Introduction To Drilling Well Completions 4261888 01

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Introduction to Drilling & Well Completion

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WBT, IT Modules, Inter well com pletion, SWBT, Basic, density, drilling,face, WCS, WPC, CTS, T BT
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Introduction to Drilling & Well Completion

Reference: Version: Release Date: EDMS UID: Published: Owner: Author: Private InTouch content ID#4133663 5.0 Provisory 275030441 23-Jul-2008 21:12:29 WS Training Bernadette Gomez
WBT, IT Modules, Inter well com pletion, SWBT, Basic, density, drilling,face, WCS, WPC, CTS, T BT
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Copyright 2008 Sophia, Unpublished Work. All rights reserved.
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Introduction to Drilling & Well Completion / Legal Information
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Introduction to Drilling & Well Completion / Document Control
Torsten Braun, Alice Lee
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Revision History
Rev 5.1 5.0 Effective Date 18-Jul-2008 25-Oct-2006 Description Updated exercises link-url to the perception-resp server. Changed instructions for taking module test online. Exercises and test may be launched from perception-ws server via LMS or taken online. Changed label content, and revision dates updated graphics and text. .Added captions Prepared by Beena Hemkar Stuart Averett
4.1 4.0
12-Apr-2006 30-Sep-2005
Torsten Braun Luisa Attaway, Torsten Braun
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Introduction to Drilling & Well Completion / Document Control
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Introduction to Drilling & Well Completion / Table of Contents
Table of Contents
1 2 2.1 2.2 2.3
Objectives Drilling History Drilling History Drilling History Drilling History
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3 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 4 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 5 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 6 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 7 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 8
Drilling Preparations Exploration __________________________________________________ Site Selection ________________________________________________ Drilling Contracts ____________________________________________ Preparation of the Rig Site ____________________________________ Rig Setup ___________________________________________________ Rigging Up __________________________________________________ Exercise _____________________________________________________
3-1 3-2 3-3 3-5 3-6 3-7 3-8
Drilling Rig Components Rig System __________________________________________________ 4-1 Drilling Mud _________________________________________________ 4-9 Mud Surface Equipment _____________________________________ 4-10 Exercise ____________________________________________________ 4-13 Well Control Kick animation _____________________________________________ Primary Well Control _________________________________________ Secondary Well Control ______________________________________ Exercise _____________________________________________________ Rig Operations Rate of Penetration __________________________________________ Adding New Pipe Joints ______________________________________ Trip Equipment In and Out of Hole ____________________________ Optimum Quality and Cost ____________________________________ Exercise _____________________________________________________ Completions Bottomhole Completions _____________________________________ Tubing ______________________________________________________ Wellhead and Chokes ________________________________________ Articial Lift __________________________________________________ Casing
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6-1 6-1 6-2 6-2 6-4
7-1 7-4 7-8 7-9
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Function _____________________________________________________ Casing Types ________________________________________________ Special Operations Offshore Operations __________________________________________ Directional Drilling ____________________________________________ Exercise _____________________________________________________ Summary Take the module test
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Introduction to Drilling & Well Completion / List of Figures
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List of Figures
2-1 2-2 2-3 2-4 3-1 3-2 3-3 3-4 3-5 3-6 3-7 4-1 4-2 4-3 4-4 4-5 4-6 4-7 4-8 4-9 4-10 4-11 4-12 4-13 4-14 4-15 5-1 5-2 5-3 5-4 6-1 7-1 7-2 7-3 7-4 7-5 7-6 7-7 7-8 7-9 7-10 7-11 7-12 7-13 Timeline: 1500 A.D. _______________________________________________ Timeline: 1859 ____________________________________________________ Timeline: 1500 A.D. until 1863______________________________________ Timeline: 1500 A.D. until today _____________________________________ Seismic exploration ________________________________________________ Township and range lines __________________________________________ Cleared and leveled future rig site __________________________________ Conductor pipe ____________________________________________________ Land-based rig site setup __________________________________________ Rigging up ________________________________________________________ Completed rig-up _________________________________________________ SCR: Silicon-controlled rectiers____________________________________ Hoisting system components _______________________________________ Derrick ___________________________________________________________ Rotary system _____________________________________________________ Downhole motor ___________________________________________________ Mud circulation system_____________________________________________ Mud going to mud pit returns _______________________________________ Mud pit and mixing hopper _________________________________________ Mud pumped from pit to standpipe __________________________________ Drillstring__________________________________________________________ Mud return line ____________________________________________________ Shale shaker _____________________________________________________ De-gasser unit____________________________________________________ De-silter _________________________________________________________ Decanting centrifuge ______________________________________________ Secondary well control _____________________________________________ Annular preventer _________________________________________________ Pipe rams _________________________________________________________ Blind rams ________________________________________________________ Weight of string and bit_____________________________________________ Openhole completion ______________________________________________ Cased hole completion_____________________________________________ Perforation phasing ________________________________________________ Methods of perforating _____________________________________________ Free or unlimited motion ___________________________________________ Limited motion_____________________________________________________ No motion_________________________________________________________ Buckling effect_____________________________________________________ Ballooning effect___________________________________________________ Temperature effect_________________________________________________ Bubble ow _______________________________________________________ Slug ow __________________________________________________________ Annular or mist ow________________________________________________ 2-1 2-1 2-2 2-2 3-2 3-3 3-5 3-5 3-6 3-7 3-8 4-2 4-3 4-3 4-4 4-5 4-5 4-6 4-7 4-7 4-8 4-8 4-10 4-11 4-12 4-12 5-2 5-3 5-3 5-4 6-3 7-1 7-2 7-3 7-3 7-4 7-5 7-5 7-6 7-6 7-7 7-7 7-7 7-8
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Transition or churn ow ____________________________________________ Types of casing and lithology _______________________________________ Conductor casing __________________________________________________ Surface casing ____________________________________________________ Intermediate casing ________________________________________________ Liner ______________________________________________________________ Production casing _________________________________________________ Drilling ship, semi-sub and xed platforms ___________________________ Kick-off point and deviation _________________________________________ Drilling motor-bit ___________________________________________________ Whipstock_________________________________________________________ Kick-off point (KOP)________________________________________________
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Introduction to Drilling & Well Completion / List of Tables
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List of Tables
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Introduction to Drilling & Well Completion / Objectives
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Objectives
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Objectives
IT Modules, Interfac e, well completion, SWBT, Basic, density, drilling, WCS, WPC, CTS, TBT WBT,
In this training module, the students will learn to do the following: Identify the most common drilling method in use today.
Identify three of the most important methods used to nd oil. Put the stages of the exploration process in order. Discriminate between the three possible systems used to determine proprietorship of a specic drilling location. Discriminate between the three basic types of drilling contracts. Put the stages of the drilling preparation process in order. Identify the parts of the hoisting system and the mud circulation system. Identify the functions of drilling mud. Discriminate between de-gassers, de-silters, de-sanders, and centrifuges. Identify characteristics of primary and secondary well control. Identify the main components of the BOP stack. Put the stages of the process of adding new pipe joints in order. Identify three of the most important items to control during a drilling operation. Discriminate between types of casings and liners. Identify characteristics of special drilling operation methods.
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Introduction to Drilling & Well Completion / Drilling History
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Drilling History
Drilling History Drilling History Drilling History _________________________________________________ _________________________________________________ _________________________________________________ 2-1 2-2 2-2
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Drilling History
Figure 2-1: Timeline: 1500 A.D.
Drilling originated in China with the drilling of brine wells to produce salt with primitive cable-tool rigs. The Chinese are credited with developing the cable-tool principle in drilling. To make a hole, the rigs use a cable to which workers attach a heavy, sharply pointed bit. Rig machinery lifts the cable and bit and drops them. The falling bit strikes the ground with a heavy blow, punching its way into the rock. Repeated lifting and dropping allow the bit to drill. From time to time, however, workers have to stop drilling, pull the bit from the hole, and remove the pieces of rock or cuttings that the bit produces. This is done using a bailing tool. By 1500 A.D., it is believed that the Chinese were drilling as deep as 2,000 feet using this method, which was used as late as the 1940s.
2.1
Drilling History
Figure 2-2: Timeline: 1859
In 1859, Drakes well became the rst known commercial oil well, planned and drilled solely to search for oil in the United States (Asians and Europeans had been drilling oil wells before). Using the cable-tool method, the well was drilled
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to a depth of 65 feet and produced 2,000 bbl of oil in its rst year. This small project in Titusville, Pennsylvania marked the beginning of the Petroleum era in the United States.
2.2
Drilling History
Figure 2-3: Timeline: 1500 A.D. until 1863
In 1863, a French civil engineer named Leschot became the rst person to use rotary drilling to drill a water well. A rotary drilling rig turns, or rotates, a bit on the bottom, which drills and creates the hole. A series of pipes are added to lower the bit to the bottom. When the bit is at the bottom, the driller starts rotating it using a rotating machine called the rotary table. As the bits teeth, or cutters, rotate over the formation, they gouge or scrape the rock away. A rotary rig circulates uid while the bit drills. A powerful pump can move uid down the pipe to the bit and back through the annulus space to the surface. At the surface, equipment removes the cuttings, and the clean uid is recirculated back down the pipe. Thus, with rotary drilling, drilling does not have to stop in order to bail cuttings.
2.3
Drilling History
Figure 2-4: Timeline: 1500 A.D. until today
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The advantage of being able to circulate drilling uid has all but made cable-tool drilling disappear. In 1901, this method of drilling was introduced in the oil eld in Spindletop, Texas, marking the beginning of the modern petroleum industry. By 1914, 10% of all oil wells were drilled using rotary drilling. Today, except for special applications or the setting of conductor casing, rotary drilling is used almost exclusively.
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3 3.1 3.1.1 3.2 3.3 3.3.1 3.3.2 3.3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7
Introduction to Drilling & Well Completion / Drilling Preparations
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Drilling Preparations
Exploration _____________________________________________________ Seismic survey animation ____________________________________ Site Selection __________________________________________________ Drilling Contracts ______________________________________________ Day-Work Contract ___________________________________________ Footage Contract ____________________________________________ Turnkey Contract ____________________________________________ Preparation of the Rig Site _____________________________________ Rig Setup ______________________________________________________ Rigging Up _____________________________________________________ Exercise ________________________________________________________ 3-1 3-2 3-2 3-3 3-4 3-4 3-4 3-5 3-6 3-7 3-8
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Drilling Preparations
This section will address the preparatory steps prior to drilling the well: exploration
site selection drilling contracts preparation of the rig site rig setup rigging up.
3.1
Exploration
Almost as important as how to drill is where to drill. Exploration for oil is a difcult and risky process. Exploration (or "wildcat") wells are often not successful in their search for oil. In fact, only one out of nine exploratory wells ends in an oil strike. To dene the actual location where the well is to be drilled, a series of trends must exist so that hydrocarbons are present. A hydrocarbon reservoir has a distinctive shape, or conguration, that prevents the escape of hydrocarbons that migrate into it. To improve the opportunity to nd oil, geologists apply earth science to the search for oil. Many techniques have been developed, based on indirect methods to view the subsurface. Among the most important are seismology, which is the study of the sound waves that bounce off buried rock layers. It involves seismic surveys that are analyzed by knowledgeable personnel. geological mapping, which is used by geologists to dene possible reservoir shapes or traps, due to the deformation in the rock layer that contains hydrocarbons. educated guesses, which use physical geology and seismic information as the base material to guess where to drill. A seismic survey is conducted using: a shooting truck or special sound generator for offshore exploration
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geophones or hydrophones
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recording devices in a truck or on a boat.
Figure 3-1: Seismic exploration
Here are the stages of the exploration process: 1. The shooting truck uses compressed air or explosive charges to send a seismic signal into the earth. (Searches often use compressed air because explosions in water can kill marine life.) 2. This signal is reected back via various formations underground. 3. The returned signals are picked up by the geophones or hydrophones. 4. The information received by the geophones is then recorded using sophisticated recording devices in a truck or boat. 5. The results are analyzed by geologists to determine the likelihood of oil-bearing formations beneath the surface of the ground.
3.1.1
Seismic survey animation

Multimedia 3-1: Signals emitted and captured. Animation NOTE: Multimedia is currently available only in HTML publications.
3.2
Site Selection
In addition to exploration data, the drill site, selected by the operating company, must also take into account nancial, legal, and practical considerations. The ability to establish a lease agreement and drilling rights to a specic location is necessary before drilling can begin. The proprietorship of a specic location to be used for drilling is determined by one of three possible systems in the United States:
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Township and range lines: Township and range lines are used to block off a 36-square-mile block of land called a township. That township is then subdivided into 36 sections, each one square mile in area. Metes and bounds: Metes and bounds means "measurements and boundaries" and describes a tract of land in straight-line segments of length and bearing. UTM: The UTM system (Universal Transverse Mercator) is used offshore to dene nine-square-mile tracts across open water spaces.
Figure 3-2: Township and range lines
3.3
Drilling Contracts
Before moving equipment onto a site to drill, a drilling contract must be agreed upon by the drilling company and the oil or gas producer. There are three basic contract types currently being used: day-work contract footage contract turnkey contract.
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Day-Work Contract
A day-work contract is the most benecial to the drilling company. Under this type of contract, the drilling company is paid an agreed-upon fee for each day that the drilling rig is on site making the hole. If problems occur, and a job that was thought to take 20 days in fact takes 50 days, the added expenses fall entirely on the oil or gas producer. This contract can be very problematic for the producer, since the total cost for drilling cannot be determined until the well is complete.
3.3.2
Footage Contract
A footage contract is usually used in a developed (or production) eld where the depths to be drilled are already determined. In this type of contract, there is a xed number of feet to be drilled, and a cost-per-foot-drilled is determined. This system allows the producer to control costs under normal drilling conditions. It also allows the drilling company to set a price that will be protable if the drilling team is efcient in meeting the footage requirements of the contract.
3.3.3
Turnkey Contract
A turnkey contract is a type of nancing arrangement for the drilling of a wellbore that places considerable risk and potential reward on the drilling contractor. Under such an arrangement, the drilling contractor assumes full responsibility for the well to some predetermined milestone such as the successful running of logs at the end of the well, the successful cementing of casing in the well or even the completion of the well. Until this milestone is reached, the operator owes nothing to the contractor. The contractor bears all risk of trouble in the well, and in extreme cases, may have to abandon the well entirely and start over. In return for assuming such risk, the price of the well is usually a little higher than the well would cost if relatively trouble free. Therefore, if the contractor succeeds in drilling a trouble-free well, the fee added as contingency becomes prot. Some operators, however, have been required by regulatory agencies to remedy problem wells, such as blowouts, if the turnkey contractor does not.
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Preparation of the Rig Site
Figure 3-3: Cleared and leveled future rig site
Before drilling begins, the rig site must be prepared. Onshore, access roads and turnarounds for trucks and heavy equipment must be built and the site cleared and leveled. Offshore, buoys are set to mark the site. One important concern at a wellsite is establishing a sufcient water supply to meet drilling needs. Often, this means that a water well is dug before drilling for oil can begin.
Figure 3-4: Conductor pipe
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When the water supply is established, a cellar or rectangular pit is dug, typically 10 feet on a side and 10 feet deep. Inside the pit, the conductor hole is dug with a special bit. The conductor hole is shallow in depth, but large in diameter; the diameter can be 36 inches or more, depending on the surface condition. The conductor pipe or casing is then run into the hole and cemented to keep the hole from caving in. It also conducts the drilling uid back to the surface when regular drilling begins.
3.5
Rig Setup
Figure 3-5: Land-based rig site setup
Offshore, the type of drilling to be done determines the type of rig to be used. For exploration (or wildcat) wells, mobile offshore rigs (like jack-ups, semis, or drill ships) are used. For production (or development) wells, a more-permanent platform is usually used for drilling boats to move the rig from one site to another. Onshore, trucks are usually used to transport the drilling equipment to the location. For remote, inaccessible locations, helicopters and large cargo planes can be used. Current land-based drilling rigs are very portable. A land-based rig can be moved on location, be set up, and drilling operations can be started within 24 to 48 hours.
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Rigging Up
Figure 3-6: Rigging up
Once the contractor gets the rig to the site, the next step is for the drilling crew to put the rig together, or "rig up." For land rigs, the crew rst brings in the rigs substructure. The substructure raises the rig oor anywhere from about 10 to 45 feet above ground level. The exact height of a substructure depends on the space needed to clear the high-pressure valves and other equipment that is connected to the top of the wells casing. Then, many pieces of equipment are set on the substructure, including a steel-and-wood rig oor on which to work, and the drawworks. Inside this large hoist is a drum on which a braided-steel cable is wrapped around. This cable is also referred to as a drilling line or wire rope.
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Figure 3-7: Completed rig-up
Rig-up involves the assembly of lots of additional equipment such as engines, steel tanks, or pits for drilling uid, pumps, stairways and walkways, electricity generators, and water supply pumps. Rigging-up operations offshore vary with the type of rig.
3.7
Exercise
Drilling Preparations Exercise (online) Drilling Preparations Exercise (ofine)
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Introduction to Drilling & Well Completion / Drilling Rig Components
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Drilling Rig Components

Rig System _____________________________________________________ Power System _______________________________________________ Hoisting System _____________________________________________ Rotary System _______________________________________________ Mud Circulation System ______________________________________ Drilling Mud ____________________________________________________ Mud circulation animation ____________________________________ Mud removing cuttings animation ____________________________ Mud Surface Equipment _______________________________________ De-Gassers ________________________________________________ De-Silters and De-Sanders __________________________________ Centrifuges _________________________________________________ Exercise _______________________________________________________ 4-1 4-2 4-3 4-4 4-5 4-9 4-9 4-10 4-10 4-11 4-12 4-12 4-13
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Drilling Rig Components

Components of a drilling rig include the following: rig system

drilling mud mud surface equipment.
4.1
Rig System
To make hole, a drilling rig needs a multitude of equipment, which is divided into four basic systems: the power system the hoisting system the rotary system the mud circulation system.
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Power System
Figure 4-1: SCR: Silicon-controlled rectiers
The power system is the heart of the entire operation: without power, nothing on a rig operates. A normal drilling rig usually requires from 1,000 to 3,000 horsepower. The horsepower is delivered by diesel engines, called prime movers. A rig may need from two to four prime movers, depending on its size. The bigger the rig, the deeper it can drill, and the more power it needs. Electrically powered rigs use turbines or generators to produce electrical power. This powers electrical motors to operate all the rotating equipment (like the drawworks, rotary table, top drive, mud pumps, hoists, mud mixers, solids control equipment, etc.). Shown in the gure above is the SCR (Silicon Controlled Rectiers) room, where the electric power is distributed among all the rigs components: Hoists, accommodations, pumps, etc.
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Hoisting System
Figure 4-2: Hoisting system components
The hoisting system is used to raise and lower pipe into the hole. In addition, it can be used to maintain weight on the bit. Illustrated here are the principal components of the hoisting system.
Figure 4-3: Derrick
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The most striking feature of a drilling rig is the derrick. In some cases, the derrick can be over 150 feet tall. The taller the derrick, the longer the section of pipe that can be handled when going in or pulling out of the hole. his can allow for the adding of two or three joints of pipe at the same time (called doubles and triples), which reduces downtime during the drilling process. The drawworks consists of a large spool of cable and a brake driven by the rig engines. It provides the cable used by the pulleys hung in the derrick.
The remainder of the hoisting system consists of blocks and lines that do the actual hoisting: The crown block is a stationary set of pulleys attached to the top of the derrick that gives mechanical advantage in handling large loads. The traveling block is the lower, moving set of pulleys. The lines between the crown block and the traveling block are called drilling lines. The lines that run from the drawworks are called fast lines. The dead line is a portion of line that is tied down after running from the drawworks and through the pulleys. The dead line allows for the changing of line in the pulley system when wear or fatigue requires it.
4.1.3
Rotary System
Figure 4-4: Rotary system
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To make hole, the drillstring turns, which causes the bit to cut into the rock and earth. In a vertical well, this rotary force is applied by the rotating equipment, which includes a swivel, a special length of pipe known as the kelly, the rotary table, and a kelly bushing. Some rigs have replaced the conventional swivel, the kelly, and the kelly bushing with a powered swivel called the top drive.
Figure 4-5: Downhole motor
In highly deviated and horizontal wells, the torque required to turn the drillstring makes rotary-table drilling impractical or impossible. In these situations, a downhole motor is used to rotate the drill bit. When a downhole motor is used, the drillstring does not rotate. Instead, the mud is used like hydraulic uid to supply power to the hydraulic motor, which is placed in the drillstring between the bit and the drill collar. Also, a bent motor assembly is used to start deviation from vertical. The depth in which the deviation is started is commonly referred to as the kick off point (KOP).
4.1.4
Mud Circulation System
Figure 4-6: Mud circulation system
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Rotary drilling has two fundamental characteristics: rotation the circulation of drilling uid. Here are the major components of the mud circulation system. As the name implies, the mud circulation system moves the drilling uid (or mud) through the system.
Mud is used to do the following: remove the cuttings made by the drillbit from the hole cool and lubricate the bit keep the hole lled with uid to provide primary well control.
Figure 4-7: Mud going to mud pit returns
The mud is pumped from the surface tank, through the standpipe, down the drillstring, out of the jet or bit nozzles, up the annulus, and back to the surface tanks. The annulus is the space between the wellbore and the drillstring.
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Figure 4-8: Mud pit and mixing hopper
Mud is circulated, treated, and maintained in the surface tanks or mud pits while drilling. While historically these pits were just earthen holes, environmental concerns now require that the pits most often be aboveground containers that protect the environment from contamination. A mud-mixing hopper is attached to the pit, so that materials can be added to the mud to meet changing requirements for density and other mud properties.
Figure 4-9: Mud pumped from pit to standpipe
A suction line attached to a triplex pump pulls the mud from the pit and pushes it out the discharge line to the standpipe. The standpipe is a section of steel pipe mounted vertically to one leg of the derrick that transports the mud up the rig. A exible, very strong, reinforced rubber hose called the kelly hose, or rotary hose, runs from the standpipe to the swivel, or the top drive. The kelly hose allows the drillstring to move up and down, while the swivel or top drive allows the drillstring to rotate.
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Figure 4-10: Drillstring
Below the swivel is the kelly, a square- or hexagonal-shaped pipe joint that can be turned by the rotary table. This specially shaped joint of pipe allows torque to be applied efciently to the drilling, without the slippage that might occur with a round joint of pipe. Below the kelly is the drill pipe, and below the drill pipe are the drill collar and the drill bit. Drill collars are heavy, thick-walled joints of pipe inserted between the drill pipe and the drill bit. The heavier weight of the drill collars add weight to the drill bit, which improves drilling performance.
Figure 4-11: Mud return line. Mud passing through shale shaker
When mud leaves the drill bit, it moves up the annulus to the mud return line, where it is taken back to the mud pit. Before entering the mud pit, the mud passes through a shale shaker, which is a vibrating screen that separates out the cuttings from the mud before the mud is returned to the mud pit to be used again.
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Drilling Mud
Drilling mud has many functions. The rst and most important function is to remove cuttings from the hole as it is being drilled. To accomplish this task, the mud must have sufcient viscosity to hold the cuttings in suspension as they move up the annulus. The mud must also cool and lubricate the drill bit to increase drilling efciency.
Also, mud is used for primary well control by establishing hydrostatic pressure in the wellbore that controls underground-formation pressures. The density of the mud must often be adjusted to match the changing pressures of the wellbore. The greater the mud density, the greater the hydrostatic pressure created by the mud. In addition to these functions, drilling mud is also used to deposit a thin impermeable lter cake on the wellbore surface. This lter cake blocks the pores of the formation and reduces uid loss from the mud into the formation. Since uid loss changes the density and viscosity of the mud, signicant uid loss can result in stuck equipment or formation damage. The lter cake protects against these problems. Hydrostatic pressure is maintained via the column of mud balancing the formation or pore pressure. Also, the drilling uid is used to transmit hydraulic power to mechanical power for downhole motors.
4.2.1
Mud circulation animation
Multimedia 4-1: Mud ow. Animation NOTE: Multimedia is currently available only in HTML publications.
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4-10
Mud removing cuttings animation
Multimedia 4-2: Cutting removal. Animation NOTE: Multimedia is currently available only in HTML publications.
4.3
Mud Surface Equipment
Figure 4-12: Shale shaker
In addition to the shale shaker discussed earlier, de-gassers, de-silters, de-sanders, and centrifuges are also used to clean mud before it is returned down-hole. The shale shaker uses a vibrating screen to remove large cuttings from the mud.
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4.3.1
De-Gassers
Figure 4-13: De-gasser unit
Since gas trapped in the drilling mud can signicantly change the density of the uid and, therefore, its ability to maintain well control, it is important that this gas be removed from the mud before it goes back downhole. The two kinds of de-gassers currently in use are Gas buster, which is a gravity driven device. The mud is pushed from a small pipe into a large cylinder, where the liquid mud falls to the bottom. The gas rises to the top where it is vented off or otherwise removed. Vacuum device that exposes the gas-lled mud to a vacuum, which draws off the gas. This is more efcient, but also more costly, than the gravity method.
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4-12
De-Silters and De-Sanders
Figure 4-14: De-silter
De-silters and De-sanders remove smaller particles or cuttings than does the shale shaker. They do not, however, remove the particulates of the mud that must remain to keep mud density correct for a given well application.
4.3.3
Centrifuges
Figure 4-15: Decanting centrifuge
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A Decanting Centrifuge is a solids control equipment device that uses the principle of acceleration and separation of particles. It is primarily used to eliminate or process ne particles from the drilling uid (<4 microns). The processing capacity is much smaller compared to hydrocyclones (de-sander and de-silter).
4.4
Exercise
Drilling Rig Components Exercise (online) Drilling Rig Components Exercise (ofine)
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5 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.3.1 5.3.2 5.3.3 5.4
Introduction to Drilling & Well Completion / Well Control
5-i
Well Control
Kick animation _______________________________________________ Primary Well Control ___________________________________________ Secondary Well Control ________________________________________ Annular Preventer ____________________________________________ Pipe Ram ___________________________________________________ Blind Rams and Shear Rams _________________________________ Exercise ________________________________________________________ 5-1 5-1 5-2 5-3 5-3 5-4 5-4
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Well Control
When the pressure in a formation is greater than the hydrostatic pressure of the mud column, an underbalance condition exists. When formation uid enters the wellbore, there is an increase in return circulation and return pressure. This increase is called a "kick" and, if it is not controlled, a "blow out" can result. A blowout is an uncontrolled escape of drilling uid, gas, oil, or water from a well, caused by the formation pressure being greater than the hydrostatic head of the uid in the hole. Well control is divided into primary well control secondary well control.
5.1
Kick animation
Multimedia 5-1: Formation uid enters the wellbore. Animation NOTE: Multimedia is currently available only in HTML publications.
5.2
Primary Well Control

The hydrostatic pressure of the drilling uid provides primary well control. As long as this pressure is greater than the formation pressure, formation uids cannot enter the wellbore and cause a loss of well control. As formation pressures change at different depths in the drilling process, the density of the mud must be adjusted to maintain well control.
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Secondary Well Control
Figure 5-1: Secondary well control
Secondary well control is provided by a series of valves and cutoffs at the wellhead, called the BOP (or blowout preventer) stack. Here are typical components of the BOP stack. the annular preventer pipe rams blind rams shear rams.
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5.3.1
Annular Preventer
Figure 5-2: Annular preventer
The annular preventer is a dynamic seal, which can seal the annulus between the drill pipe and the side of the hole. The annular preventer works with various sizes of pipes or casing and does not have to be changed as pipe entering the hole changes diameter. Additionally, the drillstring can still be rotated with the annular preventer closed.
5.3.2
Pipe Ram
Figure 5-3: Pipe rams
The pipe ram is also an annular seal, but it is static and ts only one specic size of pipe. As pipe sizes change, the pipe rams must be changed to match the diameters of the drill pipe.
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The drillstring cannot be rotated with the pipe rams closed.
5.3.3
Blind Rams and Shear Rams
Figure 5-4: Blind rams
Blind rams seal only on open hole, and blind-shear rams cut or shear the pipe and then seal the hole. The shear rams cut the pipe, and the blind rams seal off the hole. Both annular and ram preventers operate with hydraulic uid, which is stored under pressure in several steel cylinder units called accumulators. These units are controlled from a remote-control unit on the rig oor.
5.4
Exercise
Well Control Exercise (online) Well Control Exercise (ofine)
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6 6.1 6.2 6.2.1 6.3 6.4 6.4.1 6.4.1.1 6.4.1.2 6.4.1.3 6.5
Introduction to Drilling & Well Completion / Rig Operations
6-i
Rig Operations
Rate of Penetration _____________________________________________ Adding New Pipe Joints ________________________________________ Addition of new pipe joints to drillstring animation ______________ Trip Equipment In and Out of Hole ______________________________ Optimum Quality and Cost _____________________________________ Important Items to Control ____________________________________ Weight on the Drill Bit _____________________________________ Torque ___________________________________________________ Bit Wear _________________________________________________ Exercise ________________________________________________________ 6-1 6-1 6-2 6-2 6-2 6-2 6-3 6-3 6-4 6-4
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Rig Operations
This section on rig operations will address rate of penetration

adding new pipe joints trip equipment in and out of the hole optimum quality and cost.
6.1
Rate of Penetration
The most important operation in drilling is to make hole. The rate of penetration is a record of how efcient the drilling team is at making hole. To maintain an optimum ROP, a sharp bit must be kept rotating at the bottom of the hole. Variations on the drilling rate can indicate bit wear, formation changes, or whether weight on bit, rotary speed, and hydraulic are being properly handled.
6.2
Adding New Pipe Joints

As the depth of the hole increases, pipe joints must be added to keep the bit on the bottom. Here is the process of adding new pipe joints to the drillstring: 1. When the kelly reaches its lowest point, the drillstring is held and suspended by slips so that it cannot fall into the hole; then the kelly is removed. 2. A joint of pipe is then placed in the mousehole to hold it in a vertical position so that it can be attached to the kelly. 3. The new joint is then lifted by the hoist and attached to the drillstring. 4. The slips are then released, the drillstring is lowered to the bottom of the hole, and drilling is resumed.
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6-2
Addition of new pipe joints to drillstring animation
Multimedia 6-1: Drillpipe pick up and addition to drillstring. Animation NOTE: Multimedia is currently available only in HTML publications.
6.3
Trip Equipment In and Out of Hole

Throughout the drilling operation, the drillstring must at times be removed completely from the wellbore. Sometimes this must be done to change the drill bit. At other times, this must be done to change the diameter of the drillstring, or to run special tools or equipment down the wellbore. During trips in and out of the hole, each joint must be removed or added as described above.
6.4
Optimum Quality and Cost

Throughout a drilling operation, emphasis must be placed on both optimizing the rate of penetration and minimizing costs. Drilling too quickly can result in damaged or broken drillstrings, which can increase costs. Every effort should be made to drill efciently, but also with minimum risk of damaging equipment, which could lead to costly downtime at the drilling site.
6.4.1
Important Items to Control

Important items to control are weight on the drill bit torque bit wear.
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6.4.1.1
Figure 6-1: Weight of string and bit
One important consideration in maintaining optimum drilling parameters is the weight on the drill bit. While weight is measured by a scale at the crown block, this weight may not be the same as the weight on the drill bit. Both the friction of the wellbore on the drillstring and the buoyancy of the drillstring in the mud to reduce the force at the drill bit. When the drill bit is on bottom and weight is applied on the bit, the section of pipe immediately above the bit is in compression. The pipe hanging from the hook at surface is still under tension. Somewhere along the drillstring, the load goes from compression to tension and the axial force is zero. This point is called the Neutral point. The Neutral point location is affected by frictional and bouyancy forces. Enough heavyweight pipe (Drill Collars) are added above the bit to keep the drill pipe in tension all the time.
6.4.1.2
Torque
In addition to weight on the drill bit, it is also important to control torque (or twisting) on the drillstring. Excessive torque can result in broken joints, which can fall into the wellbore and be very difcult to remove.
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Bit Wear
Also, bit wear must be monitored. A worn drill bit will turn easily in the wellbore, but it will not cut rock or earth and allow for continued penetration. A decrease in ROP and a change in torque on the bit are some indicators of a worn out bit.
6.5
Exercise
Rig Operations Exercise (online) Rig Operations Exercise (ofine)
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7 7.1 7.1.1 7.1.2 7.2 7.2.1 7.2.2 7.3 7.4
Introduction to Drilling & Well Completion / Completions
7-i
Completions
Bottomhole Completions _______________________________________ Perforating __________________________________________________ Methods of Perforating _______________________________________ Tubing _________________________________________________________ Tubing Design Requirements _________________________________ Multi-Phase Flow Regimes ___________________________________ Wellhead and Chokes __________________________________________ Articial Lift ____________________________________________________ 7-1 7-2 7-3 7-4 7-5 7-7 7-8 7-9
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Completions
Topics discussed in this section will be: Casing

Bottomhole Completions Tubing Wellhead and Chokes Articial Lift.
7.1
Bottomhole Completions
Many factors affect whether a well is cased or left as an openhole completion. An openhole completion is one where there is no casing or liner across the producing formation. A cased hole completion has casing across the producing formation.
Figure 7-1: Openhole completion
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Figure 7-2: Cased hole completion
7.1.1
Perforating
In order for the formation uid to enter the wellbore in a cased hole completion, there must be a pathway created from the wellbore through the casing and cement sheath to the reservoir. This pathway is called a perforation. The perforation scheme depends on many factors, including the type of stimulation treatment needed. There are two important terms that describe the perforations in a completion. The rst is shots per foot (SPF). This is the number of perforations per vertical foot of casing. The second is perforation phasing. This describes the angle (in degrees) between the perforations. The diagram below shows 90 degrees phasing. The length of penetration (also called the perforation tunnel length) can be estimated. All of this information can be gathered from the company that does the perforating or the operator.
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Figure 7-3: Perforation phasing. The most common perforation phasing congurations are 0 , 60, 90, 120, and 180.
7.1.2
Methods of Perforating
Figure 7-4: Methods of perforating
There are three ways that perforating is done. These methods of perforating are dependent on the bottomhole pressure at the time of perforating. Underbalanced perforating In this method of perforating, the bottom hole pressure in the casing is less than the reservoir pressure. This allows for a surge of formation uid to enter the wellbore cleaning up the debris. This requires special equipment to control the well during perforation operations.
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Overbalanced perforating In this method of perforating the bottomhole pressure is greater than the reservoir pressure of the zone being perforated. This allows for the wellbore uid to surge into the formation compacting the debris in the perforation tunnels. This method is simple and does not require special equipment. Extremely overbalanced perforating This method of perforating requires that the bottomhole pressure be greater than the closure pressure (or fracturing pressure) of the reservoir. The initial surge of wellbore uid into the reservoir will cause many small fractures.
7.2
Tubing
Tubing is small diameter pipe that is run inside the casing to protect the casing from corrosion. It can be pulled and replaced when necessary, unlike casing. Tubing is typically run to a depth right above the producing zone. There is usually a tubing or production packer set near the end of the tubing string. The packer seals the casing tubing annulus to prevent produced uids from contacting the casing and helps to centralize the tubing. Packers can be classied depending on how freely the tubing can move. There are three classications:
Figure 7-5: Free or unlimited motion. Tubing can move both up and down.
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Figure 7-6: Limited motion. Tubing is limited to movement in one direction, usually up.
Figure 7-7: No motion. Tubing cannot move up or down.
7.2.1
Tubing Design Requirements

When selecting a tubing string for a completion, many things must be taken into consideration. The forces and stress that will be exerted on the tubing by uids, completion components, temperature changes, pressure changes and friction must be evaluated. These factors can change throughout the life of the completion. Production rate and uid must also be accounted for in the design. There are four principle effects that can cause length and force changes in the tubing string. They are the piston effect, buckling effect, ballooning effect and temperature effect.
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Figure 7-8: Buckling effect
Figure 7-9: Ballooning effect
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Figure 7-10: Temperature effect
7.2.2
Multi-Phase Flow Regimes

There are four principal multi-phase ow regimes recognized in oil and gas wells.
Figure 7-11: Bubble ow. Small evenly distributed gas bubbles in a continuous liquid phase
Figure 7-12: Slug ow. Series of gas pockets (called Taylor bubbles) unevenly distributed throughout continuous liquid phase
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Figure 7-13: Annular or mist ow. Entrained liquid in continuous gas phase; annular lm of liquid along sides of tubing/casing
Figure 7-14: Transition or churn ow. Chaotic ow pattern where neither phase is continuous; liquid can appear to move both up and down in the tubing.
7.3
Wellhead and Chokes

A wellhead is a permanent, large, forged or cast steel tting on top of the well at surface. Wellhead equipment includes the casing head, the tubing head, Christmas tree, stufng box and pressure gauges. A well is rarely allowed to produce at an unlimited rate because this can result in a rapid decrease in production and ultimately reduce the total recovery. Also, gas bubbles can form due to the large pressure drop in the near wellbore area blocking reservoir rock pores and thus causing production to decrease. Therefore, production is controlled by surface and subsurface chokes. A choke has a small hole in it that the uid ows through called an orice. The smaller the orice the lower the production rate. Chokes can either be positive (xed orice size) or adjustable (orice size can be changed).
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Articial Lift
Gas wells ow to the surface unassisted, however many oil wells are not able to ow to the surface due to the hydrostatic pressure of the uid column. Only 4% of oil wells in the United States have sufcient reservoir pressure to produce on their own. In cases where the oil cannot ow by itself, a method of articial lift is utilized. Common methods include sucker rod pumps, gas lift and electric submersible pumps (ESP). These methods help lift the column of oil to the surface.
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8 8.1 8.2 8.2.1 8.2.2 8.2.3 8.2.4 8.2.5
Introduction to Drilling & Well Completion / Casing
8-i
Casing
Function _______________________________________________________ Casing Types ___________________________________________________ Conductor Casing ____________________________________________ Surface Casing ______________________________________________ Intermediate Casing __________________________________________ Liners _______________________________________________________ Production Casing or Liners __________________________________ 8-1 8-1 8-2 8-3 8-4 8-4 8-5
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Casing
This section will address the functions

types of well casing.
8.1
Function
Figure 8-1: Types of casing and lithology
A series of casing strings is necessary to complete a well. Casing is large pipe run into the wellbore to protect the integrity of the hole and to isolate various formations from each other and the surface.
8.2
Casing Types
There are several types of casings, each with its own specic function. Casing design is determined by the following: well depth completion procedures to be used
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the existence of lost circulation or high-pressure zones in the formation existence of corrosive waters or gases in the formation government regulations. Types of casings include the following: conductor casing surface casing
intermediate casing liners production casing/liners.
8.2.1
Conductor Casing
Figure 8-2: Conductor casing
Conductor casing is run into the hole from the surface to below the topsoil or other unconsolidated earth. Its primary function is to keep the earth under the drilling rig from caving into the wellbore during later drilling operations. Conductor casing is driven or drilled to 100 to 300 feet.
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8-3
Surface Casing
Figure 8-3: Surface casing
Surface casing is run into the hole below any freshwater aquifers found at relatively shallow depths. It is used to isolate these freshwater zones to prevent contamination of fresh water by formation uids. Very often, the surface casing is the rst string to which BOPs are connected.
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8-4
Intermediate Casing
Figure 8-4: Intermediate casing
Intermediate casing is run inside the surface casing to isolate hole problems and maintain casing integrity. This is normally called the long string and is set before the production casing or liner. These zones may be weak, fractured, high-pressure, plastic formations.
8.2.4
Liners
Figure 8-5: Liner
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A liner is a string of casing that does not extend all the way to the surface. It is hung or seated inside the previous casing string, overlapping and secured within the larger pipe. Liners are used in deep wells to reduce iron costs associated with running iron all the way to the surface.
8.2.5
Production Casing or Liners
Figure 8-6: Production casing
Production casing and production liners are often called the long string. While both are used to bring formation uids up the wellbore, the difference between production casing and production liner is whether the string reaches all the way to the surface or only as high as an intermediate casing above it. This string of casing serves to isolate the reservoir from undesirable uids in the production formation and from other zones penetrated by the wellbore. For production, the liner is perforated, and uid ows into the wellbore while the wellbore is secured and held open.
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9 9.1 9.2 9.2.1 9.2.2 9.3
Introduction to Drilling & Well Completion / Special Operations
9-i
Special Operations
Offshore Operations ___________________________________________ Directional Drilling _____________________________________________ Air Drilling ___________________________________________________ Fishing ______________________________________________________ Exercise ________________________________________________________ 9-1 9-2 9-5 9-5 9-5
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Special Operations
While most drilling has been done onshore in vertical or only slightly deviated wells, more and more drilling is being done offshore and in highly deviated or horizontal wells. In addition, certain well conditions may require drilling with air rather than mud. Also, lost tools, equipment, or strings can be recovered by "shing" for these items. All of these are examples of special drilling operations.
9.1
Offshore Operations
Figure 9-1: Drilling ship, semi-sub and xed platforms
Here is a drilling ship (used more often on exploratory wells or at the greatest water depths) and a semi-submersible drilling platform (used in deepwater eld development). Offshore operations require special considerations because of weather, logistics, environmental or regulatory issues. Fixed platforms are used when large elds are developed and support facilities are required.
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9-2
Directional Drilling
Figure 9-2: Kick-off point and deviation
Controlled directional drilling is dened as deviating a wellbore along a planned course to an underground target located a given horizontal distance from the top of the hole. To achieve that objective, the well can have a deviation angle from one to ninety degrees (horizontal). Directional drilling is used to run several wells from one site into different pay zones or different parts of the same pay zone. Directional drilling can also be used to avoid other previously drilled wells from a busy platform. This is often the case in the following: environmentally sensitive areas (e.g., the Arctic) offshore operations towns and cities. This method allows a single drilling platform to be used to open a number of production wells. It is also used to correct a well trajectory or sidetrack an obstruction in the well.
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Directional drilling can also be used to expose more of the wellbore to the pay zone, and thereby increase the production from a specic pay zone. Directional drilling can be accomplished by using either of the following: bent sub whipstock.
Figure 9-3: Drilling motor-bit
A bent sub is a special piece of equipment that tilts the drilling bit a few degrees (normally between 1 and 3 degrees). The bent sub is run just above the drilling motor-bit combination. Like a bent needle, a drillstring equipped with a bent sub will deviate from a straight path.
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Figure 9-4: Whipstock
A whipstock is a slanted guide that forces the toolstring to follow the desired direction. The point where the well deviates from the vertical path is known as the Kick-Off Point (KOP).
Figure 9-5: Kick-off point (KOP)
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Here are some examples of deviated wells being used to access a pay zone under an inhabited area and a blown-out well.
9.2.1
Air Drilling
Air drilling is often used in formations where lost-circulation problems make the use of drilling mud impractical. Drilling rates are faster when air is used than when mud is used.
Although air drilling is much less expensive than mud drilling, it can only be done in zones without high pressure or large amounts of water in the formation. To perform air drilling, compressors are used to pump air down-hole, while a special foam or mist is used to lubricate the bit.
9.2.2
Fishing
Often, through no fault of the driller, equipment, tools, or pipe may be lost down-hole. This "junk," as it is called, must be removed from the hole before drilling can be resumed. This operation is one of the most expensive and potentially dangerous things that can go wrong in drilling a well. Removing the material is called "shing." Fishing requires specialized equipment, such as overshots, spears, magnets, baskets, or hydraulic jars, as well as a trained operator.
9.3
Exercise
Special Operations Exercise (online) Special Operations Exercise (ofine)
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Introduction to Drilling & Well Completion / Summary
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Summary
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10
Summary
In this module, you learned about the history of drilling

drilling preparation procedures components of a drilling rig well control rig operations casing special operations
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Introduction to Drilling & Well Completion / Take the module test
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Take the module test

To receive credit for completing this module, you must take and pass the module test. A score of 90% or higher is required to pass the test. If you are viewing this module online, you must take the test for this module from the Schlumberger Learning Management System (LMS).
To take the test online

If you do not know how to take a test from the LMS, go to: http://intouchsupport.com/intouch/MethodInvokerpage.cfm?caseid=4253433 for instructions. If you already know how to use the LMS, click here to go to the LMS and take the test.
To take the test ofine

If you are viewing this module ofine, click here to take the module test ofine. After you take the test, print the test results and have your manager enter the results in the LMS.
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Introduction to Drilling & Well Completion / Document Control

Torsten Braun, Alice Lee

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Torsten Braun Luisa Attaway, Torsten Braun

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Introduction to Drilling & Well Completion / Table of Contents

Objectives Drilling History Drilling History Drilling History Drilling History

_______________________________________________ _______________________________________________ _______________________________________________

2-1 2-2 2-2

3-1 3-2 3-3 3-5 3-6 3-7 3-8

5-1 5-1 5-2 5-4

6-1 6-1 6-2 6-2 6-4

7-1 7-4 7-8 7-9

Introduction to Drilling & Well Completion / Table of Contents

9-1 9-2 9-5

WS Training\Bernadette Gomez\InTouch content ID#4133663\5.0\Release Date:Provisory\EDMS UID: 275030441\Produced: 23-Jul-2008 21:12:29

Introduction to Drilling & Well Completion / List of Figures

WS Training\Bernadette Gomez\InTouch content ID#4133663\5.0\Release Date:Provisory\EDMS UID: 275030441\Produced: 23-Jul-2008 21:12:29

Introduction to Drilling & Well Completion / List of Figures

WS Training\Bernadette Gomez\InTouch content ID#4133663\5.0\Release Date:Provisory\EDMS UID: 275030441\Produced: 23-Jul-2008 21:12:29

Introduction to Drilling & Well Completion / List of Tables

WS Training\Bernadette Gomez\InTouch content ID#4133663\5.0\Release Date:Provisory\EDMS UID: 275030441\Produced: 23-Jul-2008 21:12:29

Introduction to Drilling & Well Completion / List of Tables

Introduction to Drilling & Well Completion / Objectives

WS Training\Bernadette Gomez\InTouch content ID#4133663\5.0\Release Date:Provisory\EDMS UID: 275030441\Produced: 23-Jul-2008 21:12:29

Introduction to Drilling & Well Completion / Objectives

WS Training\Bernadette Gomez\InTouch content ID#4133663\5.0\Release Date:Provisory\EDMS UID: 275030441\Produced: 23-Jul-2008 21:12:29

Introduction to Drilling & Well Completion / Objectives

Introduction to Drilling & Well Completion / Objectives

Introduction to Drilling & Well Completion / Drilling History

WS Training\Bernadette Gomez\InTouch content ID#4133663\5.0\Release Date:Provisory\EDMS UID: 275030441\Produced: 23-Jul-2008 21:12:29

Introduction to Drilling & Well Completion / Drilling History

WS Training\Bernadette Gomez\InTouch content ID#4133663\5.0\Release Date:Provisory\EDMS UID: 275030441\Produced: 23-Jul-2008 21:12:29

Introduction to Drilling & Well Completion / Drilling History

WS Training\Bernadette Gomez\InTouch content ID#4133663\5.0\Release Date:Provisory\EDMS UID: 275030441\Produced: 23-Jul-2008 21:12:29

Figure 2-1: Timeline: 1500 A.D.

Figure 2-2: Timeline: 1859

Introduction to Drilling & Well Completion / Drilling History

WS Training\Bernadette Gomez\InTouch content ID#4133663\5.0\Release Date:Provisory\EDMS UID: 275030441\Produced: 23-Jul-2008 21:12:29

Figure 2-3: Timeline: 1500 A.D. until 1863

Figure 2-4: Timeline: 1500 A.D. until today

Introduction to Drilling & Well Completion / Drilling History

WS Training\Bernadette Gomez\InTouch content ID#4133663\5.0\Release Date:Provisory\EDMS UID: 275030441\Produced: 23-Jul-2008 21:12:29

Introduction to Drilling & Well Completion / Drilling History

Introduction to Drilling & Well Completion / Drilling Preparations

WS Training\Bernadette Gomez\InTouch content ID#4133663\5.0\Release Date:Provisory\EDMS UID: 275030441\Produced: 23-Jul-2008 21:12:29

Introduction to Drilling & Well Completion / Drilling Preparations

WS Training\Bernadette Gomez\InTouch content ID#4133663\5.0\Release Date:Provisory\EDMS UID: 275030441\Produced: 23-Jul-2008 21:12:29

Introduction to Drilling & Well Completion / Drilling Preparations

Introduction to Drilling & Well Completion / Drilling Preparations

recording devices in a truck or on a boat.

WS Training\Bernadette Gomez\InTouch content ID#4133663\5.0\Release Date:Provisory\EDMS UID: 275030441\Produced: 23-Jul-2008 21:12:29

Figure 3-1: Seismic exploration

Seismic survey animation

Introduction to Drilling & Well Completion / Drilling Preparations

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