from repeated, cyclic vibration or stress. Ferrite Magnets--Also called Ceramic Magnets. Made of Strontium Ferrite. High Coercivity and Curie Temperature, low cost, but brittle and 4-5 times weaker than NdFeB magnets. Fiberglas Resin--Another 2-part adhesive system, NOT compatible with Epoxy. Often used for making castings, since it is much cheaper than Epoxy. Field--See Magnetic Field Flux--See Magnetic Field Freewheeling--a wind generator that is NOT connected to a Load is freewheeling, and in danger of selfdestruction from overspeeding. Frequency--See Cycles per Second. Furling--The act of a wind generator Yawing out of the wind either horizontally or vertically to protect itself from high wind speeds. Furling Tail--A wind generator protection mechanism where the rotor shaft axis is offset horizontally from the yaw axis, and the tail boom is both offset horizontally and hinged diagonally, thus allowing the tail to fold up and in during high winds. This causes the blades to turn out of the wind, protecting the machine. Gauss--A unit of magnetic induction, equal to 1 Maxwell per square centimeter. Higher Gauss measurements mean more power can be induced to flow in an alternator. Gauss readings can be increased by putting steel behind magnets, stacking magnets, or using larger or higher-grade magnets. Gearing--Using a mechanical system of gears or belts and pulleys to increase or decrease shaft speed. Power losses from friction are inherent in any gearing system. Generator--A device that produces Direct Current from a rotating shaft.

Governor--A device that regulates the speed of a rotating shaft, either electrically or mechanically. Guy Anchor--Attaches tower guy wires securely to the earth. Guy Radius--The distance between a wind turbine tower and the guy anchors. Guy Wire--Attaches a tower to a Guy Anchor and the ground. H-Rotor--A Vertical Axis Wind Turbine design. HAWT--See Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine. Hertz--Frequency measurement. See Cycles per Second Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine--A "normal" wind turbine design, in which the shaft is parallel to the ground, and the blades are perpendicular to the ground. Hub--The center of a wind generator rotor, which holds the blades in place and attaches to the shaft. Impedance--See Resistance. Induction--The production of a magnetic field by the proximity of a electric charge or the production of a magnetic field by proximity of an electric charge. Induction Motor--An AC motor in which the rotating armature has no electrical connections to it (ie no slip rings), and consists of alternating plates of aluminum and steel. Kerf--The width of a cut made by a saw. Kilowatt--1000 Watts (see Watt) kW--See Kilowatt. Laminations--Electrical circuit core parts, found in motors, generators, alternators and transformers. When core parts are subjected to alternating electrical or magnetic fields, the buildup of Eddy Currents causes physical and electrical power loss. Laminations are made of thin strips of materials that make good temporary magnets and poor permanent magnets, and each strip is insulated electrically from the next. Leading Edge--The edge of a blade that faces toward the direction of rotation. Leeward--Away from the direction from which the wind blows. Lenz Effect--See also Eddy Currents. From H.F.E Lenz in 1833. Electromotive force is induced with variations in magnetic flux. It can be demonstrated physically in many different ways--for example dragging a strong magnet over an aluminum or copper plate, or shorting the terminals of a PM alternator and rotating the shaft by hand. Laminates are used to reduce power losses from this effect.

Lift--The force exerted by moving air on asymmetrically-shaped wind generator blades at right angles to the direction of relative movement. Ideally, wind generator blades should produce high Lift and low Drag. Live--A circuit that is carrying electricity. When live, it can shock you. Load--Something physical or electrical that absorbs energy. A wind generator that is connected to a battery bank is loaded. A disconnected wind generator is NOT loaded, so the blades are free to spin at very high speed without absorbing any energy from the wind, and it is in danger of destruction from overspeeding. Losses--Power that is harvested by a wind generator but is not transferred to a usable form. Losses can be from friction, electrical resistance, or other causes. Magnet--A body that attracts ferromagnetic materials. Can be a Permanent magnet, Temporary Magnet, or Electromagnet. Magnetite--A common Iron-containing mineral with ferromagnetic properties. Magnet Wire--The kind of wire always used in making electromagnets, alternators, generators and motors. Uses very thin enamel insulation to minimize thickness and maximize resistance to heat. Magnetic Circuit--The path in which magnetic flux flows from one magnet pole to the other. Magnetic Field--Magnetic fields are historically described in terms of their effect on electric charges. A moving electric charge, such as an electron, will accelerate in the presence of a magnetic field, causing it to change velocity and its direction of travel. An electrically charged particle moving in a magnetic field will experience a force (known as the Lorentz force) pushing it in a direction perpendicular to the magnetic field and the direction of motion. Also called magnetic flux. Maximum Energy Product--Determines how good a magnet that different materials can make. Technically, the amount of energy that a material can supply to an external magnetic circuit when operating within its demagnetization curve. MegaGauss Oersted--Magnetic force measurement, see Maximum Energy Product. MGOe--See MegaGauss Oersted. Moment--A force attempting to produce motion around an axis. NdFeB--See Neodymium-Iron-Boron Magnet. Nacelle--The protective covering over a generator or motor. Neodymium-Iron-Boron Magnet--The composition of the most powerful Permanent Magnets known to man. The materials are mined, processed, and sintered into shape. Then, they are subjected to an extremely strong magnetic field and become Permanent Magnets.

Ohm's Law--The basic math needed for nearly all electrical calculations. Please see a dictionary or Pocket Ref for all of the variations on Ohm's Law! E=I*R (voltage(E)=amperage(I)*resistance(R)), and all of the algebraic variations of this (I=E/R, R=E/I). Also, for DC circuits, Watts=Volts*Amps. For AC circuits, Watts=Amps * Volts * Cosine of phase angle theta. Open-Circuit Voltage--The voltage that a alternator or generator produces when it is NOT connected to a Load. Parallel--In DC electrical circuits such as a battery bank or solar panel array, this is a connection where all negative terminals are connected to each other, and all positive terminals are connected to each other. Voltage stays the same, but amperage is increased. In AC circuits such as a wind generator alternator, each parallel coil is connected to common supply wires, again increasing amperage but leaving voltage the same. Opposite of Series. See also Star. Permanent Magnet--A material that retains its magnetic properties after an external magnetic field is removed. Permanent Magnet Alternator--An Alternator that uses moving permanent magnets instead of Electromagnets to induce current in coils of wire. PM--See Permanent Magnet. PMA--See Permanent Magnet Alternator. Phase--The timing of AC current cycles in different wires. 3-phase alternators produce current that is cyclically timed between 3 different wires and a common wire, while single phase produces it in only 1 wire and a common. In a 3-phase alternator, wire #1 receives a voltage peak, then wire #2 receives a peak, then wire #3, and so on. A diagram is an easier way to explain phase, check out Windstuffnow.com's 3-Phase and 1-Phase Basics page for detailed diagrams. Pillow Blocks--Bearings that support a horizontal shaft. Pitch--See Setting Angle. Poles--A way of picturing magnetic phenomena. All magnets are considered to be "dipoles", having both a North pole (which would point North if used in a compass) and a South pole (which would point South if used in a compass. In an alternator, generator, or motor the number of Poles is a measure of how many coils, permanent magnets or electromagnets are in the armature or stator. Prop--Slang term for Propeller. Propeller--The spinning thing that makes an airplane move forward. Often incorrectly used (by Otherpower.com also!) to describe a wind turbine Rotor.

Pulley--A device for transferring power when using Belts as Gearing. Changing to smaller or larger Pulleys changes the gear ratio, and can be used to make a shaft turn faster or slower than the shaft that is providing its power. Pulse Width Modulation--(abbrev. PWM) A regulation method based on Duty Cycle. At full power, a pulse-width-modulated circuit provides electricity 100 percent of the time. At half power, the PWM is on half the time and off half the time. The speed of this alternation is generally very fast. Used in both solar wind regulators to efficiently provide regulation. PWM--See Pulse Width Modulation. Radius--The distance between the center of a circle and the outside. Rare-Earth Magnets--See Neodymium-Iron-Boron magnets. Rated Power Output--Used by wind generator manufacturers to provide a baseline for measuring performance. Rated output may vary by manufacturer. For example, one manufacturer's 1500 watt turbine may produce that amount of power at a 30 mph windspeed, while another brand of 1500 watt turbine may not make 1500 Watts until it gets a 40 mph windspeed! So read manufacturer's ratings statements very carefully. Rectifier--See Diode. Radial--An alternator design in which the armature magnets are attached to the outside circumference of a disc, with the stator coils mounted around the outside. Regulator--A device to adjust incoming power so as to avoid overcharging a battery bank. In solar power, the regulator generally just turns the solar array off when the batteries are full. With a wind generator, the regulator generally diverts all or part of the incoming power to a Dump Load when the batteries fill, thus keeping a Load on the wind generator so it will not Freewheel. Relay--An electromechanical switch that uses a small amount of incoming electricity to charge an electromagnet, which physically pulls down a connecting switch to complete a circuit. This allows a lowpower circuit to divert the electricity in a high-power circuit. Resistance--The voltage per amp needed to make electricity flow through a wire. See Ohm's Law. Root--The area of a blade nearest to the hub. Generally the thickest and widest part of the blade. Rotor--1) The blade and hub assembly of a wind generator. 2) The disc part of a vehicle disc brake. 3) The armature of a permanent magnet alternator, which spins and contains permanent magnets. RPM--Revolutions Per Minute. The number of times a shaft completes a full revolution in one minute. Savonius--A vertical-axis wind turbine design by S.J. Savonius of Finland from the 1920s and 30s. Shaped like a barrel split from end to end and offset along the cut. They are drag machines, and thus give very low rpm but lots of torque.

Series--In DC electrical circuits such as a battery bank or solar panel array, this is a connection where all the negative terminals are connected to the neighboring positive terminals. Voltage increases, but amperage stays the same. In AC circuits such as a wind generator alternator, each coil is connected to the one next to it, and so on, again increasing voltage but leaving amperage the same. Opposite of Parallel. See also Delta. Servo Motor--A motor used for motion control in robots, hard disc drives, etc. Generally designed more like an alternator than a standard motor, most Servos need special control circuitry to make them rotate electrically. Some can be used in reverse to generate alternating current. Setting Angle--The angle between the blade Chord and the plane of the blade's rotation. Also called Pitch or blade angle. A blade carved with a Twist has a different setting angle at the Tip than at the Root. Shaft--The rotating part in the center of a wind generator or motor that transfers power. Short Circuit--1) Parts of a circuit connected together with only the impedance of the leads between them. 2) In wind generators, connecting the output leads directly together so as to heavily load a generator in high winds. This creates a "short" circuit path back to the generator, bypassing all other loads. Shunt--An electrical bypass circuit that proportionally divides current flow between the shunt and the shunted equipment. It also allows high current measurements with low-current equipment. Shunt Regulator--A bypass device for power not needed for charging batteries. When batteries are full, the regulator shunts all or part of the excess power to a Dump Load to protect the batteries from overcharging damage. Slip Ring--Devices used to transfer electricity to or from rotating parts. Used in wound-field alternators, motors, and in some wind generator yaw assemblies. Star--A coil connection scheme for 3 phase alternators and generators in which all 3 coil phases are connected in parallel--they all share a common connection. Start-Up--The windspeed at which a wind turbine rotor starts to rotate. It does not necessarily produce any power until it reaches cut-in speed. Stationary--With wind generator towers, a tower that does not tilt up and down. The tower must be climbed or accessed with a crane to install or service equipment at the top. Stator--The part of a motor, generator or alternator that does not rotate. In permanent magnet alternators it holds the coils and laminates. SuperGlue--Cyanoacrylate adhesive. Fast bonding glue, easy to find in different viscosities. Sets on its own, and sets instantly when sprayed with an accelerator chemical. Hard, but somewhat brittle. Does not react adversely with Fiberglas resin or epoxy.

Tail--See Vane. The proper term is actually Vane, but Tail is commonly used. Tail Boom--A strut that holds the tail (Vane) to the wind generator frame. Tape Drive Motor--A type of permanent magnet DC motor often used as a generator in small wind generator systems. Taper--The change in wind turbine blade width (chord) along the length. Temporary Magnet--A material that shows magnetic properties only while exposed to an external magnetic field. Thrust--In a wind generator, wind forces pushing back against the rotor. Wind generator bearings must be designed to handle thrust or else they will fail. Thrust Bearing--A bearing that is designed to handle axial forces along the centerline of the shaft--in a wind generator, this is the force of the wind pushing back against the blades. Tilt-Up--A tower that is hinged at the base and tilted up into position using a gin pole and winch or vehicle. Wind turbines on tilt-up towers can be serviced on the ground, with no climbing required. Tip--The end of a wind generator blade farthest from the hub. Tip Speed Ratio--The ratio of how much faster than the windspeed that the blade tips are moving. Abbreviation TSR. Torque--Turning force, equal to force times radius. See also Moment. Tower--A structure that supports a wind generator, usually high in the air. Trailing Edge--The edge of a blade that faces away from the direction of rotation. Transformer--Multiple individual coils of wire wound on a laminate core. Transfers power from one circuit to another using magnetic induction. Usually used to step voltage up or down. Works only with AC current. TSR--See Tip Speed Ratio. Turn--In winding stator coils, this is one loop of wire around a form. A coil will often be referred to by how many turns of a certain gauge wire are in each coil. Twist--In a wind generator blade, the difference in Pitch between the blade root and the blade tip. Generally, the twist allows more Pitch at the blade root for easier Startup, and less Pitch at the tip for better high-speed performance. Upwind--

Vane--A large, flat piece of material used to align a wind turbine rotor correctly into the wind. Usually mounted vertically on the tail boom. Sometimes called a Tail. Variable Pitch--A type of wind turbine rotor where the attack angle of the blades can be adjusted either automatically or manually. VAWT--See Vertical Axis Wind Turbine. Vertical Axis Wind Turbine--A wind generator design where the rotating shaft is perpendicular to the ground, and the cups or blades rotate parallel to the ground. Voltage--A measure of electrical potential difference. One volt is the potential difference needed in a circuit to make one Ampere flow, dissipating one Watt of heat. Volt-Amp--In an AC circuit, this is Volts * Amps, without factoring in the power factor, derived from the phase angle. See also Watt. Watt--One Joule of electrical energy per second. In DC circuits, Watts=Volts * Amps. In AC circuits, Watts=Volts * Amps * the cosine of the phase angle. See also Volt-Amp. Wild AC--Alternating Current that varies in Frequency. Wind Generator--A device that captures the force of the wind to provide rotational motion to produce power with an alternator or generator. Windmill--A device that uses wind power to mill grain into flour. But informally used as a synonym for wind generator or wind turbine, and to describe machines that pump water with wind power. Wind Turbine--A machine that captures the force of the wind. Called a Wind Generator when used to produce electricity. Called a Windmill when used to crush grain or pump water. Windward--Toward the direction from which the wind blows. Yaw--Rotation parallel to the ground. A wind generator Yaws to face winds coming from different directions. Yaw Axis--Vertical axis through the center of gravity.

variable load

Important Terms in variable load problems

(i) Connected load. It is the sum of continuous ratings of all the equipments connected to supply system.

A power station supplies load to thousands of consumers. Each consumer has certain equipment installed in his premises. The sum of the continuous ratings of all the equipments in the consumers premises is the connected load of the consumer. For instance, if a consumer has connections of five 100-watt lamps and a power point of 500 watts, then connected load of the consumer is 5 100 + 500= 1000 watts. The sum of the connected loads of all the consumers is the connected load to the power station.

(ii) Maximum demand: It is the greatest demand of load on the power station during a given period.

The load on the power station varies from time to time. The maximum of all the demands that have occurred during a given period (say a day) is the maximum demand. Maximum demand is generally less than the connected load because all the consumers do not switch on their connected load to the system at a time. The knowledge of maximum demand is very important as it helps in determining the installed capacity of the station. The station must be capable of meeting the maximum demand.

(iii) Demand factor. It is the ratio of maximum demand on the power station to its connected load i.e.,

Demand factor = Maximum demand/Connected load

The value of demand factor is usually less than 1. It is expected because maximum demand on the power station is generally less than the connected load. If the maximum demand on the power station is 80 MW and the connected load is 100 MW, then demand factor = 80/100 = 08. The knowledge of demand factor is vital in determining the capacity of the plant equipment.

(iv) Average load. The average of loads occurring on the power station in a given period (day or month or year) is known as average load or average demand.

Daily average load = No. of units (kWh) generated in a day/24 hours

Monthly average load = No. of units (kWh) generated in a month/Number of hours in a month

Yearly average load = No. of units (kWh) generated in a year/8760 hours

(v) Load factor. The ratio of average load to the maximum demand during a given period is known as load factor i.e.,

Load factor = Average load/ Max. demand

If the plant is in operation for T hours,

Load factor = Average load T/Max. demand T = Units generated in T hours/Max. demand T hours

The load factor may be daily load factor, monthly load factor or annual load factor if the time period considered is a day or month or year. Load factor is always less than 1 because average load is smaller than the maximum demand. The load factor plays key role in determining the overall cost per unit generated. Higher the load factor of the power station, lesser* will be the cost per unit generated.

(vi) Diversity factor. The ratio of the sum of individual maximum demands to the maximum demand on power station is known as diversity factor i.e.,

Diversity factor = Sum of individual max. demands/Max. demand on power station

A power station supplies load to various types of consumers whose maximum demands generally do not occur at the same time. Therefore, the maximum demand on the power station is always less than the sum of individual maximum demands of the consumers. Obviously, diversity factor will always be greater than 1. The greater the diversity factor, the lesser is the cost of generation of power.

(vii) Plant capacity factor. It is the ratio of actual energy produced to the maximum possible energy that could have been produced during a given period i.e.,

Plant capacity factor = Actual energy produced/Max. energy that could have been produced

=Average demand T/Plant capacity T

=Average demand/Plant capacity

Thus if the considered period is one year,

Annual plant capacity factor = Annual kWh output/(Plant capacity . 8760)

The plant capacity factor is an indication of the reserve capacity of the plant. A power station is so designed that it has some reserve capacity for meeting the increased load demand in future. Therefore, the installed capacity of the plant is always somewhat greater than the maximum demand on the plant.

Reserve capacity = Plant capacity - Max. demand

It is interesting to note that difference between load factor and plant capacity factor is an indication of reserve capacity. If the maximum demand on the plant is equal to the plant capacity, then load factor and plant capacity factor will have the same value. In such a case, the plant will have no reserve capacity.

(viii) Plant use factor. It is ratio of kWh generated to the product of plant capacity and the number of hours for which the plant was in operation i.e.

Plant use factor = Station output in kWh

Plant capacity Hours of use

Suppose a plant having installed capacity of 20 MW produces annual output of 735 106 kWh and remains in operation for 2190 hours in a year. Then,

Plant use factor = Station output in kWh Plant capacity Hours of use Suppose a plant having installed capacity of 20 MW produces annual output of 735 106 kWh and remains in operation for 2190 hours in a year. Then,

hydroelectric

Alternating current (AC) A continuous electric current that periodically reverses direction, usually sinusoidal. Ampere The ampere is a measure of the current, or the amount of electric charge passing a point per unit time. Average annual energy production The total energy generated annually by a power station, on average over a period of time of full operation or since the start of full operation, measured in kilowatt-hours (GWh). Banki-Michel Turbine Also known as a Crossflow Turbine or an Ossberger turbine. Well suited to medium head sites with a variable flow. Capacity (electric) The maximum volume of power that can be produced or delivered under specified conditions by a generator or system, usually expressed in kilowatts (kW). Capacity factor Ratio of average generation to the capacity rating of an electric generating unit for a specific period, expressed as a

percentage. Cavitation Noise or vibration causing damage to the turbine blades as a results of bubbles that form in the water as it goes through the turbine which causes a loss in capacity, head loss, efficiency loss, and the cavity or bubble collapses when they pass into higher regions of pressure. Connection The physical junction (e.g., transmission lines, transformers, switch gear, etc.) between two electric systems permitting the transfer of electric energy. Current The flow of electricity through a conductor, measured in Amperes. Direct current (DC) Electric current which flows in one direction. Distribution (electrical) The system of lines, transformers and switches that connect the transmission network and customer load. The circulation of electricity to ultimate use points such as homes and businesses. Draught tube A water conduit, which can be straight or curved depending upon the turbine installation, that maintains a column of water from the turbine outlet and the downstream water level. Efficiency A percentage obtained by dividing the actual power or energy by the theoretical power or energy. It represents how well the hydropower plant converts the energy of the water into electrical energy. Flow Volume of water, expressed cubic meters per second, passing a point in a given amount of time. Head Vertical change in elevation, expressed in meters, between the head water level and the tailwater level. Generation The process of producing electric energy. Green Energy Electricity generation considered to be less intrusive environmentally than traditional generation. Grid A synchronized transmission network that delivers electricity from generating stations to local distributors and other large users at high voltage. Headwater The water level above the powerhouse. Installed capacity The measure of a power stations electric generating capacity at full production, usually measured in megawatts (MW). Intake The entrance to a turbine unit at a hydroelectric dam.

Kilowatt (kW) A unit of electrical power equal to one thousand watts. Kilowatt-hour (kWh) The unit of electrical energy equivalent to one kilowatt of power used for one hour. One kilowatt-hour is equal to 1,000 watt-hours, equivalent to the energy consumed by a 100-watt light bulb burning for 10 hours. An average household will use 800 to 1300 kWh per month. Low Head Head of 20 meters or less. Megawatt (MW) A unit of electrical production capacity. One million watts or one thousand kilowatts. Megawatt-hour (MWh) One million watt-hours of electric energy. A unit of electrical energy which equals one megawatt of power used for one hour. Penstock A closed conduit or pipe for conducting water to the powerhouse. Power Purchase Agreement (PPA) A long-term off-take contract from a large customer to buy the electricity generated by a power plant; it governs the terms of supply and purchase price. Powerhouse The building housing the turbine, generator and electrical control equipment. Renewable resource A power source that is continuously or cyclically renewed by nature, i.e. solar, wind, hydroelectric, geothermal, biomass or similar sources of energy. Pumped Storage A hydroelectric scheme consisting of two reservoirs with a significant difference in elevation that uses surplus offpeak electrical energy to pump large volumes of water to the high elevation reservoir for later use when there is a high peak time demand. Run-of-the-River Hydroelectric projects without large reservoirs that divert a portion of the river flow for power generation. Runner The rotating part of the turbine that converts the energy of falling water into mechanical energy. Scroll case A spiral-shaped steel intake guiding the flow into the wicket gates located just prior to the runner of a Francis turbine. Single Phase Refers to the distribution of AC current using a system in which all the voltages of the supply vary in unison. Small hydro Projects with a capacity to produce 30 MW or less Tailrace

The channel that carries water away from a dam. Tailwater The water downstream of the powerhouse. Three Phase Refers to an AC supply that consists of three AC voltages 120 out of phase with each other. Turbine A device in which the kinetic energy of a moving fluid is converted to mechanical power by the impulse or reaction of the fluid with a series of buckets, paddles, or blades arrayed about the circumference of a wheel or cylinder. Ultra low head Head of 3 meters or less. Traditionally these sites were harnessed with waterwheels and most industrial mill sites would be classified as 'ultra low head'. Volt The International System unit of electric potential and electromotive force, equal to the difference of electric potential between two points on a conducting wire carrying a constant current of one ampere when the power dissipated between the points is one watt. Voltage Electromotive force or potential difference, usually expressed in volts. Watt A unit of power equal to 1 joule per second; the power dissipated by a current of 1 ampere flowing across a resistance of 1 ohm. Watt-hour The basic unit of measurement for consumption of electric energy; equal to the wattage multiplied by the time in hours; the quantity of electrical energy used or produced when one watt is used for one hour. Wicket gates Adjustable elements that control the flow of water to the turbine passage.