Concept of Inertia

Inertia is a concept that an object that is at rest will always stay at rest and an object that is moving with a uniform velocity will always move with that velocity unless an external force acts on it. In other words, inertia of an object is a natural tendency of the object to maintain its state of motion unless an external force acts on the object. An external force is needed to change the state of motion of an object. In short, an external force is needed to change the velocity of an object. Example of the external force acting on an object: a) Frictional force b) Push c) Pull The idea of inertia is encased in Newtons 1st law of motion which is also known as the law of the inertia. Newtons 1st law of motion: An object at rest will remain at rest and an object that is uniform motion will remain in uniform motion unless acted on by an external force. The larger the mass, the greater the inertia. The larger the mass, the more difficult it is to change its state of motion. A larger mass needs a larger force to set it in motion from a stationary position as compared to a smaller mass. A larger mass needs a large force to change its velocity over the same time interval as compared to a smaller mass. Also, a larger mass needs a longer time to come to stop as compared to a smaller mass if the same opposing force is used on them. Mass is measure of the inertia of an object. Hence, the larger the inertia of an object the longer the time needed to come a stop as compared to an object of smaller inertia if the same opposing force is used in them. Vice versa, the larger the inertia of an object the longer the time needed to achieve a certain speed as compared to an object of smaller inertia if the same force is used on them. The effect of inertia on vibrating systems is that the period of the vibration increases with the inertia of the system.

To investigate the relationship between inertia and the period of the vibration of a vibrating system
Aim: To study the relationship between inertia and the period of vibration of a loaded jigsaw blade. Inference: Hypothesis: Variables: The inertia of an object affects the period of the vibration. The larger the inertia, the longer the period of vibration. Manipulated variable: Mass Responding variable: Period of oscillation of the jigsaw blade. Fixed variable: The distance of the centre of the plasticine from the clamp and the type of a jigsaw blade. Apparatus/ Material: Procedure: 1. One end of jigsaw blade is clamped with a G-clamp to the leg of a table as shown in Figure 2.38 Jigsaw blade, G-clamp, stopwatch, and plasticine of mass 50g, 80g, 110g, 130g and 150g.

2. 3.

A plasticine with mass of 50 g is attached to the free end of the jigsaw blade. The free end of jigsaw blade is displaced horizontally and release so that it would oscillates.

4.

The time taken for 10 complete oscillations, t10, is measured using a stopwatch and recorded. This step is repeated and the average of t10 is calculated. Then, the period of oscillation, T is determined by using the formula T = .

5. g.

Step 3 and 4 are repeated using plasticine with different masses 80 g, 110 g, 130 g and 150

6. 7. Result:

The readings are tabulated. A graph of T against m is drawn. 1 Tabulation of data: Time of 10 oscillations, t10/s t1 t2 Average Period of oscillation, T = /s

Mass of load, m/g 50 80 110 130 150 2

The graph of T against m: T/s

m/g Discussion: From the experiment, we know that the bigger the mass of plasticine on the jigsaw blade, the bigger the period of oscillation of the blade. Conclusion: The larger the inertia, the larger the period of the vibration. So, the hypothesis is valid.

Hookes law
Hookes law states that: The force, F applied to a spring is directly proportional to the springs extension or compression, x, provided the elastic limit of the spring is not exceeded.

Force, F

Extension, x Figure 2.100 a) b) c) Figure 2.100 shows a graph of applied force, F, on a spring against its extension, x The portion of graph from zero to point R is where the Hookes law applies Over the point R, Hookes law does not apply any more. The point R is called as the elastic limit of the spring. When force is applied over the point R, the spring will be permanently deformed Figure 2.100 shows a graph of F against x for a spring. Up to point R, Hookes law is obeyed. From the graph, F is proportional to x. Fx Where F = force on the spring, x = extension of the spring. Therefore; F = kx The value ok k is called the force constant of the spring. It is also known as the spring constant. So, k =

The SI unit for k is N m-1. However, N cm-1 is commonly used.

Potential difference
Two points in an electric field are said to be at a potential difference if work has to on order to move one charge from one point to the other point.

+
Higher potential

Figure 7.8

B Lower potential

Figure 7.8 shows point A and point B on an electric field line of a positive charge sphere. Point A has higher potential because point A is nearer to the sphere compared to point B.

+
Potential different
Figure 7.9

When the positive charge is placed at point A, it will be pushed away and move away from point A to point B. The positive charge moves away because of the electric potential difference between the point A and B.

The positive charge to move from point B to point A, energy or work is needed to move the charge against the electric force. The potential difference is defined as the work done to move 1 C of charge across the two points.

Mathematically, the equation can also be written as,

Where V = potential difference, W = work done, Q = charge. 1 volt is also equal to 1 joule per coulomb. Everyone knows that cells are rated in unit of volts, name after Alessandro Volta but the voltage concept is more general than that; it turns out that voltage is a property of every point in space. The following example will illustrate how we can use voltage to determine the amount of energy stored in a cell.

Potential different (beza keupayaan): The work done to move one coulomb of charge from one point to another.

To study the relationship between current and potential difference in an electric circuit
Inference: A straight-line is obtained when the graph of potential difference, V against current, I is plotted. It indicates that the potential difference is directly proportional to the current flowing in the Eureka wire. Hypothesis: The current flowing through the wire in an electric circuit is directly proportional to the potential difference across the electrical circuit. Variables: (a) Manipulated variable: Current flowing in the wire.

(b) Responding variable: The potential difference across the electric circuit. (c) Fixed variable: The temperature of the wire. / Length of wire. Apparatus/ A Eureka wire of length 50 cm, a switch, an ammeter, a voltmeter, a rheostat, dry cells and Materials: Procedure: connecting wires and their holders 1 The electric circuit consist of the Eureka wire, a rheostat, an ammeter, an ammeter, a voltmeter, dry cell and a switch as shown in the figure 7.10 2 A Eureka wire is connected across the point X and Y. The Eureka wire acts as a resistor. 3 The switch is switched on the rheostat is adjusted until the ammeter shows a reading of 0.4 A. The ammeter reading, I, and the voltmeter reading, V, are recorded. 4 The experiment is repeated by using different magnitudes of the current, I = 0.6 A, 0.8 A, 1.2 A, 1.4 A. 5 From the data recorded, a graph of potential difference against current is plotted.

Result:

1 Tabulation of data: Current I/A 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 Potential difference V/V

The graph of V against I: V/V

I/A

Conclusion: This experiment shows that the potential difference, V across the two points connecting the Eureka wire is directly proportional to the current, I flowing in the Eureka wire provided that its temperature and any other physical quantities remain unchanged. The hypothesis is valid.

Resistance
Based on the Ohms law: VI V = Constant or = constant I

If a current of I amperes flows between two points in a conductor across which the potential difference in V volts, then two points. is a constant. The constant is called the resistance, R between those

The resistance, R of a conductor is defined as the ratio of the potential difference to the current, I flowing through the conductor. This means that es st n e

Mathematically or in symbols,

The SI unit for resistance is volt per ampere (V A-1) or ohm () The symbol of resistor is: Or The resistor of 1 is equivalent to a current of 1 A flowing through a potential difference of 1 V applied across two points.

R=1

I=1A

V=1V

It means,

R=

=1

1 = 1 V A-1

Factors that affect resistance

The resistance of a conductor is a measure of the ability of the conductor to resist the flow of current through it. Factors that affect the resistance of a conductor are: a) Length of conductor b) Cross-sectional area of conductor c) Temperature of conductor d) Type of material of conductor The factors affecting resistance and their effects are tabulated in the table. Factors Length Effect Remarks

The increases in length of a To ensure that temperature remains conductor will increase the constant, use the same current for all resistance of the conductor lengths of wires and turn off the

provided the temperature is kept switch when readings are not taken. constant. Crosssectional area The resistance of a conductor The smaller the cross-sectional area decreases if the cross-sectional of a conductor, the higher is the area increases. resistance to the flow of electrons in it. The resistance of a conductor is inversely proportional to the crosssectional area of the conductor. Temperature The resistance of the conductor The resistance when of the a conductor temperature

increases with the increases in increases temperature. Type materials of Different materials increases.

have Tungsten is the material that has the highest resistance. Silver is the material that has the least resistance to the flow of electrons in a conductor.

different resistance.

To study the effect of cross-sectional area on the resistance of a conductor

Inference: The resistance of the wire is inversely proportional to its cross-sectional area as long as the temperature and the length of the wire remain unchanged. Hypothesis: The smaller the cross-sectional area, the higher is the resistance of the wire. Variables: (a) Manipulated variable: Cross-sectional area of the wire. (b) Responding variable: Resistance, R. (c) fixed variable: Temperature, the length of the wire and type of material. Apparatus/ Constantan wires (s.w.g 28, 30, 32, 34, and 36) of length 50 cm, a switch, an Materials: ammeter, a voltmeter, a rheostat, dry cell and their holders, a metre and connecting wires. Procedure: 1 A piece of constantan wire (s.w.g 28) of length 50 cm is connected to the circuit as shown in the Figure 7.17 2 The switch is switched on and the rheostat is adjusted until the ammeter shows a reading of 0.4 A. The corresponding values from the ammeter, I and the voltmeter, V are recorded. 3 Step 1 and 2 are repeated using constantan wires of length 50 cm but of different s.w.g such as s.w.g 30, s.w.g 32, s.w.g 34, and s.w.g 36. 4 The resistance of the wire R for each length across the point X and Y is calculated.

Result: 1 Tabulation of data: Constantan 2 wire/s.w.g 28 30 32 34 36 Current I/A 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 Table 7.4 2 3 The graph of R against A and R against : Potential difference V/V V1 V2 V3 V4 V5 R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 Resistance

The smaller value of s.w.g of a wire, the thicker the wire or the bigger the current. The smaller value of s.w.g of a wire, the thicker the wire. A large amount of electric charges flows through the thicker wire resulting in a large current. This means that the resistance of a wire decreases when its cross-sectional area increases.

Discussion:

Conclusion:

The graph of R against

is a straight line passing through the origin. The

resistance, R, of a wire is inversely proportional to its cross-sectional area.

To study the relationship between the angle of incidence and the angle of refraction and to determine the refractive index of glass.
Problem statement: Hypothesis: What the relationship between the angle of incidence and the angle of refraction? What is the refractive index of glass? 1 The angle of refraction in the denser medium is always smaller than the angle of incidence in the less dense medium. When the angle of incidence increases, the angle of refraction increases too. 2 sin i is directly proportional to sin r. Variables:

= constant = refractive index, n.

(a) Manipulated variable: Angle of incidence, i. (b) Responding variable: Angle of refraction, r. (c) Fixed variable: Refractive index of glass block

Apparatus/ Materials: Procedure:

Semi-circular glass block, ray box with single slit, power supply, protractor, ruler and white paper. 1 A semi-circular glass block is placed on a piece of white paper as shown in Figure 5.23 and the outline of the glass block is traced. The centre of the glass is marked as O. 2 The glass block is then removed and the normal line is drawn. The angle I = 30o, 40o, 50o, 60o, and 70o are marked using a protractor. 3 The glass block is then placed back to its original position and the ray box arranged so that a single ray is directed to the point O with the angle of incidence i= 30o. 4 The path of the refracted ray is marked and the angle of refraction r is measured with the protractor. The value is recorded. 5 6 Procedure 3 and 4 are repeated for the values of i = 40o, 50o, 60o and 70o. Data collected is tabulated and graph of sin r against sin i is then plotted.

Result:

1 Tabulation of data: Angle of incidence, i 30o 40

o

Angle of refraction, r 19o 25

o

sin i 0.500 0.643 0.766 0.866 0.939

sin r 0.326 0.423 0.500 0.574 0.616

50o 60o 70o

30o 35o 38o

2 The graph of sin r against sin i: Discussion: 1 When the angle of incidence i increases, the angle of refraction, r also increases. 2 The graph of sin r against sin i is a straight line graph passing through the origin. 3 Given that, the formula of refractive index, n = sin r = ( ) sin i Comparing with the equation of a straight line: y = mx

= m ( = gradient)
So, by calculating the gradient of the graph sin r against sin i, the refractive index, n, can be determined by n = Conclusion: 1 2 Sin r is directly proportional to sin i. The value accepted.

= constant, thus Snells law is verified. The hypothesis is