Principal Sound Changes from PIE to Greek 1. When syllabic (i.e.

not adjacent to a sonority peak, typically), the laryngeals *h *h *h are re$ected in Greek as e, a, o respectively. This is the famous triple re!ection of the laryngeals in Greek. When in onset position between sonority peaks, the laryngeals are normally lost, but are sometimes re$ected through the failure of adjacent vowels to coalesce into a single syllable. *hleng-e/o- to a&rm under oath > elenke- to cross-examine, insult *hreh-e/o- to ask > eree*phtr father > patr *huedH to speak: *hudH-eh > aud voice *kremh-to-i > kremamai hangs up *hreg-e/o- to direct > orege- to reach for, stretch out for *hbr(e)uH-s eyebrow > oprs 2. Greek is a centum language: the palatals become velars: *k > k, *g > g, *g > *g (> k) *dek-e/o- receive > deke- accept *gi-gneh-sk-e/o- know, recognize > gignske*horg-ei -e/o- to mount > orke- to jump, to dance *leig-e/o- to lick > leike 3a. The voiceless stops *p, *t, *k (incl. < *k), voiced stops *b, *d, *g (incl. < *g), and sonorants (*m *n *l *r) are usually unchanged. *potis lord > potis *trep-e/o- to turn > trepe*sker-i -e/o- to clip short > skeire*spend-e/o- to make a ritual o*ering > spende*hed-e/o- to eat > ede*men-e/o- to remain > mene*leuk-o-s bright > leukos white

3b. The voiced aspirates become voiceless: *b > p *d > t *g (including < *g) > k *bag-o-m I got a share > (e)-pagon I ate *ber-e/o- carry > pere*medu honey, mead > metu wine *legos > lekos bed

3c. By Grassmanns Law, the +rst of two aspirated segments in a word is deaspirated: *di-deh-mi I place, put > *ti-t-mi > titmi *bord-ei -e/o- destroy > *portee- > portee*deug-e/o- to make useful, produce > *teuke- > teuke- to build *geb-el head > *kepal-() > kepal 4. The behavior of the labiovelars is a bit complex. Labiovelars become dentals (coronals) or labials under various complex conditions. The ordinary rule is that labiovelars become coronal before *e, and *k also becomes coronal before *i. But in plenty of cases the change is not entirely regular, where one word in a paradigm has in$uenced the development of others. *leike/o- to leave > leipe*uok-s voice > ops *uek-os word > epos *ki-s who > tis *k > p *k > p (regular) *k > t before *i (regular)

*ti eg-e/o- to have respect for, to pull back > sebe- to think shame *g > b *bog-os fear, $ight > pobos *sm -gelbos brother (< same womb) > adelpos *g > d *gen-i -e/o- to smite, kill > teine- *g > t *hegis snake > opis *g > p 5. In Attic Greek, * > [], except after vowels and r. *geh-m I went > (e)bn *suehd-u-s sweet > hdus *sehg-e/o- to seek > hge- to follow

6a. Syllabic *n, *m become a bng--s thick, dense > pakus (= Skt bahu- much, rich) dekm ten > deka septm seven > hepta 6b. Syllabic *r, *l become ar/al or ra/la, depending on which made a better syllabi+cation. *i kr > hpar liver *uesr > ear spring *mrg-u-s > brakus short *pl th--s > platus $at

6c. Tautosyllabic *R h > R/eRe, *R h > R/aRa, *R h > R/oRo (R = *m, *n, *l or *r) *gnh-ti-s > genesis birth, origin *km -ti-gnh-t-s > kasigntos brother (< born together) *kl h-t-s > kltos called *dnh-t-s > tntos dead (< tntos) *knhm-eh > knm lower leg (< knm) *knhk-s > knkos honey-yellow *pi-prh-sk-e/o- > piprske- to sell

*gl h-no-s > balanos acorn *dnh-to-s > tanatos death *krh > kara head *prh > para beside *pl hm-eh > palam palm *ml hk-o-s > malakos weak *hnh-mn > onoma name

*gnh-t-s > gntos recognized *strh-t-s > strtos strewn *ti-trh-sk-e/o- > titrske- wound *ml h-sk-e/o- > blske- to come

6d. Heterosyllabic *R .H has the same outcome as *R *gr.h--s > barus heavy *pr.h-os > paros before, earlier *gl .Hou-os > galos husbands sister *sul .h-eh > ale heat or warmth of the sun or of +re
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7a. Initial *s before a sonorant continuant (*r or a vowel) becomes h, the rough breathing. *si-steh-mi > histmi I sit *sreg-i -e/o- to color> redze- to tint *sreu-e/o- to $ow > reeSometimes initial h- before a vowel was lost in Attic-Ionic. This is known as psilosis (becoming plain). 7b. Intervocalic *s +rst became *h and then was lost. The former presence of *h is sometimes shown by the failure of two adjacent vowels to coalesce, or in Mycenean by the absence of a glide j or w written between adjacent vowels. *snuss daughter-in-law > nuos *nes-e/o- to return > nee*heus-s dawn > s (< *ewss) 8. *u survives in Mycenean and some dialects and shows traces in Homer in metrical anomalies, but is lost everywhere in Attic and Ionic Greek. The former presence of *u is sometimes shown by the failure of two adjacent vowels to coalesce, especially in Homer. *uhg-nu-mi I bite, split > agnmi I break *hueh-si (the wind) blows > asi *huerg-e/o- to turn > eerge- to shut in or out, to hinder *uoik-o-s clan > oikos house 8a. Initial *i has a complex set of outcomes, not all of which have been explained. Normally initial *i becomes Greek zd. *i ug--m yoke > zdugn *i ese/o- to bubble, boil > zdee- to boil, cook A laryngeal plus *i can yield Greek h. *Hi ag-i -e/o- to worship > hazde-, cf. Skt yaj-a sacri+ce
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9. Thorn clusters are reversed: *tetk-n carpenter > tktn *tken-i -e/o- to injure > kteine- to kill *h(e)dg-e/o- to press > akte- be burdened or oppressed cf. H hatki to shut, close *d(e)gom- earth > kton-, cf. H tekan 10. A consonant + yod (*i ) developed has various re$exes *pi > pt *bi > pt *ti > ss, tt *di > zd *di > s *ki > ss, tt *ki > ss, tt *gi > zd *gi > ss, tt *Vri > *Vi r *Vni > *Vi n *Vli > *Vll *klep-i -e/o- to steal > klepte*dm b-i -e/o- to bury >tapte*melit-i h honeybee > melitta, melissa *ged-i -e/o- to defecate > kezde*di e-s sky god > zdeus Zeus *medi os middle > mesos Pre-Greek *helik-i e- > helisse- to turn around Pre-Greek *hk-i on- less > hsson-, htton*pek-i -e/o- >pesse-, pette- to cook *stig-i -e/o- to be sharp > stizde- to prick, punction *drhg-i -e/o- to stir up > tarasse-, taratte*sker-i -e/o- to clip short > skeire*ten-i -e/o- to stretch > teine*stel-i -e/o- to send > stelle-

11a. Clusters with *n and *s lose the *n when +nal but lengthen a preceding vowel *Vns > V s 11b. *ti becomes si 3pl thematic present *-onti > -si *deh-ti-s placing, putting > tsis Note that Greek ti can come from *ki or from *ti deaspirated by Grassmanns Law *-ons acc.pl. > -s

A substantial portion of the Greek vocabulary is not demonstrably Indo-European in origin. Some common words of this type include: sops skilled, wise SOPHISTRY dolos slave DULOSIS przd to point out, show, declare (w)naks lord, master ntrpos person ANTHROPOLOGY pmp to send POMP blp to see, look, blparon eyelid BLEPHARO-PLASTY e (< *sew) to let, allow pa to stop PAUSE hells Greece HELLADIC hlln a Greek HELLENIC gaa = g land, earth GEOprtenos girl PARTHENON plai gates THERMO-PYLAE dmar wife ptra rock, boulder, cli*, ptros stone PETER, PETROasps shield ASPIDISTRA kspos sword XIPHOID basiles king BASIL ark to be +rst, to rule, rk beginning ARCHteomai to look at, gaze upon THEATER estls good, noble mlatron ceiling eun bed EUNUCH amenon- better, abler, stronger hptomai to touch, take hold of SYN-APTspzd to slaughter plemos war POLEMIC lgos pain, grief AN-ALGESIC mkan instrument, machine
MECHANICAL IC PHRASE

psganon sword kleutos road, way, path tlatta sea THALASSOgelos messenger ANGEL lon- lion LION hsios honored as holy, sanctioned tama wonder, marvel THAUMAT-URGY tlamos inner room, chamber THALAMUS kal to loosen CHALAZA hed to sleep brtas wooden image of a god er- air AERIAL ktaros clear of dirt, spotless CATHERINE getn one of the same land, neighbor GEITONO-GAMY ask to work curiously, form by art ltos stone LITHOmkar blessed, happy MACARONESIA bstrukos curl of hair depnon dinner prtanis prince, ruler (Etruscan cognate) trannos tyrant TYRANT ksntos yellow XANTHOkalpt to cover with EU-CALYPTUS eirn peace IRENE hmilla contest, con$ict kos spear, lance eskra hearth, altar for burnt o*erings ktos hill trnos seat, chair THRONE drsos dew DROSOPHILA sdros iron SIDEREAL knos shrinking, hesitation slpiks trumpet SALPINGOSTOMY
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ESCHAR ASCETIC

apn four wheeled wagon rn- nose RHINOstrakon potsherd, tile OSTRACIZE nara arms of a slain foe, booty ktos sea-monster, seal, whale CETACEAN glakos gleaming, silvery GLAUCOMA klana pallium (kind of garment) dpn laurel DAPHNE lra lyre LYRE

dktulos +nger PTERO-DACTYL tsaurs treasure THESAURUS sriks pipe SYRINGE mpelos vine AMPELOPSIS hrs warrior HERO ktara harp, lute CITHERN kliks drinking cup (also appears in Latin as CALYX) lts lotus LOTUS

Borrowings into Greek from Semitic languages or Egyptian dltos writing tablet dlta the name for a group of islands found at the mouth of large rivers such as the Nile (owing to their shape like ) DELTA kntaros dung beetle, Spanish $y, large scarab, worshipped in Egypt CANTHARIDES bssos +ne $ax or linen BYSSUS krkos the purple CROCUS; sa*ron (made from the stamens of the purple crocus) ispis JASPER kassa CASSIA, an Arabian spice klbs cage, bird cage kttanon small +g kmnon CUMIN mnna morsel, grain, MANNA mrra MYRRH otn +ne white linen, linen sheet or cloth straks the shurb which yields a gum called STORAX skkos, skos coarse cloth of hair, esp. goats hair; a bag made of this cloth bsanos touchstone (< Egyptian bahan stone) kmmi GUM (Egyptian kemai) bas palm leaf (Egyptian) bonos EBONY (Egyptian) elps ivory; ELEPHANT (Egyptian) ntron carbonate of soda (Egyptian) NITRATE ? Aprod0t Aphrodite ? akalp a nettle, sting of a nettle ? murk tamarisk (cf. Latin tamariscus) ? knn, knn CANE, reed ? krabos the stag-beetle; a prickly kind of crab CARABID
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? bkos an earthen wine vessel (? BEAKER) ? arrabn earnest money, pledge ? (s)mragdos a precious stone, green in color (NHG SMARAGD emerald) ? kuprittos CYPRESS (later borrowed into Latin as cypressus) ? skos shield Other words probably borrowed from languages outside Greece: kanos enamel, lapis lazuli, blue copper carbonate: a dark blue substance used to adorn works in metal (borrowing from an Anatolian language, cf. Hittite kuwanna- ornamental stone) CYAN knnabis HEMP (very early borrowing into PIE, becoming OE hnep, OHG hanaf) arbl a strong shoe or half-boot (Iranian?) stleggs a sort of scraper used to dirt and oil from the skin in the bath, also appears in Latin as strigil karps fruit, also appears in Latin in carp, carpere to pluck CARP, CARPET krnon white lily CRINOID al ALOE prdos LEOPARD pntr PANTHER psos PEA, also appearing in Latin as pisum trsos THYRSUS, a wand carried by followers of Bacchus (< Anatolian? cf. Hier. Luwian tuwarsa- vine) Bkkos BACCHUS (prob. borrowed from Lydian) mgos MAGUS, Persian seer (<Iranian) MAGIC gruts quiver or bow-case (< Iranian) pardeisos park (< Old Persian) PARADISE kttos ivy kamra anything with a vaulted or arched covering; a covered carriage CAMERA kpinos basket COFFIN krdamon CARDAMOM klk murex or purple limpet, from which dye was obtained kktos CACTUS on violet arkns spider ARACHNID korannon CORIANDER kbos CUBE, dice, later borrowed into Latin as cubus rdon rose (< Iranian?) RHODO-DENDRON legos song or melody accompanied by the $ute (? < Anatolian) ELEGY
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Amadzn AMAZON (? < Iranian) tasos band or company marching through the streets with dance and song: the retinue of Bacchus (? < Anatolian) kpos garden, orchard, plantation; the enclosure for the Olympic games (? < a old European language) gnos the withy, a tall tree like the willow (? < a old European language) ikss mistletoe berry; birdlime prepared from mistletoe berries, also borr. into Latin as uiscum birdlime, and prob. in Russian as vnja cherry VISCOUS ? alkun king+sher (bird) ? grps curved, hooked, hook-nosed GRYPHON ? kerdos prickly pear ? ktinos wild olive ? ts jackal ? krbeis, krbies pillars or tablets with inscriptions ? sibn, subns hunting spear ? krblos a roll of hair gathered to a knot at the crown of the head; the crest of a helmet ? antakaos a kind of sturgeon (+sh)