Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Unnur Bjrnsdttir
A thesis submitted in partial fulllment of the requirements for the degree of magister scientarium
Preface
This thesis has been written under the guidance of associate professor Fjla Jnsdttir and Halldr Plsson Ph.D in mechanical engineering, both with the faculty of mechanical engineering at the university of Iceland. Their assistance is hereby greatly acknowledged. Acknowledgements are also due to my moderator, Kristinn Ingason with VGK Engineering of Reykjavk, Iceland and Professor Pll Valdimarsson, with the faculty of mechanical engineering, has given great help in using the EES program. Reykjavik Energy for sponsoring the work and VGK Engineering for various support. Unnur Bjrnsdttir
Abstract
This is a thesis on using geothermal heat as an energy source for refrigeration systems. Various refrigeration cycles using heat energy are generally reviewed, with a special focus on absorption refrigeration systems. Thermodynamic models are presented for two prevalent kinds of absorption systems. These models are used for simulating the systems and performing analysis of their relationships between internal parameters of the system and their inuence on the COP. Various comparisons of the systems in consideration are made, for instance with regard to sensitivity of COP and costs. The work is wrapped up with a case study of a shrimp processing plant.
vi
Contents
Preface . . . . Abstract . . . . List of Figures List of Tables . 1 Introduction 2 Refrigeration Cycles using Geothermal Energy 2.1 Absorption Refrigeration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.1 Water - Lithium Bromide Systems . . . . . 2.1.2 Water-Lithium Bromide Two-stage System 2.1.3 Advanced Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.4 Ammonia - Water Systems . . . . . . . . . 2.1.5 Ammonia - Water Two-stage System . . . . 2.1.6 Generator-Absorber Heat Exchange Cycles 2.2 Adsorption Refrigeration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3 Steam Jet Refrigeration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii . v . viii . xi 1 5 5 7 9 9 11 12 13 14 15 19 19 21 26 33 33 33 35 36 36 36 38
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3 Thermodynamic Models 3.1 Absorption Refrigeration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1.1 Water-Lithium Bromide Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1.2 Ammonia-Water System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Comparison and Analysis 4.1 Comparison of heat driven cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2 Comparison of Absorption Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3 Absorption Refrigeration vs. Vapour Compression Refrigeration 4.4 Sensitivity Analysis of COP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4.1 LiBr-Water model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4.2 Ammonia-Water model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5 Ammonia-water model: Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5 Case Study 6 Conclusions and Further Work Bibliography A Figures B EES models
List of Figures
2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 5.1 Water-lithium bromide absorption refrigeration cycle with typical temperatures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Two-stage water-lithium bromide absorption refrigeration cycle. Ammonia-water absorption refrigeration cycle with typical temperature values. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ammonia-water absorber double-effect system with two rectiers in the second stage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Generator-Absorber heat exchange cycle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Adsorption refrigeration cycle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Steam jet ejector refrigeration cycle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Heat exchange, showing the pinch point. . . . . . . . Water-lithium bromide absorption refrigeration cycle. Heat exchange, condenser. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Heat exchange, evaporator. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Heat exchange, absorber. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Heat exchange, generator. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Heat exchange, solution heat exchanger. . . . . . . . . Ammonia-Water absorption refrigeration cycle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 10 12 13 14 15 17 20 21 23 24 25 26 27 27 34 37 38 39 39 44 51 52 52
Evaporation temperatures for ammonia and water. . . . . . . . . COP sensitivity - LiBr-water model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . COP sensitivity - Ammonia-water model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . COP as a function of evaporating temperature . . . . . . . . . . Steam input temperature as a function of evaporating temperature, ammonia-water model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Flow diagram. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A.1 COP vs. effectiveness of the solution heat exchanger, shx . . . . . A.2 COP vs. Tpinch,absorber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A.3 COP vs. cooling water temperature for absorber, T17 . . . . . . .
x A.4 COP vs. evaporator temperature, Te . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A.5 COP vs. condenser temperature, Tc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A.6 COP and evaporation temperature as a function of generator temperature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A.7 Minimum generator temperature as a function of evaporation temperature for different cooling water temperetures. . . . . . . 52 52 53 53
List of Tables
2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 5.1 5.2 5.3 Absorbent pairs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pros and cons of water-lithium bromide system. . . . . . . . . . Benets and drawbacks of water-ammonia system. . . . . . . . Adsorbent pairs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Thermodynamic state point summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Model inputs and outputs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Thermodynamic state point summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Model inputs and outputs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Comparison between different methods of using heat for cooling, (Noeres et al., 1999). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Comparison of an Ammonia Absorption Plant and a Lithium Bromide Absorption Plants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Comparison between different types of absorption cycles. . . . . Comparison of an ammonia absorption plant and a vapour compression plant. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Capital cost of water-LiBr absorption refrigeration plants compared to vapour compression, (Means, 1995). . . . . . . . . . . . Energy cost of 100 kW water chiller. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Refrigeration capacity of the cooling system in the shrimp processing plant in Hsavk, (Bergsteinn Gunnarsson., 2004). . . . . Sizes of components in refrigeration system. . . . . . . . . . . . Total energy and cooling water usage of the absorption refrigeration system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 9 11 16 22 22 28 29
34 35 35 36 40 41
43 44 45
Acronyms
COP LiBr EES N H3 : : : : Coeffecient of performance Lithium bromide Engineering equation solver Ammonia
Nomenclature
h : Q : W : m : T : x : v : P : cp : Q : UA : entalphy Heat ow Work mass ow Temperature Mass fraction Specic volume Pressure Specic heat vapour quality Heat exchanger size
Chapter 1 Introduction
The subject of this thesis are refrigeration systems where geothermal heat is used as energy source with a focus on absorption refrigeration systems. Geothermal heat one of Icelands most important energy source after hydro power. Geothermal energy is a renewable energy source and geothermal heat processing is sustainable if thermal advection to the geothermal areas is in balance with the processing. About 60 TWh/year of the heat that ows to the surface is useable, and there of, around 14-15 TWh have been used, (Orkustofnun, 2003). The rest is not economically feasible for use, because it is either not concentrated or not hot enough. Geothermal areas are divided into hightemperature and low-temperature areas. The water from low-temperature areas is mostly used for tap water and for heating houses. The temperature of low-temperature areas is usually about 100 C, at a depth of 1 km. The hightemperature areas are connected to volcanic zones and the temperature is usually more than 150 C, at a depth of 1 km. Water from high-temperature areas usually cannot be used directly as tap water without problems with corrosion and precipitation. Therefore, the high- temperature areas are used for producing electricity and also for heating houses. In Iceland about 85% of all the residences are heated with geothermal heat, mostly from the low-temperature areas. Hot water for heating has been produced there since 1928, (Wu, 1992). Geothermal heat is also used for geothermal horticulture, swimming pools and electricity production. However, the efciency of high-temperature energy in electricity production is only about 10-15%, (Orkustofnun, 2003), which is why it is economical to have heating plants integrated with electrical power plants and use the residual heat for heating. Some geothermal areas cannot be harnessed, for instance those containing Ice-
Introduction
lands best known natural treasures. An example hereof, are the erupting hotsprings in the Geysir area. Geothermal areas can also be subglacial and therefore technically difcult to utilise. Geothermal heat is found in several countries of the world even though it is not used in all of them. The largest quantities of geothermal energy are found in The Philippines, Italy, Indonesia and New-Zealand. The earliest geothermal electric production plant dates from 1904 in Italy, (Wu, 1992). Refrigeration is used for many purposes. Fridges and freezers can be found in most homes and in hot climates, air conditioning is important. Refrigeration is dened as any process of heat removal, or process of reduction and maintenance of a specic temperature of a space or material, below the temperature of the surroundings. Refrigerators are cyclic devices and use working uids called refrigerants. The performance of refrigerants is expressed in terms of the coefcient of performance (COP). Several refrigerants can be used and their enviromental friendliness varies. Refrigeration plants need driving energy for a continuous or periodic working process. The most common refrigeration system is the Vapour-Compression System. That system has a high COP (about 4), (Dossat, 1980) and uses electricity. This system is adequate for most refrigeration applications and is used for both small and large systems and also for various temperatures. They are simple, inexpensive, reliable and practically maintenance free. Improvements in efciency were made in the 1980s, (Braven et al., 1993). These improvements were partly driven by governmental regulations in the USA. Despite this, energy crises have forced various industries to seek new methods in refrigeration. At the present time, geothermal heat is not used for refrigeration in Iceland like it is in some other countries. The rst widely reported occurance of use of geothermal heat for cooling was an air conditioning system in a Hotel in New Zealand, (Reistad, 1980). In Mexico, several experiments have been conducted using both ammonia-water and ammonia-lithium nitrate absorption coolers operated by low temperature geothermal energy, (Best et al., 1990). Mexico possesses large amounts of geothermal brine at temperatures which are to low to enable electricity production and also the ambient temperature is relatively high. Insufcient cooling is a nationwide problem in Mexico, annually causing a great deal of spoiled food. In Turkey, some examinations of using geothermal heat for air conditioning have been conducted by using LiBr-water absorption refrigeration, (Kececiler et al., 2000). There, the focus is on the hot springs in the Sivas area, but the energy cannot be used efciently for electricity generation because the temperature is too low. There is a chiller plant in Germany which uses steam jet refrigeration, dating from 1997, (Noeres et al., 1999). This plant uses thermal heat as power input
3 (143 C, 3 bar) and is connected to a district cooling system. It is more common to use solar thermal energy or waste heat with absorption and adsorption refrigeration, but the technology is similar and therefore it is possible to use geothermal energy if it is accessible. In Iceland, little research has been performed on the possibilities of using geothermal energy in refrigeration. Comparison of geothermally driven ammoniawater absorption refrigeration and normal vapour compression systems has been performed in Reykjanes, (Ragnarsson, 1976). Research on freeze-drying with geothermal heat and absorption refrigeration has also been performed, (Gunnarsson, 1989). By using geothermal heat directly as an energy source for refrigeration systems it is possible to reduce exergy loss. Exergy is the work potential of energy, also called the available energy. During the conversion of energy, exergy is lost via heat loss. By using geothermal energy to produce electricity and then drive refrigerators, the energy goes through many transformations: thermal energy mechanical energy electric energy mechanical energy. While converting heat energy into work, only about 20% - 40% are used, the rest is lost, (Valdimarsson, Pll, 2003). Therefore, electric energy is a much more rened energy form than the thermal one, and consequently more feasible for general use, making it more valuable economically. Sometimes it is also possible to use residual heat or low-temperature waste heat. Energy shortage is a real challenge in some areas, making the use of new energy sources a necessity. Vapour compression refrigeration systems use a lot of energy and can be polluting. Cooling with geothermal heat is therefore a viable and exciting option. Many options are viable because various cycles use both high and low temperature heat. The goal of this project is to examine the possibilities of using geothermal heat for cooling, that is, to operate air conditioning systems, industrial refrigeration systems and other cooling systems. Various refrigerating cycles and their possible utilisation are examined and compared with regard to cost and performance. For this purpose, the cycles are modelled in a computer program called Engineering Equation Solver (EES) (Klein, S.A. and F.L. Alvarado, FChart Software, 2004) and compared with reference systems. These systems will also be modelled for different temperature inputs. The main research contribution of this project into the area in discussion is the following: A detailed examination of more than one method of utilisation of geothermal energy for cooling and a local feasibility assessment for employing these methods in Iceland.
Introduction
The remaining four chapters of the thesis are organized as follows: In chapter 2 the background of various refrigeration cycles using geothermal energy is described. The functionality of the cycles is discussed, along with the main components, advantages and disadvantages of a system based on each cycle. Thermodynamic models that are in focus in this thesis are described in chapter 3. Corresponding thermodynamic equations are stated and the cycles described in more detail. Chapter 4 is centered on comparison of the the models of chapter 3 with regard to performance and cost. A brief comparison is also made of the methods of chapter 2. In chapter 5 is a case study. Finally, chapter 6 gives conclusions and further work.
Refrigeration Cycles using Geothermal Energy Absorbent Lithium bromide (LiBr) Water (H2O) Lithium Cloride (LiCl) Lithum nitrate (LiN O3 ) Refrigerant Water (H2 O) Ammonia (N H3 ) Water (H2 O) Ammonia (N H3 )
types of thermal energy are used, for instance, waste heat, gas burners and solar energy but geothermal energy is not so commonly used. As stated earlier, the rst refrigeration system using geothermal energy was an absorption system used for air conditioning in a hotel in New Zealand, (Reistad, 1980). This system was devised in 1966. In 1859 Ferdinand Carre of France got a patent for the ammonia-water refrigeration machine (engel and Boles, 1998). Absorption refrigeration systems are also economically feasible if there is a source of inexpensive thermal energy available such as geothermal energy, solar energy or waste heat from cogeneration or process steam plants. These systems use very little electricity and are often classied as heat driven systems. Absorption systems are similar to vapour compression systems, except that the compressor has been replaced by an absorber, a pump, a generator, a heat exchanger and an expansion valve. They have one major advantage over compression systems: liquid is compressed instead of a vapour. A relatively larger power input per unit mass ow is needed to compress a gas than to pump a liquid between the same pressure differences. They are also simpler, less expensive and operate with less noise and maintainace. But the coefcient of performance is much lower. The COP for the vapour compression system is dened as: COPvc = useful refrigeration rate / input work rate. The COP for the absorption system is dened as: COPar = useful refrigeration rate / rate of heat addition at the generator. Therefore, direct comparison is not fair. However, absorption systems are usually not economical unless inexpensive thermal energy is available, that is, geothermal or industrial waste heat. Here after follows a list of various absorption refrigeration cycles.
Condenser T=80C
Generator
T=60C
T=90C
Figure 2.1: Water-lithium bromide absorption refrigeration cycle with typical temperatures.
sorber in the evaporator. The refrigerant boils on the surface of the chilled water coil in the evaporator as it ows in. The refrigerant then evaporates at 3-4 C. Heat is removed from the recirculating water which is chilled. This water can then be used for air cooling. Then the refrigerant vapour ows to the absorber. In the absorber, the LiBr solution is mixed with the refrigerant. Solubility is temperature dependent and therefore the solution is cooled with cooling water. The refrigerant is absorbed by the concentrated LiBr solution as it ows through the absorber coils. The cooling water removes heat from the condensation and dilution. The higher the concentration of LiBr solution, the lower the saturated vapour pressure of the solution; thus, the solution tends to absorb the refrigerated vapour. The dilution is then pumped through a heat exchanger before entering the generator. The heat medium (hot water or steam) enters the generator and heats the dilute, and the boiling process drives the refrigerant vapour and droplets of concentrated solution to the separator. Finally, refrigerant vapour goes through to the condenser and concentrated LiBr solution is precooled through the heat exchanger before owing into the absorber. The pressure in the system is less than atmospheric.
2.1 Absorption Refrigeration Benets No moving parts Heating and cooling Steady process Can use waste heat Absorbent is non - volatile Drawbacks Minimum heat is > 0 C Need lots of cooling water Large - space requirements Expensive
10
Expansion valve
Evaporator
Expansion valve
Half-effect cycle When the temperature of the heat source is less than the minimum temperature to drive a single-effect cycle, a half-effect cycle can be used. The half-effect cycle has two absorbers, high and low, and two generators. But the COP is only half of that of a single-effect machine or about 0.35 for the LiBr-water machine. Triple-effect cycle The triple-effect cycle is in development by several manufacturers. It is possible that it could reach a COP of 1.5 with little increase in initial costs. Triple effect implies higher temperature of the heat input. Resorption cycle The resorption cycle is different, it has two solution circuits where the second circuit replaces the condenser and the evaporator. This cycle only has a COP of about 0.55.
2.1 Absorption Refrigeration Benets No moving parts Heating and cooling Steady process Can use waste heat Environmentally friendly Drawbacks Absorbent is volatile Need lots of cooling water Large - take space Expensive Smells bad
11
12
Condenser
Evaporator
T=-35C Absorber
Pump
ature values.
13
cycle or kangaroo cycle. The COP is higher than of single-stage systems, or about 0.7-1.4.
Condenser Generator
Rectifier 1
Rectifier 3
Rectifier 2
Heat exchanger
Expansion valve
Pump
Expansion valve
Expansion valve
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Condenser
Qr
Generator
Rectifier Qint
Absorber
Evaporator
1. The working cycle can be driven by a low-temperature heat source so it can use waste heat. 2. The refrigerant adsorbate employed in refrigeration is environmentally friendly (does not reduce the ozone layer or contribute to greenhouse effects). 3. The main component of an absorbent bed refrigerator is xed, and other parts do not move much, so it can be applied in movable or vibrational surroundings.
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This system is not without aws. Its cycle is non-continuous, the cycle time is long and the cooling capacity is low. The COP is also very low, about 0.4. The performance af an adsorption cooling system is highly dependent on the dynamic behavior of the adsorber and the various interactions between the adsorber and the outside heating/cooling uids. These systems need very high efforts in construction and are therefore expensive.
QHS Adsorbers QCS Condenser Adsorbed vapour Expansion valve Evaporator Desorbed vapour
Adsorption refrigeration cycles rely on the adsorption of a refrigerant gas into an adsorbent at low pressure and subsequent desorption by heating. The adsorbent is driven by heat and acts as a "chemical compressor". The adsorbent can adsorb a large amount of gas in ambient temperatures and desorb it at a higher temperature (about 100 C). In desorption, the liquid adsorbent vapourizes. In general, there are two broad categories of adsorptive systems, intermittent and continuous. The intermittent systems include solar-powered, daily-cycled systems. The continuous cooling systems have multible beds.
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Refrigeration Cycles using Geothermal Energy Adsorbent Silica gel Silica gel CaCl2 Activated carbon NaX Activated carbon Refrigerant Water (H2 O) Ammonia (N H3 ) Ammonia (N H3 ) Ammonia (N H3 ) CO2 CO2
compression cycle but instead of a mechanical compressor device, a steam ejector is used to compress the refrigerant to the condenser pressure level. By continuous vapourization of a part of the water in the evaporator at a low pressure, cooling is produced. A steam jet refrigeration system consists of an evaporator (or ash chamber), a steam-jet ejector, a condenser, and a two-stage ejector non-condensable pump. The COP depends strongly on the recooling water temperature. The process consists of two cycles, the motive medium cycle and the refrigerant cycle. An absolute pressure corresponding to the desired chilled water temperature is maintained in the ash(mixing) chamber. Water to be chilled enters the chamber continuously and a small portion is evaporated. It takes about 2,500 kJ/kg to evaporate water and the removal of this much heat with the vapour cools the liquid to its equilibrium pressure at the absolute pressure (of the tank). This water ash, or boiling at low pressure creates the natural refrigeration of the remaining water in the chamber. Vapour is compressed by the steam jet booster to an absolute pressure where steam and vapour can be condensed with the availible condensing water supply. The chilled water is pumped from the ash chamber and circulated to the process. Temperatures below 0 C can be reached, if wanted.
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Steam generator
Condenser
Evaporator
Heat source
18
where Th1 is the hot uid inlet temperature and Tc1 is the cold uid outlet temperature as seen on Figure 3.1.
20
Thermodynamic Models
T Th1 Tc1
The third and most unstable method (due to the use of logarithm) is setting the size. In heat exchangers, the heat ow is given by: Q = U AF Tm (3.3)
where U is the heat transfer coefcient, A is the heat transfer area, F is a correction factor and Tm is the log mean temperature difference and dened as: Tm = (Th1 Tc1 ) (Th2 Tc2 ) ln (Th1 Tc2 ) (Th2 Tc2 ) (3.4)
The NTU effectiveness method is a comparible method to the log mean temperature method. Mass ows and any heat transfer or work interactions contribute to the energy balance for the energy owing into or out of the system. The COP for these systems is dened as: COP = Qe Qg + Wp Qe , Qg Wp Qg (3.5)
where Qe is the refrigeration capacity, Qg is the heat input in the generator and Wp is work input of the pump. To solve the equation system the Engineering Equations Solver program (EES) is used. EES uses built in thermodynamic properties of ammonia-water solutions and lithium bromide-water solutions. All these systems are simplied. For instance, pressure drops in pipes are not assumed in the calculations. Models for each system are listed in Appendix B.
21
Qc 12 11 2 9 7 1
Qg 17 18
3 14 13 Qe Qa 16 4
10 5
Wp 15
The LiBr model is more stable than the ammonia model due to uid properties. LiBr systems have been the most tested and built. The input/output variables are listed in Table 3.2 and thermodynamic state points are in Table 3.1. Following are descriptions of single parts in the model shown in Figures 2.1 and 3.2. Condenser The refrigerant arrives in the condenser as steam at high temperature T1 . At this stage it is almost pure water. The steam is condensed to water and leaves at temperature T2 . The condenser is cooled by water which enters at a heat T11 and leaves at a heat T12 . The heat exchange can be seen in Figure 3.3. There it is shown that the temperature drops fast down to condensing temperature and then stays constant until the uid has condensed completely. Effects of the desuperheating (T1 T2 ) is left out for simplication. The energy balance for the condenser is given by: Qc = m1 (h1 h2 ) Qc = m11 (h12 h11 ) (3.6) (3.7)
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Thermodynamic Models
Point 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
State Superheated vapour Saturated liquid water Vapour-liquid water state Saturated water vapour Saturated liquid solution Subcooled liquid solution Subcooled liquid solution Saturated liquid solution Subcooled liquid solution Vapour - liquid solution state
Inputs mref [kg/s] m11 [kg/s] m13 [kg/s] m15 [kg/s] m17 [kg/s] T11 [ C] T13 [ C] T15 [ C] T17 [ C] U Ac [kW/ C] U Ae [kW/ C] U Aa [kW/ C] U Ag [kW/ C] Outputs m [kg/s] COP Qc [kW] Qe [kW] Qa [kW] Qg [kW]
Pump ow rate External heat transfer uid ow rate, condenser External heat transfer uid ow rate, evaporator External heat transfer uid ow rate, absorber External heat transfer uid ow rate, generator External heat transfer uid inlet temperature, condenser External heat transfer uid inlet temperature, evaporator External heat transfer uid inlet temperature, absorber External heat transfer uid inlet temperature, generator Heat exchanger size, condenser Heat exchanger size, evaporator Heat exchanger size, absorber Heat exchanger size, generator Refrigerant and solution loop ow rates System performance Heat tranfser rate, condenser Heat transfer rate, evaporator Heat transfer rate, absorber Heat transfer rate, generator
Table 3.2: Model inputs and outputs.
3.1 Absorption Refrigeration where hx is the enthalpy at point x and Qc = U Ac Tmc The mass ow balance gives: m1 = m2
23
(3.8) (3.9)
T1
T2 T11 T12
A
Figure 3.3: Heat exchange, condenser.
Expansion valve 1 In the expansion valve 1 the pressure drops and hence the temperature drops to evaporator temperature. The enthalpy is in balance, that is: h2 = h3 (3.10)
Expansion valve 2 In the expansion valve 2 the pressure drops. The enthalpy is in balance, that is: h9 = h10 (3.11)
Evaporator After going through an expansion valve, the water enters the evaporator at temperature T3 . In the evaporator the water evaporates at a low pressure and takes heat from the chilled water in the heat exchange pipe. The steam leaves at a temperature of T4 . Water to be chilled enters at a temperature T13 and leaves at a temperature of T14 . The heat exchange can be seen in Figure 3.4. There it can be seen that the evaporating temperature T3 is the same at the outlet T4 . This water can be used to cool air for air conditioning. The energy balance for the evaporator is: Qe = m4 (h4 h3 ) (3.12)
T T13 T14 T4 T3
Absorber Steam enters the absorber at a temperature T4 . The lithium-bromide solution absorbs steam from the evaporator in the absorber. The absorber is cooled by water. The cooling water enters at a temperature T15 and leaves at temperature T16 . The solution leaves at a temperature of T5 . The heat ow balance for the absorber gives: Qa = m4 h4 + m10 h10 m5 h5 Qa = m15 (h16 h15 ) Qa = U Aa Tma The mass ow balance gives: m5 = m4 + m10 The LiBr balance gives: m5 x5 = m4 x4 + m10 x10 (3.20) (3.19) (3.16) (3.17) (3.18)
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Generator In the generator the solution is heated by hot water or steam to remove the water. The steam or hot water used to heat the generator is at a temperature T17 and leaves at temperature T18 . If steam is used it will condense in the generator and leave at the same temperature. The solution enters the generator at temperature T7 ; the solution is heated in the generator and the water evaporates and ows out at a temperature T1 , but the solution is heated further until it leaves at a temperature T8 . Either the LiBr balance in the generator or the absorber is needed to decide the LiBr balance in the cycle. The heat ow balance gives: Qg = m 1 h 1 + m 8 h 8 m 7 h 7 Qg = m17 (h17 h18 ) Qg = U Ag Tmg The mass ow balance gives: m7 = m1 + m8 The LiBr balance gives: m7 x7 = m1 x1 + m8 x8 (3.25) (3.24) (3.21) (3.22) (3.23)
Solution Heat Exchanger The lithium bromide water solution enters the heat exchanger at a temperature T6 and is heated up and leaves at a temperature T7 . The lithium bromide enters
26
Thermodynamic Models
T T17 T18 T8 T1
the heat exchanger at a temperature T8 and is cooled and leaves at a temperature T9 . The effectiveness of the heat exchanger is an input variable. The heat ow balance gives: h7 = h6 + The mass ow balance gives: m6 = m7 m8 = m7 (3.27) (3.28) m8 (h8 h9 ) m6 (3.26)
Pump The efcieny of the pump is a input variable. The work input of the pump is given by: Wp = m5 (h6 h5 ) (3.29) The mass ow balance gives: m5 = m6 (3.30)
27
T T8 T9 T7 T6
A
Figure 3.7: Heat exchange, solution heat exchanger.
Qc 14 13 1
Qg Qr 11 19 20 12
2 9
3 Qa 16 15 Qe 18 17 Wp 4 10 5
Following are clarications of singular parts of the model shown in Figures 2.3 and 3.8
28 Point 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Thermodynamic Models State Saturated vapour Vapour-liquid state Vapour-liquid state Vapour-liquid state Saturated liquid solution Subcooled liquid solution Vapour-liquid solution state Saturated liquid solution Subcooled liquid solution Subcooled liquid solution Saturated vapour Saturated liquid solution
Condenser The refrigerant arrives in the condenser as steam at high temperature T1 . At this stage it is almost pure ammonia. The steam is condensed to liquid and leaves at temperature T2 . The condenser is cooled by water which enters at a temperature T13 and leaves at a temperature T14 . The system has two pressure stages. The high pressure stage in the system is decided by the condenser temperature Tc which is an input. The heat ow balance gives: Qc = m1 (h1 h2 ) Qc = m15 (h14 h13 ) The mass ow balance gives: m1 = m2 (3.33) (3.31) (3.32)
Expansion valve 1 In the expansion valve 1 the pressure drops and because of that, the temperature drops. The enthalpy is in balance as: h2 = h3 The mass ow gives: m2 = m3 (3.35) (3.34)
29
Inputs m13 [kg/s] m15 [kg/s] m17 [kg/s] m19 [kg/s] T13 [ C] T15 [ C] T17 [ C] T19 [ C] Tpinch,absorber [ C] Tpinch,generator [ C] Te [ C] Tc [ C] Qe [kW] Outputs mref [kg/s] m [kg/s] COP Qc [kW] Qa [kW] Qg [kW] U Ac [kW/ C] U Ae [kW/ C] U Aa [kW/ C] U Ag [kW/ C]
External heat transfer uid ow rate, condenser External heat transfer uid ow rate, evaporator External heat transfer uid ow rate, absorber External heat transfer uid ow rate, generator External heat transfer uid inlet temperature, condenser External heat transfer uid inlet temperature, evaporator External heat transfer uid inlet temperature, absorber External heat transfer uid inlet temperature, generator Pinch of absorber Pinch of generator Evaporator temperature Condensder temperature Heat transfer rate, evaporator Pump ow rate Refrigerant and solution loop ow rates System performance Heat transfer rate, condenser Heat transfer rate, absorber Heat transfer rate, generator Heat exchanger size, condenser Heat exchanger size, evaporator Heat exchanger size, absorber Heat exchanger size, generator
Table 3.4: Model inputs and outputs.
30
Thermodynamic Models
Expansion valve 2 In the expansion valve 2 the pressure drops. The enthalpy is in balance as: h9 = h10 The mass ow gives: m9 = m10 (3.37) Evaporator After going through an expansion valve, the liquid ammonia enters the evaporator at a temperature T3 . In the evaporator the ammonia evaporates at a low pressure and takes heat from chilled water in the heat exchange pipe. The steam leaves at a temperature of T4 . The low pressure in the system is decided by the evaporator temperature Te wich is a input to the system. The evaporator heat ow Qe is also an input. The heat ow balance gives: Qe = m4 (h4 h3 ) The mass ow balance gives: m3 = m4 = m1 (3.39) (3.38) (3.36)
Absorber Steam enters the absorber at a temperature T4 and ammonia-water solution enters at T10 . The ammonia-water solution absorbs ammonia steam from the evaporator in the absorber. The absorber is cooled by water. The cooling water enters at heat T17 and leaves at temperature T18 . The solution leaves at a temperature of T5 . The heat ow balance gives: Qa = m4 h4 + m10 h10 m5 h5 The mass ow balance gives: m5 = m4 + m10 The ammonia balance gives: x5 m5 = x4 m4 + x10 m10 (3.42) (3.41) (3.40)
Generator In the generator the solution is heated by hot water or steam to remove some of the ammonia. The steam used to heat the generator is at a temperature T19 and is condensed in the generator and therefore leaves at the same temperature.
31
Hot water could also be used, but it would leave at temperature T20 . The size of the generator is decided by setting the pinch point. The heat ow balance gives: Qg = m 1 h 1 + m 8 h 8 m 7 h 7 Qg = m19 (h19 h20 ) The mass ow balance gives: m7 = m1 + m8 The ammonia balance gives: m7 x7 = m1 x1 + m8 x8 (3.46) (3.45) (3.43) (3.44)
Heat Exchanger The ammonia water solution enters the heat exchanger at a temperature T6 and is heated up and leaves at a temperature T7 . The hotter solution enters the heat exchanger at a temperature T8 and is cooled and leaves at a temperature T9 . There is no mixing of uids in the heat exchanger so the ammonia strength does not change. The size of the heat exchanger is an input variable. The heat ow balance gives: h7 = h6 + The mass ow balance gives: m6 + m8 = m7 + m9 (3.48) m8 (h8 h9 ) m6 (3.47)
Rectier The solution leaving the generator still contains some water so it arrives at the rectifer at a temperature T11 and then the ammonia leaves at a temperature T1 and goes to the condenser and the solution goes back to the generator at temperature T12 . The heat ow balance gives: Qr = m11 h11 m12 h12 m1 h1 The mass ow balance gives: m1 + m12 = m11 (3.50) (3.49)
Pump The pump increases the pressure slightly. The efciency of the pump is an
32 input variable. The pump work is given by: Wp = m5 (h6 h5 ) The mass ow balance gives: m5 = m6
Thermodynamic Models
(3.51) (3.52)
34
Comparison and Analysis Heat Source Cooling [ C] [ C] COP Capital cost USD/kWc 80-160 430-1400 380-1600 100-250
Single effect cycle LiBr Single effect cycle N H3 Adsorption Steam Jet *depends on cooling media
Table 4.1: Comparison between different methods of using heat for cooling,
nia cycles are listed in Table 4.2. The ammonia-water system also has a longer liftime than the water-LiBr one. Other cycles have been tested in experimental units and some of them manufactured. An overview of the principal absorption cycles is shown in Table 4.3. The COP is mostly dependant on the heat source.
200
150
100 T [C] 50 0 50 0
500 P [kPa]
1000
1500
4.3 Absorption Refrigeration vs. Vapour Compression Refrigeration Ammonia Absorption 5-(-60) C <35 C Carbon steel in plates and tubes Little maintenance 25 years or more Corrosion is neglible
35
Lithium Bromide Absorption 4-10 C <35 C Carbon steel and copper nickel tubes about 15 years Corrosion is high
mide Absorption Plants. Heat Source Cooling [ C] [ C] Single effect cycle LiBr/H2 O Single effect cycle H2 O/N H3 Double effect cycle LiBr/H2 O Double effect cycle H2 O/N H3 Triple effect cycle LiBr/H2 O Half effect cycle LiBr/H2 O 70-115 100-160 120-150 100-160 200-230 <80 4-10 C <0 C 4-10 C <0 C 4-10 4-10 1.4-1.5 0.2-0.35 COP
36
difference between these systems is summarized in Table 4.4. Ammonia absorption Low running cost, cheap energy input like: -waste heat, geothermal heat. Low maintenance cost No loss of efciency with usage. Long life of plant, at least 25 years. Low investment costs due to no reciprocating parts. sion plant. Vapour compression High running cost. Electricity as energy input High maintainance cost. Loss of efciency with usage. due to compressor parts wear & tear. Short life of compressor. High investment costs due to reciprocating compressor.
37
0.83
0.82
0.81
COP
0.8
0.79
0.78
0.77
0.76
60
40
20
0 Change in %
20
40
60
COP. With increased effectiveness of the solution heat exchanger, the COP decreases. The evaporation temperature, Te , also effects the COP, with increasing evaporator temperature the COP increases. The evaporation temperature has linear relation to the generator temperature, with increasing generator temperature the evaporation temperature decreases. Therefore, the generator temperature also affects the COP, with increasing generator temperature the COP decreases. Other inputs have less effect, that is, the condensing temperature,Tc , the cooling water temperature, T17 , and the pinch for the absorber, Tpinch . Additional gures can be found in appendix. For variable names see Chapter 3 and Figure 3.8.
38
0.7
0.65
T 17 T e T c Tpinch,a shx
0.6
0.55
0.5
0.45
0.4
0.35
60
40
20
0 Change in %
20
40
60
39
0.6
35
30
25 Te [C]
20
15
10
130
120 T , [C]
19
110
100
90
80 40
35
30
25 Te [C]
20
15
10
ammonia-water model.
erator inlet also increases linearly with increasing refrigeration capacity, from 5kg/s to 120 kg/s for the hot water and 0.2-2 kg/s for the steam, for the same refrigeration capacity increase as above.
40
4.6 Cost
When comparing costs, both investment costs and operational costs must be taken into consideration. The operational costs can of course only be predicted because they uctuates with energy prices, unforseen system failures etc.
4.6 Cost
41
rate for industrial use hot water is about 0.43 USD per tonne for water at about 80 degrees. Cooling water costs are harder to estimate, but the rate (Reykjavik energy) for industrial use cooling water is around 0.2 USD per tonne of water. This estimate assumes that the water used for cooling is quality water and can be used as drinking water. This is not necessary, as cooling water does not have to be of such quality nor so cold, temperatures of up to 30 C are applicable. Sea could be used but then the material cost would be a little higher due to the necessary corrosion prevention. A more realistic price for cooling water is about 0.014 USD per tonne, (rlfsson, 2002). The electricity rate is 0.025-0.09 USD per KWh, depending on the contract. Therefore, a rough estimate of operational costs for a water-Libr absorption refrigeration system of 100 kW is sixty-nine thousand USD per year, with hot water, cooling water and electricity as shown in Table 4.6. This estimate is based on the highest preceding estimates. The highest cost is the hot water cost. The temperature drops from 80 C to 74 C, and could therefore be redirected into the district heating system. Therfore the hot water cost would be lower. Electricity cost for a comparible vapour compression system is about 16,000 USD per year, with lower electricity rate per kWh because of more usage. In these calculations the system is assumed to be running 24 hour a day every day of the year. Useage cost per unit cost per year 4 kg/s 0.44 $ per tonne $55,009 2.4 kg/s 0.22 $ per tonne $14,360 1 kW 0.09 $ per kWh $760 Total $69,333
42
Tc [ C] 25 25 25 25
Table 5.1: Refrigeration capacity of the cooling system in the shrimp processing
plant in Hsavk, (Bergsteinn Gunnarsson., 2004). As shown in Table 5.1, the system has four main parts, two parts that have evaporation temperature of -40 C or the high stage and the low stage with a evaporation temperature of -10 C. There is also an ice slurry machine, but this will not be taken into consideration in this case. Water is available at two different temperatures, 124 C and 80 C. With 124 C water, it is possible to use an evaporation temperature of -40 C with a condensing temperature of 25 C. The geothermal heat source (Hveravellir, near Hsavk) delivers 95 l/s of 124 C hot water. The water is used for electricity production, house heating and industry, (Hjartarsson et al., 2002). The 80 C
44
Case Study
124C
80C
124C
100C
80C
Cooling water
Cooling water
water cannot be used for freezing. To use an absorption refrigeration system for these conditions, the sizes of main components have to be as listed in Table 5.2 using the EES model. In this case the refrigeration system would use the 124 C hot water to drive the high stage of the refrigeration system. The high stage returns water at a temperature about 100 C which is used to drive the lower stage of the system. Finally, water at 80 C is returned to the district heating system. In Table 5.3 the total energy usage of the system is shown. Total hot water usage from the geothermal source is then 10 kg/s or about 10.5 % of the total. The stage 2 system needs 14.5 kg/s of hot water of 100 C and therefore the additional water from the heat source is needed. But water of 124 C could be mixed to the 80 C water to get 100 C. This system would return 10 kg/s of 80 C hot water. U Aa [kW/K] U Ag [kW/K] U Ac [kW/K] U As [kW/K] Evaporators high stage 55 200 40 50 302 kW low stage 100 400 90 80 740 kW
The investment cost for a absorption system of this kind is around one million USD. The electricity cost is about 6.000 USD per annum and cooling water
45 high stage low stage 6.5 kg/s 3.5 kg/s 13 kg/s 44 kg/s 4.5 kW 8.1 kW
Table 5.3: Total energy and cooling water usage of the absorption refrigeration
around 77.000 USD per annum. The lower stage could although use cooling water at a temperature of 20-25 C, so if that would be free, the cooling water cost would be around 18.000 USD per year. These prices are courtesy of Hsavk Energy. Electricity cost for a vapour compression system could be about 145.000 USD per annum. The price difference between the 124 C water at the inlet and the 80 C water at the outlet could therefore not be more than about 0.4 USD per tonne. In Hsavk the geothermal power plant uses 90 l/s, (rlfsson, 2002), so there are only 5 l/s really available. Therefore, it is not possible to install absorption units of this size unless further drilling are made or reduce the electricity production. Further drilling would presumably not be economically feasible. Installing a absorption refrigeration system is not feasible unless the heat already exists. Another option is to use a absorption system in conjunction with a compression system, that is use an absorption system for part of the load.
46
Case Study
48
the geothermal heat plants producing the energy do not have 100% efciency themselves. Because of the high equipment costs it would never become economical to exchange to absorption systems. But if new system is to be installed anyway, absorption should certainly be taken into a consideration. The feasibility is strongly dependant on heat energy costs and to a lesser extent on cooling water costs. Ammonia absorption systems are a possible option where geothermal heat of a sufcient temperature is available to get desired evaporation temperature. The feasibility then depends on energy prices. Geothermal energy is limited, like other natural resources, so every case should be carefully considered and analysed before utilisation decisions are made.
Bibliography
ASHRAE (1983). Ashrae handbook equipment. Bergsteinn Gunnarsson. (2004). Personal communication. Best, R., Heard, L., C., Pena, P., Fernndez, H., and Holland, F. A. (1990). Developments in geothermal energy in mexico-part twenty six: Experimental assessment of an ammonia/water absorption cooler operating on low entalpy geothermal energy. Heat Recovery Systems & CHP, 10:61. Borsig GmbH (2003). Borsig gmbh, website. http://www.borsig.de. 4. june 2003. Braven, K. D., Herold, K., Viung, M., ONeal, D., and Penoncello, S. (1993). Improving heat pumps and air conditioning. Mechanical engineering, 13:133. engel, Y. A. and Boles, M. A. (1998). Thermodynamics an Engineering Approach. McGraw Hill, Boston. Dossat, R. J. (1980). Principles of Refrigeration SI Version. John Wiley & Sons. Glen Watt. (2002). Gas cooling: An Innovation Opportunity for Australia? Gunnarsson, D. (1989). Frosturrkun me jarhita. Hskli slands. Herold, K., Radermacher, R., and Klein, S. (1996). Absorption Chillers and Heat Pumps. CRC Press. Hjartarsson, H., Maack, R., and Jhannesson, S. (2002). Fjlnting jarhita. Orkuveita Hsavkur. Holman, J. P. (1997). Heat Transfer. McGraw-Hill. USA. Kececiler, A., I., A. H., and A., D. (2000). Thermodynamic analysis of the absorption refrigeration system with geothermal energy: an experimental study. Energy Conversion & Management., 41:37.
50
Klein, S.A. and F.L. Alvarado, F-Chart Software (2004). Engineering equation solver, professional v7.057. Lewis Energy Systems Inc. (2004). The Lewis aaar Aqua Ammonia Absorption Refrigeration System 150 to 500 tons of refrigeration. http://www.toromontprocess.com/library/presentations.asp. Lilly, D. E. (1998). Analysis and Performance of Gas-Electric Hybrid Chiller Systems. Georgia Institute of Technology. Lu, Y. Z., Wang, R. Z., Zhang, M., and Jiangzhou, S. (2001). Adsorption cold storage system with zeolite-water working pair used for locomotive air conditioning. Energy Conversion & Management., 44:1733. Means, R. S. (1995). Mechanical Cost Data 1995. Kingston, MA. Noeres, P., Hlder, D., Althaus, and W. Petzold, B. (1999). Economic cold generation by steam jet refrigeration - experiences from a pilot plant. In Proceedings of the 7th International Symposium on District Heating and cooling. 37-48. Orkustofnun (2003). The National Energy Authority, website. http://www.os.is/ald/orkuaudlindir_is.html. 20. november 2003. Ragnarsson, A. (1976). Notkun jarvarma frystiinai. Hskli slands. Reistad, G. M. (1980). Direct Application of Geothermal Energy. ASHRAE. rlfsson, G. (2002). Bestun ntingu lghita jarvarma til raforkuframleislu. Hskli slands. Sther, S. (1999). Temperature control of district heating and cooling systems with absorption chiller units. In Proceedings of the 7th International Symposium on District Heating and cooling. 37-48. Valdimarsson, Pll (2003). Various glossaries in the course energy processes taught at the University of Iceland, Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering. Wu, C. (1992). Cooling capacity optimization of a geothermal absorption refrigaration cycle. International Journal of Ambient Energy, 13:133.
Appendix A Figures
Following are additional gures for the ammonia-water model described in Chapter 3. The gures have the COP plotted vs. input variables and are to clarify the sensitivity analysis in Chapter 4.
0.7
0.65
0.6
0.4
0.5
0.6
shx []
0.7
0.8
0.9
shx .
52
Figures
0.7
0.59
0.65
0.58
0.57
30
25
20 Te [C]
15
10
0.52
10 Tpinch,absorber [C]
12
14
16
18
Figure A.4: COP vs. evaporator temperFigure A.2: COP vs. Tpinch,absorber .
0.6
ature, Te .
0.55
0.52
0.54
0.53
0.5
26
28
30
32
34
36 Tc [C]
38
40
42
44
46
Figure A.3: COP vs. cooling water temperature for absorber, T17 .
ature, Tc .
53
20
COP []
0.4
40
0.3 120
125
130
135
145
150
155
60 160
perature.
150
130
120
110
100
90
80
70 35
30
25
10
evaporator
54
Figures
56 m4 h4 + m10 h10 = m5 h5 + Qa Qa = cp m13 (T14 T13 ) m18 = m17 T5 T17 = Tpinch;absorber call TPQ(T5 ; plow; Q5 ) T10 T18 T5 + T17 ln (T10 T18 )/ (T5 T17 )
Lmtda =
(B.20) (B.21)
Qa = Lmtda UAa DESORBER m7 h7 + m12 h12 + Qg = m11 h11 + m8 h8 T8 = T19 Tpinch;desorber call PXQ(phigh; x3 ; ) 0(B.24) x5 x8 = Dx Qg = m19 (h19 h20 ) m19 = m20 T19 T8 T20 + T11 ln
T19 T8 T20 T11
(B.22) (B.23)
Lmtdg =
(B.28)
Qg = Lmtdg UAg RECTIFIER m11 = m1 + m12 m11 x11 = m1 x1 + m12 x12 m11 h11 = m1 h1 + m12 h12 + Qrect x12 = x7 PUMP swp = v1 p2 p1 etap
(B.29)
(B.34) (B.35)
h6 = h5 + swp
57 Wp = m5 (h6 h5 ) EXPANSION VALVE h2 = h3 SHX Qhx = m5 (h7 h6 ) Qhx = m8 (h8 h9 ) T8 T9 eshx = T8 T6 Lmtds = (T8 T7 ) (T9 T6 ) ln ((T8 T7 ) / (T9 T6 )) (B.38) (B.39) (B.40) (B.37) (B.36)
(B.41) (B.42)
UAs = Qhx/Lmtds CONDENSER Qc = m1 (h1 h2 ) Qc = m13 (h14 h13 ) m13 = m14 call TXQ(Tcondenser ; x1 ; ) (B.46) Lmtdc = T1 T14 T2 + T13 ln ((T1 T14 ) / (T2 T13 )) Qc = Lmtdc UAc EVAPORATOR Qe = m4 (h4 h3 ) call TXQ(Tevaporator ; x3 ; ) 0(B.50) EXPANSION VALVE h2 = h3 OVERALL COP = SET PRESSURES p1 = phigh Qe Wp + Qg
(B.47) (B.48)
(B.49)
(B.51)
(B.52)
(B.53)
58 p2 = phigh p3 = plow p4 = plow p5 = plow p6 = phigh p7 = phigh p8 = phigh p9 = phigh p10 = plow p11 = phigh p12 = phigh TRIVIAL MASS BALANCES m1 = m2 m2 = m3 m3 = m4 m5 = m6 m9 = m10 m8 = m9 m6 = m7 TRIVIAL NH3 BALANCES x1 = x2 x2 = x3 x3 = x4 x5 = x6 x9 = x10 x6 = x7 x8 = x9 STATE POINTS call PHX(p6 ; h6 ; x6 )
EES models (B.54) (B.55) (B.56) (B.57) (B.58) (B.59) (B.60) (B.61) (B.62) (B.63) (B.64)
(B.79)
59 T6 ; Q6 ; v6 ; s6 call PHX(P7 ; h7 ; x7 ) T7 ; Q7 ; v7 ; s7 call PHX(p8 ; h8 ; x8 ) T8 ; Q8 ; v8 ; s8 call TPX(T9 ; P9 ; x9 ) Q9 ; h9 ; v9 ; s9 call PHX(P10 ; h10 ; x10 ) T10 ; Q10 ; v10 ; s10 call TPQ(T11 ; p11 ; Q11 ) x11 ; h11 ; v11 ; s11 call PHX(p12 ; h12 ; x12 ) T12 ; Q12 ; v12 ; s12 call PXQ(p1 ; x1 ; Q1 ) T1 ; h1 ; v1 ; s1 call TXQ(t2 ; x2 ; Q2 ) p2 ; h2 ; v2 ; s2 call PHX(p3 ; h3 ; x3 ) t3 ; q3 ; v3 ; s3 call TXQ(t4 ; x4 ; q4 ) p4 ; h4 ; v4 ; s4 h13 = h (Water; T = T13 ; x = 0) h15 = h (Water; T = T15 ; x = 0) h19 = h (Water; T = T19 ; x = 0) h16 = h (Water; T = T16 ; x = 0) T20 = T (Water; h = h20 ; x = 0) (B.80) (B.81) (B.82) (B.83) (B.84) (B.85) (B.86) (B.87) (B.88) (B.89) (B.90) (B.91) (B.92) (B.93) (B.94) (B.95) (B.96) (B.97) (B.98) (B.99) (B.100) (B.101) (B.102) (B.103) (B.104) (B.105)
60
EES models
Water-LiBr model
pin1 = Thin Tcut pin2 = Thut Tcin pinp = min (pin1; pin2) end SI = 2 etap = 1 m5 = 0, 05 UAs = 0, 5 Q2 = 0 Q4 = 1, 0 Q5 = 0 Q8 = 0 Q10 = Q10b 0, 01 Q3 = x (STEAMN BS ; h = h3 ; P = Plow) Phigh = P (WATER; T = T2 ; x = Q2 ) Plow = P (WATER; T = T4 ; x = Q4 ) T8 T9 T8 T6 h8 h9 Chot = m8 T8 T9 h7 h6 Ccold = m6 T7 T6 Qhx = m6 (h7 h6 ) EffHx = Qhx = m8 (h8 h9 ) Lmtds = (T8 T7 ) (T9 T6 ) ln ((T8 T7 ) / (T9 T6 )) (B.106) (B.107) (B.108) (B.109) (B.110) (B.111) (B.112) (B.113) (B.114) (B.115) (B.116) (B.117) (B.118) (B.119) (B.120) (B.121) (B.122) (B.123) (B.124) (B.125) (B.126) (B.127) (B.128) (B.129)
UAs = Qhx/Lmtds m7 = m8 + m1
61 m 7 x7 = m 8 x8 h7 m7 h8 m8 h1 m1 + Qg = 0 Qg = m17 (h17 h18 ) Effd = Lmtdg = T17 T18 T17 T1 T17 T8 T18 + T1 ln
T11 T4 T12 T7
Qg = Lmtdg UAg Pinchg Qc = m1 (h1 h2 ) Qc = m11 (h12 h11 ) T11 T12 T11 T2 T2 T11 T2 + T12 Lmtdc = ln ((T2 T11 ) / (T2 T12 )) Effc = Qc = Lmtdc UAc Pinchc h2 = h3 Qe = m3 (h4 h3 ) Qe = m13 (h13 h14 ) T13 T14 T13 T4 T13 T4 T14 + T4 Lmtde = ln ((T13 T4 ) / (T14 T4 )) Effe = Qe = Lmtde UAe Pinche T4 m4 + T10 m10 m5 m4 h4 + h10 m10 Qa m5 h5 = 0 T =
(B.135) (B.136) (B.137) (B.138) (B.139) (B.140) (B.141) (B.142) (B.143) (B.144) (B.145) (B.146) (B.147) (B.148) (B.149) (B.150) (B.151)
62 Qa = m15 (h16 h15 ) Pincha Effa = Lmtda = T16 T15 T T15 T T16 T5 + T15 ln
T T16 T5 T15
(B.156) (B.157) (B.158) (B.159) (B.160) (B.161) (B.162) (B.163) (B.164) (B.165) (B.166) (B.167) (B.168) (B.169) (B.170) (B.171) (B.172) (B.173) (B.174) (B.175) (B.176) (B.177)
h2 = h1 + swp Wp = m5 (h6 h5 ) m2 = m1 m3 = m2 m3 = m4 m6 = m5 m9 = m10 m8 = m9 m7 = m6 m11 = m12 m13 = m14 m15 = m16 m17 = m18 x2 = x1 x3 = x2 x5 = x4 x6 = x5 x7 = 0 x6 = x7
63 x9 = x8 x10 = x9 h5 = HLIBR (T5 ; x5 ; SI) h6 = HLIBR (T6 ; x6 ; SI) h7 = HLIBR (T7 ; x7 ; SI) h8 = HLIBR (T8 ; x8 ; SI) h9 = HLIBR (T9 ; x9 ; SI) call QLIBR (h10 ; Plow; x10 ; SI(B.185) T10 = T10b h1 = h (WATER; T = T1 ; P = Phigh) h1s = h (WATER; T = T2 ; x = 1, 0) h2 = h (WATER; T = T2 ; x = 0) T3 = T (WATER; h = h3 ; P = Plow) h4 = h (WATER; T = T4 ; x = 1) h11 = h (WATER; T = T11 ; x = 0) h12 = h (WATER; T = T12 ; x = 0) h13 = h (WATER; T = T13 ; x = 0) h14 = h (WATER; T = T14 ; x = 0) h15 = h (WATER; T = T15 ; x = 0) h16 = h (WATER; T = T16 ; x = 0) h17 = h (WATER; T = T17 ; x = 0) h18 = h (WATER; T = T18 ; x = 0) x8 = XLIBR (T8 ; Phigh; SI) x5 = XLIBR (T5 ; Plow; SI) T1 = TLIBR (Phigh; x7 ; SI) v1 = VLIBR (T5 ; X5 ; SI) COP = Qe/Qg P1 = Phigh (B.186) (B.187) (B.188) (B.189) (B.190) (B.191) (B.192) (B.193) (B.194) (B.195) (B.196) (B.197) (B.198) (B.199) (B.200) (B.201) (B.202) (B.203) (B.204) (B.205) (B.178) (B.179) (B.180) (B.181) (B.182) (B.183) (B.184)
64 P2 = Phigh P3 = Plow P4 = Plow P5 = Plow P6 = Phigh P7 = Phigh P8 = Phigh P9 = Phigh P10 = Plow
EES models (B.206) (B.207) (B.208) (B.209) (B.210) (B.211) (B.212) (B.213) (B.214)