What is Causality?

Conditions for causality Causality: A statement such as X causes Y will have the following meaning to an ordinary

person and to a scientist. Ordinary meaning X is only cause of Y Scientific meaning X is only one of a number of possible causes of Y

Conditions for causality Concomitant variation is the extent to which a cause, X, and an effect, Y, occur together or vary together in the way predicted by the hypothesis under consideration.

The time order of occurrence condition states that the causing event must occur either before or simultaneously with the effect; it cant occur afterwards (effect).

The absence of other possible causal factors means that the factor or variable being investigated should be the only possible causal explanation. Definitions and Concepts Independent variables are variables or alternatives that are manipulated and whose effects are measured and compared, e.g. price levels. Test units are individuals, organizations or other entities whose response to the independent variables or treatments is being examined, e.g. consumers or stores.

Dependent variables are the variables which measure the effect of the independent variables on the test units, e.g. sales, profits and market shares.

Extraneous variables are all variables other than the independent variables that affect the response of the test units, e.g. store size, store location, and competitive effort. Difference between Internal validity & External Validity

Internal validity refers to whether the manipulation of the independent variables actually caused the observed effects on the dependent variables. Control of extraneous variables is a necessary condition for establishing internal validity. External Validity refers to whether the cause and effect relationships found in the experiment can be generalized.

What is Extraneous Variables? Types of Extraneous Variables

Extraneous Variables is a variable that naturally exist in the environment that may have some systematic effect on the dependent variable. History refers to specific events that are external to the experiment but occur at the same time as the experiment Maturation refers to changes in the test units themselves that occur with the passage of time. Testing effects are caused by the process of experimentation. Typically these are the effects on the experiment of taking a measure on the dependent variable before and after the presentation of the treatment. The main testing effect occurs when a prior observation affects a latter observation. In the interactive testing effect, a prior measurement affects the test unit response to the independent variable. Instrumentation refers to changes in the measuring instrument, in the observers or in the scores themselves. Statistical regression effects occur when test units with extreme scores move closer to the average score during the course of the experiment. Selection bias refers to the improper assignment of test units to treatment conditions Morality refers to the loss of test units while the experiment is in progress.
How can you control extraneous variables?

Randomization refers to the random assignment of test units to experimental groups by using random numbers. Treatment conditions are also randomly assigned to experimental groups. Matching involves comparing test units on a set of key background variables before assigning them to the treatment conditions. Statistical control involves measuring the extraneous variables and adjusting for their effects through statistical analysis. Design control involves the use of experiments designed to control specific extraneous variables.

Laboratory versus field experiments

Factor Environment Control Reactive error Demand artifacts Internal validity External validity Time Number of units Ease of implementation Cost Laboratory Artificial High High High High Low Short Small High Low Field Realistic Low Low Low Low High Long Large Low High

What is scale? Discuss the different types of primary scales of measurement Or Levels of Scale
Scale: Scale is a device providing a range of values that correspond to different values in a concept being measured. Primary Scales of Measurement: The process of describing some property of a phenomenon of interest, usually by assigning numbered in a reliable and valid way. There are 4 primary scales of measurement: Nominal Scale Ordinal Scale Internal Scale Ration Scale

Nominal Scale: It represents the most elementary level of measurement in which values are assigned to an object for identification or classification purpose only. The purpose of nominal scales is identifying the object. For example: National ID, Student ID, No. of the player etc. Numerical Operations: Counting.

Statistics for Nominal Scales: Frequency Modes

Ordinary Scales: Ordinary Scales are ranking scales that allowing things to be arranged based on how much of some concepts they possess. Another words, ordinary scale is ranking scales. For example: when the ID no. indicates merit, please rank your three movies. Numerical Operations: Counting, ordinary Statistics for ordinal scales: Frequencies Mode Median Range.

Interval Scales: Scales that have nominal and ordinal properties but that also capture information about differences in quantities of a concept from one observation to next zero point is arbitrary here. For example: Temperature scale, CGPA or GPA etc. Statistics for Interval Scales: Frequencies Mode Median Mean Standard deviation Variance.

Ratio Scales: Ratio scales represent the highest form of measurement in that they have all the properties of interval scales with the additional attribute of representing absolute quantities which is characterized by meaningful absolute zero. Zero point is arbitrary. For example: Income, age, weight, amount of balance on mobile. Numerical Operations: all arithmetic operations. Statistics for ratio scales:

Frequencies Mode Median Mean Standard deviation Variance.

Discuss Scaling Techniques Scaling Techniques

Comparative Scale

Non-Comparative Scale

Paired comparison

Ranked order

Constant sum

Q-sort

Itemized Rating Scale

Continuous Rating Scale

Likert Scale

Staple scale

Semantic Difference

Comparative Scale: Comparative Scale involves the direct comparison of stimulus objects. For example: Comparison between cock and Pepsi. There are four types of comparative scale Paired comparison: In paired comparison scaling, a respondent is presented with two objects and asked to select one according to some criteria. For example: Question: I would like to know your opinion of two brands of cell- phone operators. They
are Grameen Phone and Banglalink. Overall which of the two brands do you think is the better one? Or Are both the same?

o Grameen Phone is better o Banglalink is better o They are the same Ranked order: In ranked order scaling, respondents are presented with several objects simultaneously and asked to order or ranked them according to some criteria. For example: Rank the various brands of toothpaste in order of preference Brand Name Close Up Plus White Pepsodent Mediplus Constant sum: In constant sum scaling, respondents allocate a constant sum of units (such as dollars, or units) among a set of stimulus objects with respect to some criteria. For example: Question: Divide 100 points among the following brands according to your preference for each brand: ----------------------- Brand A ----------------------- Brand B Rank Order

----------------------- Brand C 100___________ Total 100 Q-sort: Q-sort uses a ranked order procedure to sort objective based on similarity with respect to some criteria. For example: Respondent are given 100 attitude statements on individual cards and asked to place them into 11 piles, ranging from most highly agreed with to least highly agreed with.
Non-comparative scales: In non-comparative scales, also referred to as monadic or metric scales. Here, each object is scaled independently. For example: Respondents may be asked to evaluate Coke on a 1 to 6 performance scale (1= not at all preferred, 6= greatly preferred). Similar evaluations would be obtained for Pepsi. Generally there are two types of non-comparative scalesContinuous Rating Scale: Here the respondent place a marked on a continuous line about an object and that line runs from one extreme to another. For example: How would you rate Agora as a departmental store? Probably the worst..Probably the best Itemized Rating Scale: In an Itemized Rating Scale, the respondents are provided with a scale that has a number or brief description associated with each category. For example: Measurement of attitudes. There are three types of itemized rating scaleLikert Scale: The Likert Scale is a widely used rating scale that requires the respondents to indicate a degree of agreement or disagreement with each of a series of statements about the stimulus. For example: KFC charges higher prices. Strongly disagree disagree neutral Agree strongly agree

Staple scale: The staple scale is a unipolar rating scale with 10 categories numbered from +5 to -5. For example: Question: Please circle the numeric value regarding your attitude toward Agoras Product availability. ABC Company
5 4 3

2 1 High quality -1 -2 -3 -4 -5

Semantic Difference: The semantic differential is a 7 point rating scale with end points associated with bipolar labels. For example: Question: Pizza Hut Charges
Low price ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- High Price Define Population. Differences between sample and Census

Population: A population is the aggregate of all the elements that share some common set of characteristics and that compromise the universe for the purposes of the marketing research problem. Census: A census involves a complete enumeration of the elements of a population Sample: A sample on the other hand, is a subgroup of the population selected for participation in the study.

Differences between sample and Census: Bases Budget Time available Population size Variance in the characteristics Cost of sampling error Cost of non-sampling error Nature of measurement Attention to individual cases List the process of sample design Sample Small Short Large Small Low High Destructive Yes Census Large Long Small Large High Low Non-destructive No

The sampling design process is

Define the target population

Determining the sampling frame

Select a sampling technique

Determine the sample size

Execute the sampling process What is sampling frame? Components of sampling frame Sampling frame: Sampling frame is a representation of the elements of the target population. There are four components of sampling frameElements: An element is the object about which or from which the information is designed. For example: the respondent, automobile etc. Sampling Unit: A sampling unit is an element or a unit containing the element or a unit containing the element. A sampling unit is a unit containing an element. For example: Household, Office etc. Extent: Extent refers to the geographical boundaries For example: Dhaka, Bangladesh, Indian sub-continent etc.

Time: Time is time period under consideration. For example: agora wants to conduct a survey and thats why defining the target population Element: Customer Sampling Unit: Household Extent: Gulshan, Dhanmondi, Banani Time: December, 2011/ 15th -30th December, 2011

Discuss the classification of sampling techniques A Classification of sampling techniques: Sampling Techniques

Nonprobability sampling

probability sampling

Convenience Sampling

Judgmental sampling

Quota sampling

Snowball sampling

Simple random sampling

Systematic Sampling

Stratified Sampling

Cluster Sampling

Other sampling techniques

Nonprobability sampling : Nonprobability sampling relies on the personal judgment of the researcher rather than chance to select sample elements. Convenience sampling: A convenience sampling attends to obtain a sample of convenient elements For example: Use of students.

Judgmental Sampling: Judgmental sampling is a form of convenience sampling in which the population elements are selected based on the judgment of the researcher.

Quota Sampling: Quota sampling may be viewed as two stages restricted judgmental sampling. The first stage consists of developing control categories or quotas of population elements.

In the second stage sample elements are selected based on convenience or judgment.

Snowball Sampling: In snowball sampling an initial group of respondents is selected, subsequent are selected based on referred. Probability sampling: In probability sampling sampling units are selected by chance. Simple random sampling: Each element in the population has known and equal probability of selection. Systematic sampling: The sample is chosen by selecting a random starting point and the picking every ith element succession from the sampling frame. Stratified sampling: Firstly the population is divided into sub populations or strata. Then elements are selected from each stratus by a random procedure. Cluster sampling: target population is first divided into mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive sub populations or clusters. Then a random sample of clusters is selected.

A Classification of experimental design Experimental design

Pre-experimental

True experimental

Quasi-experimental

Statistical design
Randomized block Latin square Factorial design

One-shot case study One-group pretest- posttest Static-group

Pretest- posttest control group Posttest: only control group Solomon four group designs

Time series Multiple time series designs

Discuss the stages / steps of Data analysis Raw Data

Editing

Coding

Data file

Analysis Approach

Descriptive Analysis

Uni-variate Analysis

Bivariate Analysis Intelligence

Multivariate Analysis

Fig. Overview of the stages of data analysis

Raw Data: Raw data means unprocessed data. Editing: Editing is the process of checking the completeness, consistency, and legibility of data and making the data ready for coding and transferred to storage Coding: Coding is the process assigning a numerical score or other character symbol to previously edited data Data file:The way a data set is stored electronically in spreadsheet like form in which the rows represent sampling units and the columns represent variables Descriptive Analysis: Descriptive Analysis is the elementary transformation of raw data in a way that describes the basic characteristics such as central tendency, distribution and variability Uni-variate Analysis: Test of hypothesis involving only one variables Bivariate Analysis: Test of hypothesis involving two variables Multivariate Analysis: Test of hypothesis involving more than two variables

Discuss the steps of hypothesis testing

A hypothesis is a statement about the value of a population parameter developed for the purpose of testing. Hypothesis testing involves the following steps Step 1: State the null & alternative hypothesis: Null hypothesis is a statement about the value of a population parameter. Alternative hypothesis is a statement that is accepted if the sample data provide evidence that the null hypothesis is false. The null hypothesis always contains equality. But there are three possibilities in case of alternative hypothesis.

Step 2: Select a level of significance: The level of significance is the probability of rejecting the null hypothesis when it is actually true. Here we consider two type of error. Type error: Rejecting the null hypothesis when it is actually true. Also, called level of significance or Type error: Accepting the null hypothesis when it is false. Also, known as Null Hypothesis Accept Null hypothesis true Null hypothesis is false Correct Decision Type error Research Reject Type error Correct decision

Step 3: Select the test statistics: Test statistics is a value, determine from sample information, used to determine whether or not to reject the null hypothesis For example: Z- test, t-test, F-test chi-square test Step 4: Formulate the decision rule: The decision states the conditions when the null hypothesis is rejected. For this purpose the researcher uses critical value or p-value to the take the decision. Critical value: Critical value is the dividing point between the region where the null hypothesis is rejected and the region where it is not rejected.

The researcher will compare calculated value of the test statistics with the table value. p- value is the probability of finding a value of the test statistics.

If p-value is greater than or equal to the level of significance null hypothesis is not rejected If p-value is smaller than or equal to the level of significance null hypothesis is rejected

Step -05: Make a decision: Finding the researcher makes a decision on the basis of the previous 4 steps. If the null hypothesis is accepted, the proposition is accepted If the null hypothesis is rejected, the research will go for alternative hypothesis