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Andrei Burov

The smallest repeating unit in a crystal is called the unit cell. The geometry and the position of the particles within the unit cell determine the structure of crystalline materials. Three edge lengths (a, b, c) and internal angles (a, b, g) will be used to describe the geometry of a unit cell. There are seven crystal systems and fourteen possible unit cells (Bravais unit cells) depending on the values of a, b, c and a, b, g.

Some of the particles within a unit cell may be shared and therefore do not belong completely to an individual cell. Therefore, in order to calculate number of particles per unit cell we have to consider the following contributions for each particle according to its position:

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- atoms centered on the face count 1/2; - atoms centered on the edge count 1/4; - atoms centered on the vertex count 1/8 In a simple cubic number of atoms per unit cell = 1; in a body centered cubic - 2; in a face centered cubic - 4. Atomic packing factor = (Volume of atoms)/(Volume of unit cell). For a simple cubic - atomic packing factor = 0.52; a body centered cubic - 0.68; a face centered cubic - 0.74

To determine a crystallographic direction [uvw] in a unit cell: 1. Find the vector projections on the three axes. A - 1,0,1; B - 0,1/2,1; C - 0,1,1/2; D - 1/2,1,0; E - 1,1,0; F - 1,1/2,0. 2. Reduce these coordinates to the 3 smallest integers having the same ratio. A - [101]; B - [012]; C - [021]; D - [120]; E - [110]; F - [210].

A plane within a crystal is defined by the Miller indices. To determine crystallographic (Miller) indices (hkl) of the plane: 1. Find intercepts of a plane on the three axes in terms of the unit cell dimensions. 2. Determine the reciprocals of these numbers. 3. Reduce the reciprocals to the three smallest integers.

There are two main types of planar defects called dislocations - edge dislocation and screw

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dislocation. A dislocation is a sharp change in the order of atoms along a line. Dislocations move on the slip plane. The magnitude and direction of the slip is defined by the Burger's vector, b. For an edge dislocation the direction of slip is perpendicular to the direction of the dislocation. For a screw dislocation the direction of slip is parallel to the direction of the dislocation.

Slip is known to occur on planes (shown on the picture) in the direction of the maximum density of atoms. This is called a slip system. If there are many slip systems then deformation can occur relatively easily and the metal is considered ductile. BCC crystal structure has up to 48 slip systems. FCC crystal structure has 12 slip systems. HCP crystal structures have only 3 slip systems. Accordingly, most metals with a HCP crystal structure (Mg, Zn, Be) are less ductile than metals with a BCC (W, Fe, K) or FCC (Cu, Al, Ni) structure. The distance between atoms varies depending on the crystallographic directions. This is the cause of the anisotropy of mechanical and physical properties of a crystal. Therefore, samples cut from a monocrystal in different directions will exhibit a difference in the stiffness. In the FCC and BCC crystals of metals the highest elastic modulus is found in [111] direction, while the lowest is found in the direction of [100]. Real materials consist of many chaotically oriented monocrystals, which results in the isotropy of their properties.

Some materials can exist with different crystal structures. This can be demonstrated by pure iron which has a body centered cubic (BCC) structure at room temperature and a face centered cubic (FCC) structure at 911 C. This change is
o

accompanied by shrinkage in volume due to the FCC structure being more closely packed than the BCC structure. The second transformation of crystal structure from FCC to BCC occurs at 1392 C.
o

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The mechanical properties of materials are primarily determined subjecting a material sample to a tension test. During a tension test the sample is gradually loaded and the force and corresponding induced elongation are recorded. In order to compare the results obtained with samples of different dimensions the quanitities of stress and strain are utilized. Stress, s = P/A [N/m=Pa] where P - force applied to the sample; A - cross sectional area of the sample. Strain, e = Dl/l x 100% [%]
o

where Dl = l - l ; l - current length; l - initial length of the

o o

sample;

The basic mechanical properties of a material can be acquired from the stress-strain diargam which results from a tensile test. To determine the yield stress from a stress-strain curve: 1. Find the point of 0.002 = 0.2% on the strain axis . 2. Draw a line parallel to the elastic region of the curve. 3. The intersection of the line and stress-strain curve corresponds to the yield stress of the material. The ultimate tensile strength is defined as the maximum value of stress reached in tensile test before fracture of the sample. Ductility can be determined in a material with the use of the following: Elongation = (l - l )/l x 100%
f o o

Reduction in area = (A - A )/A x 100%

f o o

where indexes o and f correspond to initial and final values at fracture respectivily.

The measure of material stiffness is defined as the elastic

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modulus. This quantity is determined from the initial range of the stress-strain diagram during which the material exhibits linear elastic behavior. In this region the sample will return to its original shape and dimensions upon unloading. Elastic modulus, E = s/e [Pa] The resistance to deformation in a material increases as the magnitude of the elastic modulus becomes greater.

Consider a test when a material is loaded beyond its yield stress. Upon unloading the stress follows a line parallel to the elastic range of the stress-strain curve. Futhermore, only the elastic deformation is recovered. The yield stress of a plastically deformed material is higher than its initial value. Upon reapplying the load the material deforms elastically until the new yield stress is reached. It should be noted that the elastic modulus of the material remains constant.

Hardness is the ability of a material to resist the indentation of a harder solid. The most common hardness tests are accomplished by forcing a small indenter into the surface of the sample material. The picture shows the setup of the Brinell's hardness test. In general, hardness is proportional to the tensile strength of the material as both characteristics show a resistance of the material to plastic deformation.

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The Fatigue curve or S-N curve is a plot of the number of cycles that a specimen will sustain at various levels of alternating stress or strain before failure. The maximum stress, minimum stress or stress amplitude can be utilized in the plot. A log scale is often used for the N axis. The S-N curves of materials such as high strength steels, aluminum alloys or materials in an aggressive environment do not have the horizontal segment. Fatigue Strength is the maximum stress that can be applied repeatedly for a specific number of cycles without leading to fracture. This quantity is usually determined directly from the S-N diagram.

Specimen loading (tension, bending or torsion) and a level of applied nominal stress can be indentified by examining the fracture surfaces. The fatique area has a fine structure outline and occupies nearly the whole section of a specimen if the applied stress is low. Similarly, a specimen which has endured a higher stress displays a smaller fatigue zone and a larger rupture zone.

The area under a stress-strain curve represents the work required to fracture a material. Accordingly, the larger the area, the more work required for materila failure. Ductile materials exhibit extensive plastic deformation and high absorption of energy before fracture. Plastic deformation and energy absorption of brittle materials are relatively low.

Low temperature decreases the ability of a material to plastic deformation. Materials that are ductile at room temperature show brittle fracture at low temperatures. An exception to this behavior is the majority of materials with an FCC structure, which remain ductile at very low

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temperatures. At a narrow temperature range the crack resistance falls drastically. This is known as the ductileto-brittle transition.

Creep is the gradual increase of plastic deformation of a material under a constant stress, which is less than the yield stress. Creep is pronounced at temperatures above 0.4 of the melting point (taken in oK). The greater the service temperature or applied stress, the less time the material takes to fracture due to creep.

The maximum stress, near the tip of an elliptical opening, perpendicular to the applied stress in a plane is determined from the following: smax = s x [1 + 2 x (a/r) ] where s is the applied stress; r is the radius of curvature at the tip; a is the half length for an internal opening and the full length for a surface opening.
1/2

Critical stress intensity factor K

IC

or fracture toughness

demonstrates the resistance of a material to the crack propagation. Damaged materials with higher fracture toughness can sustain a higher stress. The maximum nominal stress that a structural element with a crack can sustain, is determined as: s=K
IC

/ [Y (p x a)

1/2

where a is the half of the crack length; Y is a dimensionless factor depending on geometry. For a through internal crack that is much smaller than the dimensions of the element Y=1, for a surface crack Y=1.12.

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A binary phase diagram is composed from the cooling curves of alloys with various compositions. For an alloy with a particular composition there are two points on the curve where a cooling rate is affected. The first point corresponds to the temperature at which the alloy begins to solidify. On the phase diagram this point belongs to the Liquidus line. The second point corresponds to the temperature at which the entire liquid has solidified. On the phase diagram this point belongs to the Solidus line.

This diagram dispays the complete liquid and solid solubility of two component otherwise known as a binary isomorphous system. This occurs when the components have the same crystal structure and approximately the same radii, electro negativity and valence. For instance, systems of Ni-Cu and Ag-Au exhibit this type of diagram. At the temperature T for an alloy of 50%M + 50%N:
1

Composition of solid solution a is determined at point c - 30%M +70%N. Composition of Liquid is determined at point a - 80%M +20%N. % Liquid = bc/ac 100% = (70-50)/(70-20) 100 % = 40% % a = ab/ac 100% = (50-20)/(70-20) 100 % = 60%

The following diagram displays the complete liquid and limited solid solubility of two components otherwise known as the binary eutectic system. There are two solid phases (solid solutions): a rich in the component M and b - rich in the component N. At point O (Eutectic point) three phases (one liquid and two solid phases) coexist simultaneously at

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the eutectic composition and temperature.

Line bd or the Solvus line protrays the change of the maximum concentration of component M in component N. At the temperature T the maximum
1

concentration M in N is 10%. The highest possible solubility of the component M in component N (and vise verse) is found at the eutectic temperature. On the diagram this constant temperature line goes through the eutectic point O.

All alloys with composition along line ab comprise the eutectic structure which alternates layers of a and b phases. The closer the alloy to the eutectic composition, the higher amount of the eutectic it contains. The solidified alloys within line ab is a mixture of a grains precipitated prior to the eutectic reaction and grains of the eutectic. While the alloys on the right from point O - mixture of b and the eutectic grains.

Heat treatment is a technological process involving the heating a metal part, holding it at a certain temperature and then cooling it to room temperature in order to attain desirable properties. The heating temperature is varied depending on type of heat treatment and material employed. The graph displays the temperature range of heat treatment for steel.

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Tempering is applied to quench hardened parts in order to reduce brittleness and residual stress while increasing toughness. Additionally, the hardness and strength are decreased while the ductility increases with any increase of the tempering temperature.

The colors that appear on a steel surface as the result of oxidation also differ with the temperature. The colors may be used as indicator to attain desirable properties.

In plain carbon steel the maximum obtainable hardness is a function of the carbon content. A higher hardness can be obtained by increasing the carbon content. Cooling rate is an important parameter of hardening. By increasing the cooling rate of steel the resultant material becomes harder. The cooling rate depends on cooling medium and also the size and geometry of the piece. The fastest cooling is achieved using water, followed by oil and then air.

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Quenching agitation restrains the formation of a vapor coating on the surface of the piece in both water and oil and thus a higher cooling rate is attained.

A round bar quenched from one end will show varying hardness along its length as the cooling rate changes. Hardenability describes the speed of this transformation. The hardness of steel with a high hardenability will change less rapid than that of steel with a low hardenability. The alloying of steels increases their hardenability because the alloying elements permit more martensite to form at a given cooling rate.

Age hardening involves three stages: 1. An alloy is heated above the solvus line ab and held untill a homogeneous solid solution a is obtained. 2. Rapid cooling the alloy to preserve supersaturated solid solution. 3. Reheating the alloy to allow precipitation of very small crystals of the b phase. The age hardening of alloys whose composition are located to the left of point a is impossible due to the inability to form a supersaturated solid solution.

Annealing is often used to soften a metal hardened through cold working in order to allow consequent forming. By combining drawing and annealing a fine wire can be drawn from a thick wire.

The electrochemical series ranks the general resistance of metals to corrosion. The more negative the standard Emf (Electromotive force) potential, the more easily the material

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will oxidize. The monocrystal structure shows a higher resistance to corrosion than the same metal with polycrystalline structure. The smaller the size of grains, the more the material is prone to corrosion damages.

If two metals are electrically connected and immersed in a solution of their own ions the EMF potential determines which material will corrode. Iron dissolves in the electrolyte because iron has electrode potential (-0.44 V) lower than that of copper (0.33 V). Consquently, the copper deposits on the cathode. The magnitude of the voltage driving the dissolution of iron is found to be: DV = V - V = 0.34 - (-0.44) = 0.78 V
1 2

Galvanic corrosion occurs when dissimilar metals are placed in assembly within a corrosive electrolyte (e.g. sea water). This results in one of the metals becoming anodic and corroding at faster rate than normal. The other metal is the cathode responds with a decrease in corrosion rate. The Galvanic series is useful for selecting materials to be joined. Materials towards the bottom of the table are more active (anodic) and will corrode at a faster rate than those above them. In addition, the closer two metals are in the table the weaker the corroding effect.

Corrosion rate depends on the relative areas of the anode and cathode. When the surface area of the anodic metal is smaller than that of the cathode the resulting corrosion is rapid. Consequently, the corrosion rate is slow when a larger anode is connected to a small cathode.

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The bolt displayed under a constant load will corrode at a greater rate than one that is unloaded. This is due to regions of a high local stress being anodic to those of a lower stress. The combined action of a sufficient applied tensile stress and an aggressive environment can cause the cracking of a part.

Areas of metals subjected to cold working are rich in dislocations and therefore constantly under stress. This results in them being anodic to the less stressed regions and accelerates corrosion.

The flow of oxygen to the area under the gasket is restricted and therefore its concentration is low. This area will be anodic and corrode faster than the oxygen rich areas.

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For a given fatigue life the influence of a corrosive environment on the fatigue strength of metals increases if the frequency decreases. This means that a structure loaded at a lower frequency will sustain less cycles to fracture at a given applied stress. The picture shows S-N curves of carbon steel tested in several mediums. All metals and alloys cyclically loaded under a corrosive environment do not exhibit a endurance (fatigue) limit. Which means that a structure exploited under such conditions will finally break even if applied stress is very low.

The typical structure of a cast alloy consists of three zones: 1. Chill zone - a few layers of fine equiaxed grains near the mold walls. 2. Columnar zone - oriented grains grown in the
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direction opposite of the heat transfer through the mold. 3. Equiaxed zone - equiaxed grains of large size at the center of the casting. Depending on the processing conditions and material the proportion of the columnar and equiaxed zones can be altered. Slow cooling, adding the nucleating agents and agitating the melt contribute to the growth of equiaxed zone. The enlarged columnar zone is peculiar for pure metals.

The greater the volume to surface area ratio, the slower a solid body cools and solidifies. Solidification time can be estimated by Chvorinov's rule:
2

T = B(V/A) ,
S

where V is the volume; A is the surface area; B is an empirical constant.

Patterns very often have a temper on the vertical surfaces parallel to the direction of withdrawal. This allows for an easy removal of the pattern from the mold without any distortion or breaking of the mold cavity. The angle of draft is normally 0.5-2 . The angle depends mainly on the materials and processing conditions.
o

Materials with a short temperature range of crystallization (eg. pure metals or eutectic alloys) tend to form a large concentrated shrinkage cavity (right). The castings of alloys with a large freezing range have porosity dispersed in the bulk of the material (left).

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The fluidity is the capability of material to flow into mold cavities prior to solidification. The fluidity of pure metals and eutectic alloys is higher than that of hypoeutectoid or hypereutectoid alloys.

Risers are used to compensate for the shrinkage of molten metal during solidification and to avoid the formation of a shrinkage cavity within the casting. The shrinkage cavity forms into the riser because it is the last part solidified in the mold. The risers are usually located over the center of the heaviest sections of castings. The riser must be large enough to feed the shrinkage in the casting. Solidification shrinkage varies for different metals and influences the size of the risers.

Permanent mold casting vs Sand casting: Increased dimensional accuracy and smoother surfaces; A new mold to produce every part is avoided; Increased mechanical properties due to a fine grain structure; Less time to cast a part; Shape and size of castings are limited; Not suitable for metals with a low fluidity.

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The molecular structure of polymers can be linear, branched, cross-linked or networked (highly crosslinked). Thermoplastics have either a linear or branched structure. Thermoplastics soften upon heating and harden when cooled, without ever changing the material properties. This permits the recycling of thermoplastic scraps. Cross-linked polymers are called thermosets. When heated a thermoset remains relatively hard and can not be reprocessed without chemical degradation.

Crystalline materials exhibit a sharp change in the specific volume (inverse of density) at their melting temperature. The density of pure amorphous materials changes at the glass transition temperature. This entails significant changes in mechanical properties. Generally below this temperature polymers are stiff and brittle, while above it they act flexible and ductile. Semicrystalline polymers exhibit an intermediate behavior which includes a defined melting temperature and slight change in density at the glass transition temperature. For thermoplastics and thermosets the glass transition temperature is above the ambient temperature while for elastomers the glass transition temperature is below room temperature. Elastomers can undergo large deformation (up to several hundred percent) and recover in shape and size upon removal of the load.

A slow cooling rate results in a high degree of crystallinity for semicrystalline polymers. The degree of crystallinity influences mechanical properties. The elastic modulus of the crystalline phase is sufficiently higher than that of the amorphous phase. In general, the higher crystallinity, the higher the elastic modulus and strength of the material.

Mechanical properties of thermoplastic polymers strongly depend on the test

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temperature and strain rate. The polymer becomes softer and more ductile with increasing temperature. In general, strain rate decrease has the same effect on the stress-strain behavior as temperature increase.

The effect of temperature on the mechanical behavior of polymers differs for thermoplastics and thermosets. Thermosets do not exhibit viscous flow. They are known to degrade and decompose at high temperature.

The viscoelastic behaviour is peculiar to amorphous polymers above the glass transition temperature. There is no immediate response in deformation on the applied stress. Viscoelastic deformation is a combination between the viscous deformation of liquid and elastic deformation of solid.

The modulus of an unidirectional composite along the fiber direction can be calculated by the rule of mixtures:

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E =EV +E V ,
c f f m m

where E - the modulus of the fiber; E

f

- is the modulus of

the matrix; V , V
f

- the volume fraction occupied by the

fibers and the matrix respectively.

A cross-ply composite laminate [0 /90 ], shown at the right, will warp under uniaxial tensile stress due to the difference in stiffness along and perpendicular to the fiber axis. The stiffness along the fiber axis is greater and therefore the ply with fibers parallel to the applied stress will be stretched less than the ply loaded across the fibers.

The elastic modulus of continuous fiber composites strongly depends on the angle between the fiber direction and the applied load. The maximum stiffness of the composite is achieved when the applied load is parallel to the fiber direction. The stiffness of cross-ply composites [+q/-q] is greater than that of the unidirectional composite due to additional restraint to shear deformation.

The greater the volume fraction Vf of fibrous unidirectional composites the higher their capability to sustain cyclic loading. The resistance to fatigue of composites strongly depends on the angle q between the direction of applied loading and the fiber axis. The fatigue strength decreases when the angle increases.

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Composites with short fibers display a greater strength with an increase in the ratio of fiber length to diameter l/d. As the number of defects decreases along with the fiber diameter the strength increases. Additionally, for the same volume fraction the longer fibers can support a greater portion of the load transferred from the matrix.

Residual stresses are developed during the cooling of cross ply composite laminates due to anisotropy of thermal contraction parallel and perpendicular to the fiber direction. In glass fibers/epoxy composites the thermal expansion coefficient along the fiber direction is greater than that perpendicular to the fibers. Following the cooling the plies of 90 are in tension and the plies of 0 are in compression. Generally, cracks are formed perpendicularly to the tensile stress.
o o

Composites are known to have a large specific strength, which is defined as the ratio of the ultimate tensile strength s to the weight rg.
uts

Specific strength of continuous fibers composites is

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much greater than that of such conventional materials as aluminium or steel.

The load applied to a fiber composite is supported by both the fibers and matrix. The relationship between the load carried by fibers P and matrix P depends on
f m

the ratio E V to E V :
f f m m

P /P
f

=EV /E V
f f

m m

where E , E , V and V
f m f

represent the elastic modulus

and the volume fraction of the composite components. The higher the elastic modulus and the volume fraction, the greater portion of the applied load is carried by the fibers.

Assuming no slip between the fibers and matrix the stress acting on the composite is determined by the following: s=sV +s V
f f

m m

where V and V - the volume fraction of the fibers and

f f

matrix respectively. The stress in the matrix s = s x E /E .

f m f

The stress in the fibers:

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s = s / [V + (1-V ) x E /E ] .
f f f m f

Assuming a constant applied stress, the greater the volume fraction of the fibers the less they are stressed.

Hot working is a process in which a metal, above its recrystallization temperature, is deformed and strain hardening does not occur. Normally, hot working refers to procedures performed at temperatures of 0.5-0.75T
melting

(in K). It should be noted

that the forming of lead at room temperature can be considered a hot working process because of lead's low melting temperature.

Flash is formed when a minute amount of a metal flows outside the die during hot forging. The flash cools faster than the bulk of the workpiece because it is much less thick. This increases the resistance of the flash to deformation and forces the bulk to flow inside the die cavities. Features of Cold Working vs. Hot Working Better surface finish. Increased dimensional control due to elimination of shrinkage during cooling. Strength and wear properties of metal parts are higher while keeping the ductility lower. Large deformation results in a greater tensile and yield strength along with a lower ductility. Directional properties of metal parts can be formed. Less contamination problems. More powerful equipment is needed.

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Extrusion is used to produce solid or hollow parts with long lengths of constant crosssection. Extruded products include both simple as well as complicated cross sections (eg. internal ribs) that can not be produced by any other techniques of material forming.

Friction between the contact surfaces is known to cause uneven compression of the deforming materials upon upsetting. This results in the barreling of the workpiece.

The length of the rolled workpiece is increased proportionally to the decrease of its cross sectional area. During rolling the volume of the material remains constant: F l =F l ,
0 0 1 1

where F , F - the cross sectional area before and

0 1

after rolling respectively; l , l - initial and final length of the workpiece.

0 1

Hence: l = l F /F
1 0 0

Forging refines the grain structure and improves the physical properties of the metal. Grain flow is defined as the direction of the pattern that the crystals take during plastic deformation. The grain flow can be oriented in the direction of principal stresses encountered by the piece.

The figure on the right dispays the forces acting on a workpiece from the rolls at the point of
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contact. Where N - normal force; T = f N friction force; f - the coefficient of friction. The workpiece will be drawn forward if N sin(a) < T sin(a) or f > tg(a) where a - the angle of bite. If friction between the contacting surfaces decreases the maximal possible angle of bite is reduced.

W.D. Callister Jr, Materials Science & Engineering, An Introduction, Wiley, 5th edition, 1999. W.F.Smith.Principles of Materials Science and Engineering, 2nd edition, McGraw Hill, 1990.

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1. Stress Concentration 2. Fracure Mechanics 3. Mechanical Properties 4. Strength of Materials 5. Theory of Elasticity 6. Structural Safety 7. Material Science 8. Welds 9.Composite Materials 10. Finite Element Analysis

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