Introduction to Bridge Engineering

Overview
Bridges vs. Buildings Advances in bridge engineering learning from failures Types of bridges and their attributes Discussion of the Walnut St. bridge

Bridges vs. Buildings

Bridges typically do not have architects
-Structural Engineer is responsible for aesthetics -Structural system is always exposed (both good and bad)

Bridges vs. Buildings

Bridges are owned by the public
- (+) Can institute changes to bridge engineering relatively quick (e.g. LRFD) - (-) Focus is primarily on lowest initial cost, with aesthetics playing a minor role if any at all.
- Are minimum cost and aesthetics competing objectives?

Robert Maillart

Christian Menn

Bridges vs. Buildings

Bridges are exposed to the elements
- Expansion and contraction due to temperature changes is a major concern - Durability is a major design consideration - Routine inspection and maintenance (initial versus life-cycle cost)

Bridges vs. Buildings

Bridges are subjected to large moving, repetitive loads (i.e. Trucks)
- Fatigue is of primary concern (accumulated damage/cracking due to repeat loading)

Bridges vs. Buildings

Bridge failures pose (or were thought to pose) a smaller threat to human life.
-Earthquake engineering of bridges lags far behind

Learning from Failures

Point Pleasant (Silver) Bridge
Construction was completed in May of 1928 Spanned the Ohio River between Point Pleasant, WV and Kanauga, OH Known as the Silver Bridge because it was painted with aluminum paint Eyebar suspension bridge (approx. 1750ft)

Description of Structure

http://www.geocities.com/silver_bridge1967

http://filebox.vt.edu/users/aschaeff/silver

Fisher, J. W. (1984) Fatigue and Fracture in Steel Bridges, Case Studies. John Wiley & Sons. New York, NY.

Eyebar Chain Joint at C13

Fisher, J. W. (1984) Fatigue and Fracture in Steel Bridges, Case Studies. John Wiley & Sons. New York, NY.

Materials
The original timber bridge deck was replaced by a steel grid filled w/ concrete (approx 3in) in 1941.
The deck replacement resulted in negligible increase in dead load

Eyebars were constructed of heat treated rolled carbon 1060 steel bars with forged heads
Eyebars were designed to break in the shank at ultimate loading

Summary of Collapse
Collapse occurred without warning on December 15, 1967 at approximately 5:00pm All three suspended sections fell within 60 sec According to eyewitnesses, the collapse occurred immediately after loud cracking sounds were heard coming from the Ohio Span Temperature at the time of collapse was 30o F 46 persons were killed, 9 persons were injured, and 37 vehicles fell with the bridge.

Collapse Photos (1)

http://www.geocities.com/silver_bridge1967

Collapse Photos (2)

http://www.geocities.com/silver_bridge1967

What Caused the Collapse ?

Analysis conducted after the collapse indicated that the static stresses at the time of collapse were lower than the allowable stresses. If the stresses were lower than the allowable stresses, what caused the collapse?

Cause of Collapse
Stress corrosion / corrosion fatigue initiated cracks at the inside of the pin hole of eyebar C13N.
Fatigue cracks were not visible to inspectors

Cracks most likely initiated from the forge marks in the head of the eyebars Heat treated steel (lower toughness) Temperature at the time of collapse was 30oF, which also lowered the toughness of the material

Collapse Overview

Fisher, J. W. (1984) Fatigue and Fracture in Steel Bridges, Case Studies. John Wiley & Sons. New York, NY.

Advances
This collapse resulted in significant amount of attention in fatigue and fracture mechanics related to bridges
This research culminated in the fatigue specifications with the AASHTO Bridge Specifications

Bridges are now inspected every two years

Other Collapses Schoharie Br. (1987)

Other Collapses Tacoma-Narrows (1940)

Bridge Types - Suspension

Longest-spanning bridge type Cables are the primary force resisting elements Forces are primarily transmitted through tension Longest - AkashiKaikyo, 6,527 ft (Japan, 1998)

Bridge Types Cable-Stayed

Cables and (box) girders are the primary force resisting elements Cables resist forces through tension and pre-stress the girders Girders resist forces through bending Longest Tatara, 2,848 ft (Japan, 1999)

Bridge Types Steel Arch

Steel Arches are the primary force resisting elements Arches resist forces through compression Thrust is a major consideration Longest Lupu, 1,760 ft (China, 2003)

Bridge Types Steel Truss

Rods are the primary force resisting elements Forces are resisted through tension and compression Longest Pont de Quebec, 1,757 ft (Canada, 1917)

Bridge Types Concrete Arch

Concrete Arches are the primary force resisting elements Arches resist forces through compression Longest Wanxian, 1,344 ft (China, 1997)

Bridge Types Prestressed Conc. Girder

Girders are the primary force resisting elements Forces are resisted through bending Longest Stolmasundet, 963 ft (Norway, 1998)

Bridge Types Steel Girder

Girders are the primary force resisting elements Forces are resisted through bending Longest Ponte Costa e Silva, 960 ft (Brazil, 1974)

Walnut Street Bridge

Steel Girder Spans

V-Pedestals Prestressed Concrete Girder Spans

Walnut Street Bridge Discussion

Temperature Expansion Splice Connections Simple vs. Continuous Spans

Expansion Bearings

Temperature Effects on Bridges

L

L+Lt Lt= L(T) Where, =coefficient of thermal expansion (in/in/oF) st=6x10-6 in/in/oF T=change in temperature (oF)

E.g. Temperature Effects on Bridges

Calculate the require expansion joint capacity (displacement) for a T =70 oF 300 ft 2 L1=150 ft 1 L2=300 ft

1 =st L1(T)= (6x10-6 in/in/oF)(150ft)(12in/1ft)(70) 1 =0.76 in 2 =st L2(T)= (6x10-6 in/in/oF)(300ft)(12in/1ft)(70) 2 =1.52 in

E.g. Temperature Effects on Bridges

Calculate the require expansion joint capacity (displacement) for a T =70 oF 300 ft

L1=150 ft

L2=150 ft

1 =st L1(T)= (6x10-6 in/in/oF)(150ft)(12in/1ft)(70) 1 =0.76 in 2 =st L2(T)= (6x10-6 in/in/oF)(150ft)(12in/1ft)(70) 2 =0.76 in

Splice Connections

Af-sp>Af Aw-sp>Aw

Splice Connection Locations

Locate splices in zero moment regions

Dead Load Moment Diagram

Simple vs. Continuous Spans

wL2/8 L L L

SIMPLE SPAN Dead Load Moment Diagram

Simple vs. Continuous Spans

Providing resistance to negative moment reduces positive moment

wL2/8

wL2/8 L CONTINUOUS SPAN Dead Load Moment Diagram L L

QUESTIONS?

Questions?