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Preface
This report describes the processes undertaken by team Jabaaz in designing, constructing and testing a vehicle that will compete in the state of Oregon for SAE Mini Baja Competition in May-2009. The report encompasses all the aspects of the virtual development of the car. The team is also participating in VIRTUAL MINI BAJA competition organized by SAEINDIA. The purpose of this competition is to simulate a real world engineering design project in which collegiate teams design and manufacture a prototype of a rugged, single seat off-road recreational vehicle intended for sale to the non-professional week-end off-road enthusiast. The design should be durable, safe, easy to maintain and must be able to negotiate rough terrain in all weather conditions. The team would like to acknowledge the significant contributions by the team members. We would also like to thank our guide Mr. P. Sakhivel for his constant support and our beloved Dean, Dr. S. Narayanan for his incessant encouragement.
Contents
1) Roll Cage i) ii) iii) iv) v) Roll Cage Design Objectives Fixing Minimum dimensions of the roll cage Base Model Selection Selection of final model and building a pipe model prototype Pipe model preparation
3) Packaging constraints and subsequent changes in the model 4) Finite element analysis of the model i) ii) iii) iv) v) Force estimation in loading conditions Finite element modelling Finite element analysis Conclusion of Finite element analysis Transient Load Analysis
5) Determination of center of mass 6) Stability Analysis i) ii) Effect of banking of road Maximum gradient negotiation by vehicle
7) Suspension Design i) ii) iii) Suspension Geometry Design methodology: suspension FEA analysis of the arms
iii) iv)
9) Steering Kinematics i) ii) iii) Correct steering angle Steering Mechanism Oversteer tendency
10) Effects of different parameters on vehicle dynamics and stability 11) Gear ratio calculation 12) Hub Assembly Analysis 13) Manufacturing Strategy 14) Conclusion
Fig.2. Retracted Arm Position of the Driver There were two positions of the driver considered: 1) The Upright Position( With straight back & extended arms) 2) The Inclined Position( With inclined back & retracted arms) Among these postures, the second posture was selected as the probable seating posture of the driver after a feedback from the driver. Also, since the most common, comfortable, safest seat in the vehicle is the bucket type seat, an inclined position was preferred to the upright. Once the driving position was decided, a minimum clearance was left around the driver and probable dimensions of the roll cage were decided. c) Base Model Selection The task of designing the basic roll cage was taken up by the members of the design team. To ensure maximum number of ideas and different types of designs, the task of modeling was given to each and every group member. The design parameters were space considerations, manufacturability, safety features, cost, quality, weight, better ergonomics, pleasing aesthetic looks. Also, a torso of the driver was modeled in accordance with the anthropometric charts. According to this chart, the lengths of different portions of the body can be approximated from the table shown below. There are five portions of the body:
1) 2) 3) 4) 5)
H- Height
Fig.3. Anthropometric Chart There were four models suggested by the design team members, each had a different approach towards solving a design issue. The following are the four models presented:
Fig.4. Model 1
Fig.5. Model 2
Fig.6. Model 3
Fig.7. Model 4 To compare the models, and to come out with a final base model, a table of comparison was thought off. This table was made taking some parameters into consideration like weight, height of centre of gravity, etc. Also, results of the FEA analysis (presented in next section) were also taken into consideration. The parameters selected for comparison from FEA analysis were maximum values of the stress generated in different tests and location of the maximum stress points. PARAMETERS MASS( USING 1020 CARBON STEEL) CENTRE OF GRAVITY HEIGHT MODEL 1 167.48 pounds MODEL 2 194.58 pounds MODEL 3 189.98 pounds MODEL 4 166.77 pounds
From the table, it was found, that all the models were almost comparable from the design point of view.
d) Selection of final model & Building a Pipe Model Prototype Based on the results of the comparison table which compared the mass, centre of gravity position etc apart from the strengths and stress analysis results obtained from FEA, it was found that all the models had comparable performances. So, a final design was made in SOLIDWORKS taking into consideration, the design features of each of the four models. The final design is presented below:
Fig.8. Final Model Selected This model was again analyzed in ANSYS and the results were satisfactory with factor of safety coming above 2 in all the tests that were done. Finally, in order to actually see the roll cage design in physical form, a 1:1 scaled pipe model was built using PVC pipes where the ends were fastened using cellophane tapes and the driver was made to sit inside it. Thus the comfort ability and ergonomics apart from aesthetics were observed.
2) Material Selection
The materials used for the cage must meet certain requirements of geometry as set by SAE, and other limitations as decided by team. As the frame is used in a racing vehicle, weight is a crucial factor and must be considered. The proper balance of fulfilling the design requirements and minimizing the weight is crucial for a successful design. Also, paramount are the cost considerations.
a) Material Requirements The rules define the roll cage to be made with materials equivalent to the following specification: Steel members with at least equal bending stiffness and bending strength to 1018 steel having a circular cross section having a 25.4 mm (1 inch) OD and a wall thickness of 2.10 mm (0.083 inch). Calculating the strength and stiffness about the axis that gives the lowest value ensures that the tubes with a non-circular cross-section will be equivalent even in a worst case loading situation. The rules go on further to define bending strength and stiffness by: Bending stiffness is proportional by the EI product and bending strength is given by the value of Sy I/c, (for 1020 steel the values are; Sy=207 MPa, E=205 GPa). E = Modulus of elasticity I = Second moment of area for the cross section about the axis giving the lowest value Sy = Yield strength of material in units of force per unit area c = Distance from the neutral axis to the extreme fiber (diameter here)
Strain Fig.12. Stress- Strain curve of AISI 1020 steel While the rules set many factors of the materials geometry there are other limitations. These limitations include the method of fabrication and industry standards for the material. The frame will be built using a bent tube construction and TIG welded joints. TIG welding becomes difficult at wall thicknesses less than 0.035 inches. The tubing bender that will be used for the fabrication can bend a maximum of 1.5 inch diameter tube with a 0.120 inch wall thickness. It also requires that the tube have a minimum wall thickness of 0.055 inches. The geometry is also limited by industry standards. It is important to utilize commonly available tubing sizes and materials. Tubing is available in standard fractional sizes to the 1/8th of an inch: 1, 1.125, 1.25, 1.375, and 1.5. The wall thickness is limited to the common tubing Gauges. In this case these are: 0.035, 0.049, 0.058, 0.065 and 0.083 inches. The most commonly available materials for this type of tubing are 1020 Mild Steel and 4130 Chromoly Steel. The benefit of using 4130 Chromoly steel is that it is 17.5% stronger than the 1020 Mild Steel. The 4130 Chromoly has the same Modulus of Elasticity (E) and density as the mild steel, so using it does not affect the weight or
stiffness in members with the same geometry. However the increase in Yield Strength affects the bending strength. As the bending strength is affected not only by cross sectional moment of inertia of the material but also by the radius, the 4130 allows the usage of a larger diameter tube with a smaller wall thickness. This in turn can allow a reduction of weight. Additionally, the 4130 Chromoly steel is more ductile than the 1020. This means that the 4130 will deform more before its ultimate failure. A chart showing the associated modulus of elasticity, yield strength, and elongation at break values for the mild and Chromoly steel is shown in the following table.
Elongation At Break
16.5% 25.50%
While the 4130 Chromoly is not corrosion resistant, neither is the 1020 Mild steel. As both materials will have to be painted or otherwise coated for use, this will not be a factor in the material comparison.
Fig.13.Comparison of Bending Strength and Wall thickness of the tube for AISI 1020 and 4130 Chromoly
After reviewing, it was evident that the best choice would be to use 4130 Chromoly tubing with a 1.125 inch diameter and a 0.058 inch wall thickness. But, these tubes are very costly to manufacture and MIDHANI (Mishra Dhatu Ispat Nigam, Hyderabad), a Govt. of India company was contacted, the prices quoted per meter of the tube was too high to be affordable. So, in order to stick with the budgetary constraints, it was decided that AISI 1020 steel would be used for fabrication of the roll cage.
4)
E = 1/2 (m m /m +m ) (u -u )
1 2 1 2 2 1
Where, m and m are the two colliding masses with velocities u and u
1 2 2
respectively. Since both m1 and m2 are two vehicles with similar masses and the vehicle m2 is at rest, => m =m & u =0
1 2 2 2 1 1
F =1/4 * m u * 1/t
1 1
F = 275 /4 *10 /1 F = 8125 N Hence for design purposes force is taken to be 8500N. Also, design output is for no plastic deformations. The vehicle should remain in the elastic region. The Safety of the driver in case of crash is taken care of by safety equipment which includes special helmets, foam padding on bars and seat belts. The Design Factor of Safety, FS was taken as 2. This relatively high value
d
An assumption is made that when the vehicle passes over a bump, the entire weight of the vehicle will turn into two point loads at the two points where the wheel force is transmitted to the chassis, through the suspension. The worst case will be when the suspension fails and the entire force is transmitted. As the requirement is not for the Chassis to fail in case the suspension fails. These two point loads will be equal to the weight of the chassis. 2F = m1 * g F =1/2 m1 * g F= 1/2* 325 * 10 F = 1625 N Hence, Designing for F = 1.1 * 1625 = 1700N (approx).Where 1.1 is the Stress Factor of Safety. Estimation of Loading Forces While Heaving
The Entire Weight of the vehicle will be transmitted to the two points in each case. Hence F =3250N Forces In Case of Rollover
Another situation can arise when the Chassis undergoes rollover. Hence the same force as that in is applied. i.e., F =8500N. The safety in case of rollover is also covered using the concept of clearance zone given by NHTSA (National Highway & Traffic Safety Administration). This force of 8500N is applied at the top front corner points of the chassis.
In order to carry out a design check of the preliminary designs developed by the design team in Finite Element Analysis, a finite element model was developed using the package ANSYS. The geometric model in Solid works 2006 was converted into IGES format which was then imported in ANSYS. The model was imported Solid works 2006 by converting into IGES file consisting of datum Points and Lines.
Element: 3D Elastic Pipe Elements (Pipe16) Line Elements Material Properties Linear, Elastic, Isotropic Exy=2.08 x 10 N/mm2 = 0.28(Poissons Ratio) Element Properties Area = 1.28 x 10-4 m2 Outside Diameter=28.448mm (1.12 in) Pipe Thickness=3.048mm (0.12in) c) Finite Element Analysis The aim is to carry out a design check of the given Mini Baja chassis under estimated loading conditions and to minimize the weight of the frame keeping a Safety Factor of 2.Here, as a model calculation, analysis of model 4 is shown. Material of the tubes chosen was AISI 1020, Hot Rolled with properties: Sut(Ultimate Strength) = 379 Mpa Syt(Yield Strength) = 207 Mpa
3 11
Density = 7800 Kg/m Front Impact Test Model Used: Full Model Loading: F= 8500N on Front Corner points. Boundary Conditions: Rear Corner Points ,All DOF=0 Results: Stress: Max Stress= 111.54 MPa Factor of Safety: Incorporated Factor of Safety = Syt/Smax = 207/111.54 = 1.85(Roughly equal to 2)
Rear Impact Test Model Used: Full Model Loading: F= 8500N on Rear Corner. Boundary Conditions: Front Corner Points, All DOF=0 Top Front Corner, All DOF=0 Results: Stress: Max Stress= 205.9 MPa Factor of Safety: Incorporated Factor of Safety = Syt/Smax = 207/205.9 = 1.005 <2 Hence, the Chassis will not be safe under rear Impact
Fig.17. Rear Impact Test (Von Misses Stress Plot) Front Wheel Bump Test Model Used: Full Model Loading: F= Weight=1700N on front wheel. Boundary Conditions: All DOF =0 at Rear Wheels and Opposite Front Wheel. Results: Stress Max Stress= 134.497 MPa
Factor of Safety Incorporated Factor of Safety = Syt/Smax = 207/134.497 = 1.53 <2 Hence, the Chassis will not be safe during a Front Wheel Bump.
Fig.18. Front Bump Test (Von Misses Stress Plot) Rear Wheel Bump Test Model Used: Full Model Loading: F= Weight=3250N (Vehicle + Driver Weight) on Rear Right Wheel. Boundary Conditions: 1. All DOF =0 at Front Wheels and Rear Left Wheel Results: Stress Max Stress= 399.21 MPa Factor of Safety Incorporated Factor of Safety = Syt/Smax = 207/399.61 = 0.52 <2 Hence, the Chassis will not be safe during a Rear Wheel Bump
Fig.19. Rear Bump Test (Von Misses Stress Plot) Heave Loading Model Used: Full Model Loading: F= 2 X Weight=6500N is to be supported. Force on Two Front Corner Points= F/2 =3250N Force on Two Rear Corner Points= F/2 =3250N Boundary Conditions: All DOF =0 on all Key points on the Upper Surface of the Frame. Results: Stress Max Stress= 174.11 MPa Factor of Safety Incorporated Factor of Safety = Syt/Smax = 207/174.11 = 1.18 <2 The model needs to be improved by adding more members upfront to decrease chances of failure under heave loading.
Twisting Load Model Used: Full Model Loading: F= 1700N on Front wheel F=3250N on Rear wheel Boundary Conditions: All DOF =0 on Key points( Front Left & Rear Right) Results: Stress: Max Stress= 270.151 MPa Stress Distribution Factor of Safety, Incorporated Factor of Safety = Syt/Smax = 207/270.151 = 0.99 <2 Clearly, the model will fail. This can be attributed to stress concentration at rear engine tray.
Fig.21. Four Wheel Heave Test (Von Misses Stress Plot) Rollover Loading Model Used: Full Model Loading: F= 8500N on Top Front Points (Rollover is toppling along the axis of the vehicle here) Boundary Conditions: All DOF =0 on all Key points on the Bottom Members of the Frame. Results: Stress: Max Stress= 239.354 MPa Stress Distribution Factor of Safety, Incorporated Factor of Safety = Syt/Smax = 207/239.354 = 0.86 <2
Fig.22. Roll over Test (Von Misses Stress Plot) d) Conclusion of Finite Element Analysis After the analysis of results, additional bracings were added to the frame mainly to the RRH and RHO. The performance after addition of bracings was found to be satisfactory. The addition of bracings further strengthens the structure by increasing the effective area under load, thus reducing the intensity of pressure. This addition of bracing at the key stress concentration points does help in meeting the safety requirements. Also, it was decided to include gussets in the weld so that the effective welding area increases. The factor of safety taken is 2 here to account for the uncertainties in the assumptions. Following this and the suitable design changes, the model was found to be satisfactory in the strength aspect and thus enhancing the driver safety.
d) Transient Load Analysis In order to actually simulate the on track loading conditions time varying loads were applied. These time varying loads were considered to be ramped. Ramped load step means that the load steadily increases from zero to maximum loads in constant steps. The plots for the various times are shown. Stepped Versus Ramped Loads When we specify more than one substep in a load step, the question of whether the loads should be stepped or ramped arises. If a load is stepped, then its full value is applied at the first substep and stays constant for the rest of the load step. If a load is ramped, then its value increases gradually at each substep, with the full value occurring at the end of the load step.
Fig.24.Stepped Versus Ramped Loads Model Used: Full Model Loading: F= 1700N to -1700N on Front left and Right Points Boundary Conditions: All DOF =0 on all Key points on the rear side of the Frame.
From the mass properties option, the C.G height was roughly found out to be 16.5 inches.
6) Stability Analysis
a) Effect of banking of road We have a car cornering at a speed v and radius r, measured in a horizontal plane passing through C.G on a banked road with bank angle .
F= centrifugal force = mv2/r = wa Fy = - F cos + w sin. Fz = F sin + w cos Fy = w(-a cos + sin) w = Fz = w(a sin + cos)
Effect of banking is to change the tire load. Lets say that the car is approaching a banked turn at v = 45 kmph = 12.5 m/s w = 350 X 9.81 = 3433.5N r=5m F = Fc = mv2/r = 10937.5 N Net force in the horizontal direction : Fy = Fc cos w sin = 10937.5 cos 3433.5 sin This force is balanced by frictional force on ground. It is given by f = N So Fy = N Where = 0.1 Now N = Fz = Fcsin + w cos N = 10937.5 sin + 3433.5 cos 10937.5 cos 3433.5 sin = 0.1(10937.5 sin + 3433.5 cos) = 66.860 This is without considering the weight transfer during cornering.
Lateral weight transfer = lateral acceleration(g) X weight X C.G height / track width Acceleration = v2/rg = 12.52/(5 X 9.81) = 0.2548 g C.G height = 18.5 inches Weight on the front half of the vehicle = 35 % of total weight Thus later load transfer = 0.2548 X (0.35 X 350) X (18.5 X 25.4/1000)/(58 X 25.4/1000) = 7.80 kg = 76.518 N Weight on the rear half of the vehicle = 65 % of total weight Load transfer = 14.959 kg = 146.74 N So effective weight on the wheels is : Front outside = (.35 X 350 X 9.81)/2 + 76.518 = 677.308 N = 69.05 kg Front inside = (.35 X 350 X 9.81)/2 - 76.518 = 524.244 N = 53.45 kg Rear outside = (.65 X 350 X 9.81)/2 + 146.74 = 1262.62 N = 128.7 kg Rear inside = (.65 X 350 X 9.81)/2 + 146.74 = 969.147 N = 98.79 kg Now we balance the friction force on the outside tire with the horizontal component of Fc and w. Friction force f = 0.1(summation of( mv2/r sin + wcos)) 2 = 0.1[(69.05 X 12.5 X sin /5.7366) + (677.308 cos) + (53.45 X 12.52 X sin /4.2634) + (524.344 cos) + (128.7 X 12.52 X sin /6.5748) + (1262.6275 cos) + (98.79 X 12.52 X sin /3.4252) + (969.1475 cos)] => f = 1140.464 sin + 343.34 cos Now this is equal to Fy : 10937.5 cos 3433.5 sin = 1140.464 sin + 343.34 cos = 66.64. Thus we see that there is not much difference in the angle if we neglect weight transfer. This shows that because of large track, there is very little weight transfer to the outer wheels and hence the performance is satisfactory.
Here we are assuming that car is resting on the slope. Na + Nb - mgsin = 0 = 0.25 0.25(Na + Nb) - mgsin = 0 and along y direction : (Na + Nb) - mgcos = 0 From the above two equations we get : tan = .25 => = 14.036o This behaviour is independent of the C.G height. To incorporate C.G we need to know the longitudinal weight transfer. Longitudinal weight transfer = acceleration(g) X weight(kg) X C.G height / wheelbase Acceleration is decided by our requirement. If suppose the slope is of length 25m and the time in which it is to be covered is taken to be 12 seconds with the vehicle approaching the slope at a speed of 10 km/hr we get acceleration as: u = 10km/hr = 2.77 m/s t = 12 sec s = 25 m Using Newtons motion equation : s = ut + at2 we get a = 0.2327 m/s2 = 0.02372 g Thus, Longitudinal weight transfer = 0.02372 X 350 X 9.81 X (15 X 25.4/1000) / (68 X 25.4/1000) 179.65 N
Weight in front tire = (350 X 0.35 X 9.81/2) 179.65/2 = 511.037 N Weight on rear tire = (350 X 0.65 X 9.81/2) + 179.65/2 = 1205.712 N
Therefore, 2(Na + Nb) - mgsin = ma Let the road be slippery, so the coefficient of dynamic friction = 0.1. So now the equations will be: 2 X 0.1(5.11.0375 +1205.7125) 350 X 9.81 X sin = 350 X 0.2327 = 4.37o If we take = 0.3 then: = 16.030
Fig.27. Front suspension packaging Following are the General Front suspension design issues that must be accounted for: Packaging parameters that are fixed. These are determined by the space which other systems take. Package the wheel, tires, brakes and bearings Tire size and rim diameter and width must be decided(- decide wheel offset, fitting of brake calliper, location of brake rotor and lower ball joint, wash rack clearance) Decide Kingpin dimensions and kingpin angle in front view (decided by scrub radius, spindle length. A compromise has to be made. Eg. - If a certain scrub radius is wanted then you have to establish 2 fixed points accordingly-1. Lower ball joint and 2. Ground contact point of the kingpin. In a rear-wheel drive the lower ball joint can be pushed as far as possible and a kingpin angle lesser than 8 degrees is acceptable. More the kingpin angle more is the car lifted when steered. Also a longer spindle length means more lift. Camber of wheels is also a function of kingpin angle and caster angle. With no kingpin angle there is no camber angle with steer lock. With positive caster and no kingpin angle, the wheel gains negative camber on the outside wheel and positive camber on the inside wheel. Caster adds favourable angle to the effects of kingpin angle. Thus low kingpin angles are desirable as it subtracts from negative camber gain due to caster on the outside wheel. Rack position has to be decided. This will depend on engine location and orientation, what kind of drive it is. Rack mounting stiffness versus upper or
lower control arm mounting stiffness. Lateral displacement of ball joints in relation to tie-rod outer pivot during cornering will cause steer angle. It is better for stability to have lateral force deflection toe-out than toe-in. A high mounted rack should be behind wheel center and a low mounted rack should be ahead of wheel center. Structural requirements for suspension design must be considered when packaging each element of the total system. Eg.- Control arms that have one leg straight across from the ball joint are superior in system stiffness to arms. Linkage ratios for spring, shock and stabilizer bar as close to 1:1 will produce more direct load paths thus improving system stiffness while providing a lighter overall design.
Compared to the Mac-pherson Strut type suspension, the SLA is better as it requires less space than the former. Hence, it is better suitable in this scenario.
a) Suspension Geometry
The stability and effective handling of a vehicle depends on the optimum steering and suspension geometry which particularly includes the parameters like the wheel camber, castor and the kingpin inclination. For the ease of designing, the design parameters are subdivided into front view geometry parameters and side view geometry parameters.
The above procedure is implemented and suitable suspension geometry in front view is drawn. The following are the vehicle parameters that are decided before the construction: 1) Vehicle Track Width- The vehicle track width should be kept as large as possible as it avoids possible weight transfer during cornering. The lesser
the weight transfer, the better is the stability of the vehicle. But large track width has a detrimental effect on the manoeuvrability. Hence, an optimum value is selected, the value is assumed to be 58 inches considering the packaging constraints and in accordance with the rulebook. 2) Ground Clearance- The ground clearance of the vehicle is assumed to be 14 inches. This is done so as to avoid large boulders and obstructions from affecting the safety of the driver. Also, adequate ground clearance allows a Baja vehicle to wade through deep mud pits, which is usually an integral part of the competition. 3) Tire Size- The tire size was assumed to be 23 inches in diameter. The width of the tire was 7 inches and the rim size was 10 inches in diameter. The tire was actually selected after it was successfully used in the first Mini-Baja India event.
Fig.28. Front View Geometry Constructed in Solidworks The front view instantabeous center height is set by projecting a line from the tire center ground contact patch through the desired roll center. The instant center must lie on this line. Now, lines are projected from both the ball joints to the instant center. These become the centerlines of the upper and lower control arm planes as projected into the vertical plane through the wheel center. Packaging requirement would decide on the length of the control arm but it should be made as large as possible. The length of the upper control arm in relation to the lower adjusts the shape of the camber curve. If they are the same length, the camber vs wheel travel will be a straight line. If the upper is longer than the lower, the curve must be convex with its curvature towards positive camber. If the upper is shorter than the lower, the curve will be concave towards the negative camber. As the upper is made progressively shorter, the camber increases. The ideal curve has progressive camber in bump with less camber change in droop. The tie rod and rack location should be roughed in by projecting a line through the tie rod outer point and the front view instant centre. The correct tie rod length is then established
for a linear ride toe curve or by the method of instantaneous centres as described in the steering section of the report. The front view swing arm instant center location controls the roll center height, the camber rate, and tire lateral scrub. The Instantaneous Center can be located inboard of the wheel or outboard of the wheel. It can be above ground level or below ground. The location is up to the designers, performance requirements.
The roll center height is found by projecting a line from the center of the tireground contact patch through the front view instant center. This is repeated for each side of the car. Where these two lines intersect is the roll center of the sprung mass of the car, relative to the ground. It is not necessarily at the centerline of the car, especially with the asymmetric suspension geometry or once the car assumes a roll angle in turn. The roll center is controlled by the instant center heights above or below ground, the distance away from the tire that the instant center is placed inboard or outboard of the tire contact patch. The roll center establishes the force coupling point between the unsprung and sprung masses. When a car corners, the centrifugal force at the center of gravity is reacted by the tyres. The lateral forces at the CG can be translated to the roll center if the appropriate force and moment are shown. The higher the rolls center the smaller the rolling moment about the roll center. The lower the roll center the larger the rolling moment.with higher roll centers the lateral force acting at the roll center is higher off the ground. This lateral force times the distance to the ground can be called as nonrolling overturning moment. So roll center heights are trading off the relative effects of the rolling and nonrolling moments. Another factor in establishing the desired roll center is the horizontal-vertical coupling effect. If the roll center is above the ground level the lateral force from the tire generates a moment about the instantaneous center, this moment pushes the wheels down and lifts the sprung mass and is called jacking. If the roll center is below the ground level then the force will push the sprung mass down. In either way the sprung mass will have a vertical deflection due to the lateral force.
Fig.29. Roll Center( 3 Instantaneous Center method) The roll center height may be derived for short swing arm suspension by consideration of similar triangle concept: = r_ _h t/2 l Where, h= roll center height t = track width r = wheel radius l = swing arm length The swing arm length can be found out from the formula: Fvsa (front view swing arm) length = (t/2) / (1- roll camber) Roll camber is the slope of the graph between the camber changes versus the degree of roll. This graph is obtained as below using the package SUSPENSIONANALYZER. Using, the software, as described below, the camber change curve for roll of 2 degrees is found out.
Fig.30. Graph between camber change and roll degrees From the slope of the graph, the roll camber can be found out. Roll camber= 0.3/0.5= 0.6 Therefore, Fvsa = (58/2)/ (1-0.6) = 72.5 inches
Hence, the height of the roll center is given by h = r x t/2=11.5x29/72.5 = 4.6 inches l
Hence, the camber rate change is given by the Arctan (1/fvsa)= 0.79 degrees per inch of bump or droop
Scrub
Tire Scrub is another variable or front view. This is the lateral motion relative o the ground that results from vertical motion of the wheels. Scrub occurs in every suspension system. The amount of scrub is a function of absolute and relative lengths of the control arms and the position of the front view instant center relative to ground. When the instant center is at any position other than ground level then scrub is increased. If it is above ground and inboard then tire will move outward as it rises. If it is below ground level and inboard then the opposite happens with the rise in tire. The amount of movement is function of the control arm length and absolute height from the ground. On a rough road the wheel path is not a straight line if there is scrub. Significant amounts of scrub introduce lateral velocity component at the tire which, when added to the forward velocity, change the tire slip angles. This in turn laterally disturbs the car. The same slip angles will also add viscous damping to the ride motion.
The scrub radius is used in order to give self straightening effect. The self aligning/straightening torque is the product of the traction/braking force and the scrub radius. The scrub radius is assumed to be 25mm for the given suspension arrangement and it is considered to be positive. Kingpin Axis Inclination is about 6 degrees.
Using the above procedure, the side view geometry is drawn and is shown below. Typical assumptions before drawing the side view geometry were: 1) The caster angle was assumed to be 5 degrees. 2) The anti squat and anti dive features were not included in the design. The justification of these two assumptions would be provided after presenting the diagram.
Fig.31. Side View Geometry In the side view geometry, the following parameters are important. 1) Caster Angle: The inclination of swivel ball joint axis or the kingpin axis in the fore and aft direction, so that the tire contact center is either behind or in front of
the imaginary pivot center point produced to the ground, is known as the caster angle. The effect of caster angle can be seen, when the steering is partially turned on one lock. The trail or lead distance between the contact patch center and the pivot center rotates as the steered wheels are turned so that the forward driving force and the equal but opposite ground reaction are parallel and form a couple. This causes self straightening effect. The self straightening effect increases as the angle is increased.
Fig.32. Castor angle and self aligning torque 2) Anti Squat and Anti Dive features
The anti squat and anti dive features are incorporated in the suspension design to negate the effects of weight transfer during the acceleration and braking and the subsequent effect on comfort ability of the occupant in the vehicle. By, altering the suspension geometry, the anti squat and anti dive properties can be incorporated. In a double wishbone suspension design, the arm mounting points are tilted so that when produced, they meet at an imaginary point in side view.
Fig.33. Side view geometry for anti-squat/dive When the vehicle accelerates forward, the reaction to the driving torque pivots the suspension arm about the axle in the opposite direction to the input torque. Thus, the arm swings downward and opposes the upward lift of the body. By, addition of this feature, the major problem is that motion of wheels takes place in two planes of reference. The first plane of reference is the front plane where the tire moves
left and right on the bump. The second motion is in the side view, where the wheel moves in the fore and aft direction. This type of motion adds an unnecessary complexity to the motion. An ingenious method of reducing the squat/dive is: a) Reducing the weight transfer in the longitudinal direction. Longitudinal weight transfer = accleration(g) X weight(kg) X C.G height / wheelbase Hence, by increasing the wheelbase without affecting the maneoueverability is the task. A wheel base of 68 inches suits this requirement. Also, the height of the center of gravity height is kept low at 16.5 inches. b) Using a spring with high stiffness in the shock absorbers. This avoids large lowering or lifting of the body while accelerating or braking. Hence, the side view geometry is kept as simple as possible so that the mounting points are horizontal and the side view instantaneous center is found at infinity.
iv)
v)
These parameters are most sought after as they affect the stability of the vehicle. The design stage involves the following stages: 1) Finding out the coordinates of the mounting points of the suspension A-arms with respect to a coordinate system.
2) Entering the known parameters which affect the vehicles dynamic performance like the wheel base, track, vehicle weight distribution, C.G height, tire size etc. 3) Performing the analysis with the help of the software tool like SUSPROANALYZER which helps in the simulation of the conditions of roll, dive and steer. 4) Analysis of the output in terms of graphs between the parameters like the wheel travel vs camber change or roll center height variation etc. This is explained by the graphical output below:
Three different types of conditions were simulated: 1) + 2 degrees roll 2) + 2 degrees dive 3) + 2 degrees steer The results were generated as shown below: 1) For rolling conditions
8. Braking System
The type of braking system is decided taking into consideration the comparison between disk brakes and drum brakes. Advantages of disc brakes over drum brakes: 1. The friction surfaces in a disc brake are directly exposed to the cooling air, whereas in the drum type, the friction occurs on the internal surfaces from which heat can be dissipated only after it has passed by conduction through the drum. 2. The friction pads in case of disc brakes are flat compared to the curved ones in drum type thus there is uniform wear in the linings of the disc brake friction pads. 3. Unlike drum brakes, in disc brakes there is no loss in efficiency due to expansion. 4. Disc brakes have comparatively better anti-fade characteristics. 5. Disc brakes have a simple design compared to that of drum brakes due to which a) servicing the brakes is easier, b) changing friction pads is easier and, c) it weighs less
a)Brake calculations
For the brake calculation we take: Pressure from the master cylinder is considered as 3 bar. The diameter of the master cylinder is taken as 1 inch The diameter of the wheel cylinder of the brake cylinder at the disc is taken as 1.18 inch The diameter of the wheel is taken as 23 inch = 5.84 m The disc diameter is assumed to be the diameter of the rim of the wheel which is 180 mm thus we calculate the maximum force we are getting.
The force of the piston rod (Fk) = pressure from master cylinder (p) X piston area of the master cylinder (Ah) Fk = p X Ah Fk = 3 X 105 X 2X3.14X0.1272 = 15201.22 Fk = 15201.22 N Clamping force on the wheel cylinder (Fs) = Fk X (diameter of master cylinder(dh)/diameter of wheel cylinder(dr))^2
= 15201.22 X (25.4/30)2 = 10897.06 Fs = 10897.06 N Brake force at brake disc(Fb) = Fs X coefficient of friction on lining() X no of cylinders(z) = 10897.06 X 0.28 X 2 = 6102.35 Fb = 6102.35 N Brake force at the periphery of the tyre(F) = Fb X (radius of brake disc(rt)/ radius tyre(rd)) = 6102.35 X ( 3.54/23) = 939.23 N
F = 939.23 N
So the total force on the vehicle due to braking is = 939.23 X 4 = 3756.93 N Thus the braking force is 10612.80 N. The mass of the vehicle is taken as 325 Kg.Using this we calculate the deceleration on the vehicle. F=mXa 3796.93 = 325 X a a = 3796.93/325 = 11.55 m/s2 Thus the deceleration produced is 11.55 m/s2 Assuming the vehicle will have a velocity of 30 km/hr = 8.33 m/s, using Newtons motion equation we find what the stopping distance will be : V2 = 2 X a X s 8.332 = 2 X 11.55 X s s = 69.38/23.10 = 3 m Thus the stopping distance is 3 m
b)Brake Circuit
Diagonal split is used in the tandem master cylinders here because in case of failure, at least two wheels will help the vehicle to stop and reduce the yaw movement of the vehicle. In this arrangement, the front left wheel caliper is connected to the same port of the master cylinder as the rear right wheel caliper. These calipers are connected to a common port through a T shaped valve called as splitter. The splitter diverts the flow from the main line of the master cylinder to the individual lines of each wheel without sacrificing the pressure in the line. The diagonal arrangement is also advantageous in the sense that it prevents yawing of the vehicle in the case of brake failure. In the case of brake failure, if one the brake circuits fail, still one of the circuits is functional and the braking force is applied to the diagonal wheels. This diagonal arrangement of brake forces ensure that the moments produced by the moving wheel about the braked wheels are opposite in direction in both front and rear and thus cancel out each other, hence preventing the yaw movement of the vehicle.
Hence, the yawing movement can be reduced by the introduction of this type of arrangement.
By, the use of ingeniously designing the braking circuit, the space constraint in the braking rear side is well optimized with the braking performance.
The graphical plot of the temperature is also given. Here, temperatures at individual node points are calculated by solving the conduction equation. The temperatures at different points are calculated with and without holes.
9.Steering Kinematics
The steering system allows the driver to control the direction of vehicle travel. This is made possible by the linkages that connect the steering wheel to the steer able wheels and tires. The steering system may be either manual or power. The steering system has three major components: 1) The steering wheel and steering shaft that transmit the drivers movement to the steering gear. 2) The steering gear that increases the mechanical advantage while changing the rotary motion of the steering wheel to linear motion. 3) The steering linkage that carries the linear motion to the steering arms. Like in designing any subsystem, some suitable targets were thought off, the means to achieve them were found out and the effects of the systems performance on other systems were analyzed. Typical target for a Mini Baja vehicle designer is to try and achieve the least turning radius so that the given feature aids while maneuvering in narrow tracks, also important for such a vehicle is that drivers effort is minimum. This is achieved by selecting a proper steering gear. The next factor to take into consideration deals with the response from the road. The response from the road must be optimum such that the driver gets a suitable feel of the road but at the same time, the handling due the bumps is not affected. Lastly, the effect of steering system parameters on other systems like the suspension system should not be adverse.
This equation represents the basic condition for the steering mechanism to be perfect rolling of all wheels. To solve the above equation, trial and error method is used. In the above equation, c is the distance between pivot centers of the steering tie rods and b is the wheelbase. From the vehicle parameters, c = 47 inches = 1200 mm (approximately) b= 68 inches = 1727 mm (approximately) c/b= 0.70 ( approximately) From the relation, Cot - Cot = c_=0.70 b By trial and error method, the approximate values of angles are 35 degrees and 25 degrees respectively. Hence, for perfect rolling conditions and no slipping condition on the tires, the angles of steering are = Outer wheel lock angles = 25 deg and = Inner wheel lock angle = 35 deg From the values of these angles, the turning radius for different wheels can also be found out as follows: i) For the inner front wheel R (Inner Front)= b - (a c) = __68__ - (58-47) = 113 inches = 9.42 feet Sin 2 Sin35 2
Where a= track width= 58 inches ii) For the outer front wheel R (Outer Front)= b - (a c) = __68__ - (58-47) = 155 inches = 12.95 feet Sin 2 Sin25 2 iii) For the inner rear wheel R (Inner Rear)= b - (a c) = __68__ - (58-47) = 92 inches = 7.63 feet Tan 2 Tan 35 2 iv) For the outer rear wheel R (Outer Rear)= b - (a c) = __68__ - (58-47) = 140 inches = 11.69 feet Tan 2 Tan 25 2
b)Steering Mechanism
To achieve the correct steering, two types of mechanisms are used. They are the Davis and Ackermann mechanism. Ackerman mechanism is used generally for applications where the speed is less and where the lateral accelerations are low. This type of geometry is apt for an all terrain vehicle like the Mini Baja where the speed seldom exceeds 40 KMPH because of the terrain. This geometry ensures that all the wheels roll freely without the slip angles as the wheels are steered to track a common turn center. The simplest construction that generates Ackermann geometry is where the rack is located behind the front axle and lines starting at the kingpin axis and extended through the outer tie rod ends when extended intersect the center of the rear axle. The angularity of the steering knuckle will cause the inner wheel to steer more than the outer wheel and a good approximation of the perfect Ackermann is achieved. The above explained method is shown below with a diagram.
Fig.49. Ackermann Geometry A second way to design-in differences between inner and outer steer angles is by moving the rack forward or backward so that it is no longer on the line directly connecting the two outer tie rod ball joints. Another way to generate toe with steering is simply to make the steering arms different lengths. A shorter steering arm, as measured from the kingpin axis to the outer tie rod end will be steered through a larger angle than one with a longer knuckle. But this effect is asymmetric and applies only to cars turning in one direction, eg. Oval tracks.
Hence the method of extending the outer tie rod ends to intersect at the rear axle is most preferred. When the vehicle is in straight ahead position, these links make equal angles with the center line of the vehicle. The dotted lines indicate the position of the mechanism when the vehicle is turning to the left. Let l= length of the track rod r= length of the steering arms. Then, referring to the figure and neglecting the obliquity of the track rod in the turned positions, the movements of A and B in the horizontal direction may be taken to be the same as equal to x.
Then, from the figure: Sin = c-l_ r Sin(+) = y+x_ r Sin(-) = y-x_ r Adding the above two equations, we get Sin(+) + Sin(-) = 2y = 2Sin r The unknown quantities while designing are , length of the tie/ track rod (l) and length of the steering arm( r ).
Fig.54.Determination of tie rod length in SOLIDWORKS Hence the length of the tie rod is roughly 13.5 inches. From the given data, let us examine the how far the Ackermann criteria is satisfied. The front inner wheel lock angle is given by()=35 degrees r = Steering arm length=150mm l/2=Length of the half track/tie rod=13.5 in= 342.9 mm c= Distance between pivot centers=47in=1193.8mm Sin (19.06+35) + Sin (19.06 -25)=0.70 2Sin = 0.66 Hence the Ackermann criterion is roughly satisfied by the given design.
solution is to raise both ends of the tie rod to move it closer to the shorter, upper A arm, with the tie rod angle can also be adjusted.
Kingpin
It is common for the wheel to be offset laterally form the point where the steer rotation axis intersects the ground. The lateral distance form the ground intercept to the wheel centerline is the offset at the ground and is called scrub radius. It is considered positive if wheel is outboard of the ground intercept. In the front view kingpin geometry shows the kingpin inclination, spindle length and scrub radius. Some factors to consider are: The more the kingpin inclination is tilted from the vertical the more the car will be raised when the front wheels are steered, unless the kingpin inclination is true vertical. Kingpin inclination affects the steer-camber characteristics. When the wheel is steered, it will lean out at the top, towards positive camber, if the kingpin is inclined in the normal direction i.e. towards the center of the car at the upper end. The amount of this effect is small. Driving or braking forces introduce steer torques proportional to the scrub radius. If the driving or braking forces are different on left and right wheels then there will be a net steering torque felt by the driver.
In side view kingpin geometry gives caster and mechanical trail caster angle results when the steer rotation axis is inclined in the longitudinal plane or side view. Some factors to consider are: More trail will give higher steering force. Caster angle causes the wheel to rise and fall with steer. Unlike kingpin inclination this effect is opposite from side to side. With equal positive caster on left and right wheels, the effect of left steer is to roll the car to the right, causing a diagonal weight shift. Thus an over steer effect is caused. With positive caster angle outside wheel will camber in a negative direction while the inside wheel cambers positive direction.
c)Oversteer Tendency
The car is said to oversteer when the rear wheels do not track behind the front wheels but instead slide out toward the outside of the turn. The tendency of a vehicle to oversteer is affected by several factors such as mechanical traction, aerodynamics and suspension, and driver control. The basic condition is that rear slip angle is greater than front slip angle. Limit oversteer happens when the rear tires exceed the limits of their lateral traction during a cornering situation before the front tires do. Rear wheel drive cars are generally more prone to oversteer, in particular when applying power in a tight corner. This occurs because the rear tires must handle both the lateral cornering force and engine torque. The cars tendency toward oversteer is generally increased by softening the front suspension or stiffening the rear suspension. Camber angles, ride height, and tire pressures can also be used to tune the balance of the car. In view of the above factors, the Mini Baja vehicle is expected to oversteer as the center of gravity is behind the centerline of the vehicle. Hence, the centrifugal force while turning would tend to form a couple (rotating force).
Oversteering vehicles have an associated instability mode, called the critical speed. As this speed is approached the steering becomes progressively more sensitive. At the critical speed the yaw velocity gain becomes infinite, that is, the car will continue to turn with the wheel held straight ahead. Above the critical speed a simple analysis shows that the steer angle must be reversed (counter steering).Understeering vehicles do not suffer from this, which is one of the reasons why high speed cars tend to be set up to understeer. But in the case of Vcrit = (-57.3 L g/K) K is called oversteer gradient. Its unit is deg/g =-2.14 deg/g (From Milliken and Milliken) L=68 inches=1.7272 m V= (-57.3 x 1.7272x 9.81 /-2.14) = 73 Kmph K is negative in value, thus the whole equation having a positive value. The critical speed is dependent on wheel base of the vehicle; for a given level of oversteer, long wheel base vehicles have a higher critical speed than short wheel based. An oversteer vehicle can be driven at speeds less than critical speed, but becomes directionally unstable at and above it. There is an apparent gain in yaw rate and lateral acceleration, making it unstable.
2) Yaw Velocity Gain: A second reason for steering a vehicle is to change the heading angle by developing a yaw velocity (yaw rate). The yaw velocity, r is the rate of rotation in heading angle and is given by: r = 57.3 V/R (deg/sec) Substituting this in the lateral acceleration expression, r/ = (V/L)/(1 + [KV/57.3 L g]) Let the speed be around 50kmph or 13.88 m/s which is less than the critical speed. Hence, for this speed, the ratio of yaw velocity to steering angle r/ = (V/L)/(1 + [KV/57.3 L g]) = (13.88/1.7272)/ (1+ [0.24x13.882 /57.3x1.7272x9.81]) = 7.67 sec-1 This ratio represents a gain which is proportional to the velocity in the case of a neutral steer vehicle, which can be seen in figure. In over steer, the yaw velocity gain becomes infinite when the speed reaches the critical speed. Thus the characteristic speed is that which gives maximum yaw response.
Fig.56.Variation of yaw velocity gain with speed 3) Sideslip Angle: When Lateral acceleration is negligible, the rear wheel tracks inboard of the front wheel. But as lateral acceleration increases, the rear of the vehicle must drift outboard to develop the necessary slip angles on the rear tires. At any point on the vehicle a sideslip angle may be defined as the angle between the longitudinal axis and the local direction of the travel. In general, the sideslip angle will be
For any speed the side slip angle,, at the CG will be: = 57.3 c/R r = 57.3 c/R Wr V/(Cr g R) From the model, the center of the gravity is at a distance of 27 inches, hence c=27 inches Here, Wr = Weight on the rear axle = 60% of the total weight= 2058 N Cr = Cornering Stiffness = Experimental data 4) Static Margin: It is the distance the neutral steer point falls behind the CG, normalized by the wheel base = e/L. When the point is behind the CG, it is positive. This is determined by the point on the vehicle where a side force will produce no steadystate yaw velocity (neutral steer point). The neutral steer line is the locus of the points in the x-z plane along which external lateral forces produce no steady state yaw velocity.
7. The effect of roll stiffness distribution when braking and cornering The roll stiffness distribution is the other way of changing the loads on the wheels under lateral force. Roll stiffness can be raised by increasing anti-roll bar stiffness or increasing spring stiffness. If the car is loose on turn entry, higher roll stiffness will help to resist more of the body roll moment on the front. 8. The effect of CG location on steady state cornering A neutral car is best for steady state cornering. By turning, cars with a range of CG positions near the center of the car can be made to be neutral. If the CG is forward, the lightly loaded rear end will be degraded to bring the car back to neutral. The best use of equal-sized tires in steady state cornering is made with the CG near the center of the car. 9. The effect of roll center location on steady state cornering If the car is forward weight biased, a rear roll center higher than the front will tend to make it neutral. If both roll centers are so low that the car has a large amount of body roll, absolute cornering performance may be affected through adverse tire camber. It is necessary to strike a compromise here because too high a roll center leads to jacking and undesirable characteristics. 10. The effect of camber on steady state cornering It is desirable to have a small amount of negative camber on outside wheels. This produces the maximum lateral force from the two outside tires. For race course which have same direction of turn, positive camber in the inner wheels also helps. Camber can also be used to balance the car. 11. The effect of tire and rim size in cornering Cornering stiffness is often a function of tire/rim size, aspect ratio, and width. A higher cornering stiffness tire requires lower slip angles to produce a given amount of lateral force. A lower slip angle means lower scrub and less speed loss in cornering. The optimum rim width may also play a part in maximizing the total grip available from a given tire. 12. The effect of roll stiffness distribution on steady state cornering For a symmetrical car, the roll stiffness would ideally be the same on front and rear, if steady cornering were to be optimized. On the other case the drive degrades the lateral force capability at that end and the roll stiffness is biased towards the un driven end. Thus while making the anti-roll bars calculations must be done carefully so that they optimize their double duty. 13. The effect of Roll Stiffness Distribution on acceleration Out of a Corner Roll Stiffness is the easy way to change lateral load transfer distribution. For rear wheel drive the tendency is to spin the inside rear; more roll stiffness on the front (less on rear) will help this. Whereas, acceleration from low speed can reduce the front tire load so much that the car plows. 14. The Effect of CG Location on Straight Line Acceleration- The CG location determines the point of wheel spin. As the CG moves further rearward, in a RWD, the traction available increases. Traction is a problem at low speeds (low gear=high torque). The CG should be as low as possible to avoid Weight transfer. The CG should be toward the center of the car. 15. The Effect of Anti-Pitch Characteristic on Straight Line Acceleration- RWD Cars especially those for drag racing, may profit from rear lift (anti-squat). This raises the CG and increases weight transfer to the rear wheels on acceleration. The lift effect is created by choosing the rear suspension attachment point to give a high pitch center. The torque reaction from the driving wheels lifts the car. 16. The Effect of Brake Balance on Combined Braking and cornering at high Speed- The best braking balance for high speed turn for front heavy cars is is putting more brake on the front as the car corners harder. Too much braking on the lightly loaded rear during cornering may result in spin.
17. The effect of CG location while braking in a turn - When the brakes are first applied, a large amount of load shifts from the rear to the front axle. This changes the tire operation loads and side forces and the car tucks in. lowering the CG reduces the load change on braking. 18. The effect of brake balance while braking in a turn The large transient effect of brake application is to transfer load forward and change the loads on the tire. Brake balance also can affect this transient through the friction ellipse effect. If the rear of the car is coming around too much on brake application, shifting the brake balance forward will reduce the side force available from the front tires and effectively increase the side force at the rear. Lockout or proportioning valves can change this behavior but require adjustment for different track friction coefficient. 19. The effect of steering axis geometry on poor road behavior Kingpin inclination and kingpin lateral position determine the scrub radius measured at the ground. Negative scrub radius tends to stabilize the car in straight running when the two wheels are on different coefficient surfaces under braking or traction. For poor road straight running, this is a good thing. Un-driven front axles ideally have a small scrub radius. This reduces steering torques due to one-wheel bumps. Large brakes and suspension links often conflict with centering the tire print on the kingpin. So in these cases the steering system must be designed to accept the shock loads. The caster angle and longitudinal kingpin location determine the trail. 20. The effect of ride or roll steer on poor road behavior -Ride steer is geometric effect which results in the wheel steering with ride motion. Ride/roll steer is often built to influence low lateral acceleration handling. Small changes in the wheel steer angles will have little effect on the limit handling because the tires are nearly saturated. Ride steer steers the car with bump travel when traveling straight. Ride steer and roll steer are closely related but they load the steering system in different directions depending on the detailed geometry. If there were no compliance in the steering system or suspension, ride steer and roll steer would be just a function of the wheel ride position to the chassis.
1) The first term on the right hand side is the engine torque multiplied by the overall gear ratio and efficiency of the drive system, then divided by the tire radius. This term represents the steady state tractive force available at the ground to overcome the road load forces of aerodynamics and rolling resistance, to accelerate, or to climb a grade. 2) The second term on the right hand side represents the loss of tractive forces due to the inertia of the engine and drive train components. The term in brackets
indicates that the equivalent inertia of each component is amplified by the square of the numerical gear ratio between the component and the wheel. Hence, by back substitution of the tractive force according to the given requirement of either the maximum power or maximum toque, the gear ratio can be calculated and the gear ratio required comes in the range of around 8:1 to around 24:1 for the CVT.
12.Hub assembly
The hub assembly is one of the most important components as the entire weight of the vehicle is transferred to the hub assembly. Here, while designing, as always, the worst case scenario was thought off. This happens when the suspension fails and the entire load acts on the assembly. This case is simulated here in ANSYS. As is clearly demonstrated by the graphics, the von misses stresses are under control. Model Used: Rear Hub Mounting Bracket Loading: F= 6500 N Boundary Conditions: All DOF =0 at the center sleeve Element Type- Solid 45
13.Manufacturing Strategy
The following steps can briefly summarize the manufacturing strategy: Order Materials/Parts As per the design presented will, the group will need to order the necessary materials for fabrications and standardized parts. A thorough market survey of the concerned parts has already been completed with a list of probable vendors and the approximate price of the product. Machine Parts/ Welding of frame - The design will need the fabrication of several parts. Prominent among them are the hubs of the vehicle which include typical operations like: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) Turning/ Facing on the lathe Press Fitting of the bearings Milling of splines Hardening of the drive shafts TIG welding of the frame
Assembly - Once all the ordered parts and machined parts are ready, the components will be assembling onto the Baja. Those safety features needing maintenance will be addressed and the overall aesthetics of the vehicle will be improved. This includes sheet metal work (Tinkering) and subsequent body painting.
Manufacturing Simulation
The parts to be manufactured majorly consist of those in the hub assembly. Before finalizing the strategy for manufacturing, a thorough knowledge of the processes is necessary. The simulation can be done on SOLIDCAM. The advantage of this simulation is that the process time is estimated and the suitable process and sequence is selected. The basic terminology followed in SOLIDCAM is: i) Profile/ Pocket Milling- Profile milling is a milling process through which outside contours can be machined. The pocket milling is the process through which the inner slots and profiles are made. Down Step- This is the thickness of the workpiece machined per cycle.
ii)
The methodology followed in doing the manufacturing simulation is: i) ii) iii) iv) v) Importing of model from Solidworks Giving the required size of the blank Specifying the coordinate axis system and the controller Specifying the tool path and starting the simulation Generating reports and documentation.
Report
Name : HUB1 ------------
Program number : 5000 Subroutine number : 1 Jobs : 2 ---Pocket : 1 Profile : 1 Total time : 6:58:27 Tool Diameter Corner rad. Tool type Number Length H D ----------------------------------------------------------------1 10.0000 0.0000 TOOL END MILL 2 50.0000 1 1 2 10.0000 0.0000 TOOL END MILL 2 50.0000 2 2 Job Calls --------1. F_top_T1 Time: 1:29:06 P_pocket_T2 Time: 5:29:21 Job name : F_top_T1 -------------------Geometry name : top Tool ---Tool number : 1 Feed ---Feed type : F Feed XY : 100.0000 Feed Z : 33.0000 Define depth :
2.
Milling levels Constant -------------Clearance level : 50.0000 Safety distance : 2.0000 Job Upper level : 0.0000
Rest material \ Chamfer : None Offsets ------Offset on profile : 0.0000 Finish : None Profile direction : Default Clear offset -----------Offset : 0.0000 Side step : 0.0000 Tool side --------Tool side Compensation YES Extension distance : 0.0000 Approach -------Approach : NONE Extra parameters ---------------Extra parameters : OPT1 DELY : 0.0000 FEAD : 0.0000 Job name : P_pocket_T2 ----------------------Job type : Pocket pocket Time : 5:29:21 Retreat ------Retreat : NONE Home number : 1
: :
Left
Geometry name :
Pocket type 50.0000 Direction 2.0000 Connect islands 0.0000 Exit material 47.0000 Corner 5.0000 Offsets 0.6500 -------------Wall offset : Island offset : Floor offset : Finish :
Clearance level : Safety distance : Job Upper level : Pocket depth Down step : :
Overlap
Approach -------Approach type : None Rest material \ Chamfer ----------------------Rest material \ Chamfer : None OPT1 0.0000
Report
Name : REARBASEPLATE-SOLDCAM ---------------------------Program number : 5000 Subroutine number : 1 Jobs : 3 ---Profile : 1 Drill : 2 Total time : 0:20:14
Tool Diameter Corner rad. Tool type Number Length H D ----------------------------------------------------------------1 10.0000 0.0000 TOOL END MILL 2 50.0000 1 1 2 10.0000 118.0000 TOOL DRILL 2 50.0000 2 2 3 40.0000 118.0000 TOOL DRILL 3 200.0000 3 3 Job Calls --------1. F_1_T1 Time: 0:17:20 D_circle baseplate_T2 Time: 0:01:57 D_centre1_T3 Time: 0:00:58 Job name : F_1_T1 -----------------Geometry name : 1 Tool ---Tool number : 1 Feed ---Feed type : F Feed XY : 100.0000 Feed Z : 33.0000 Define depth :
2.
3.
Milling levels Constant -------------Clearance level Safety distance Job Upper level Profile depth Down step
: : : : :
Rest material \
---------------------Rest material \ Chamfer : None Offsets ------Offset on profile : 0.0000 Finish : None Profile direction : Default Clear offset -----------Offset : 0.0000 Side step : 0.0000 Tool side --------Tool side Compensation YES Extension distance : 0.0000 Approach -------Approach : NONE Extra parameters ---------------Extra parameters : OPT1 DELY : 0.0000 FEAD : 0.0000 Job name : D_circle baseplate_T2 --------------------------------Geometry name : circle Retreat ------Retreat : NONE
: :
Right
Tool ---Tool number : 2 Feed ---Feed type : F Feed Z : 33.0000 Drill Parameters ---------------Drill cycle type :
Spin ---Spin type : S Spin Rate : 1000.0000 Milling levels -------------Clearance level Drilling Safety distance Job Upper level Drill depth
Extra parameters
---------------Extra parameters : OPT1 DELY : 0.0000 FEAD 0.0000 Job name : D_centre1_T3 -----------------------Geometry name : centre1 Tool ---Tool number : 3 Feed ---Feed type : F Feed Z : 33.0000 Drill Parameters ---------------Drill cycle type : :
Spin ---Spin type : S Spin Rate : 1000.0000 Milling levels -------------Clearance level Drilling Safety distance Job Upper level Drill depth
0.0000 0.0000
An alternative method of fabricating the hub assembly can be casting of individual components in SOLIDWORKS/ MOLDFLOW EXPRESS. This type of computer modelling clearly helps in decision making.
14.CONCLUSION
The Mini Baja that team Jabaaz intends to submit for entrance in the SAE Mini Baja Oregon competition was a collaborative design effort among students from several engineering disciplines be it mechanical or electrical. The team gained thorough knowledge in the field of designing through the virtual design contest. The teams goal was to produce a design that met or exceeded the SAE criteria for safety, durability and maintainability as well as provide features that would have mass market appeal to the general off-road enthusiast such as performance, comfort and aesthetics. Design decisions were made with each of these parameters in mind. The team relied on individual members knowledge and experience with off-road vehicles as a tool for developing many of the initial subassembly designs for the prototype. Team members who attended the 2007/2008 SAE competition helped invaluably to gather ideas and information about what design choices were successful and how they could be incorporated into the prototype design. Where applicable, selection of components for each subassembly of the prototype was based on engineering knowledge, through benchmarking. Reliance upon engineering intuition governed the selection of the remaining components. Computational design and analysis software like ADAMS/ANSYS were used to verify that each part of a subassembly design met or exceeded its stated objective. Use of these design tools also allowed the team to address and rectify conflicts between interfacing subassemblies before fabrication, saving both time and cost. Additionally, inventory of parts in DFMA software would be created so that parts could be readily duplicated. Parts not machine able in-house would be out sourced to qualified professionals. In some cases after market parts common to certain off-road vehicles currently on the market would incorporated into the design for both convenience and because they would be readily accessible. The use of a high strength TIG welding allows the frame to be both light weight and resilient. Using bends in the frame geometry provides strength and allows for a faster fabrication process. Employing an A-arm suspension provides a durable, less complicated system over other proposed alternatives. A modified rack and pinion steering system provides less road response after taking care of bump steer. The use of a gearbox in conjunction with a CVT allows for a broader range of gearing ratios. The diagonal braking system provides safety in case of brake failure. Each of these design features was incorporated into the designing stage in an attempt to produce a superior off-road recreational vehicle.