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Summary of Second language acquisition (SLA)

By
MOHAMMAD AGUS SALIM EL BAHRI
A. Definition
1. Second language acquisition (SLA)
SLA: The language plays an institutional and social in community or any language
learned later in life.
According to hand out of Mr. Imam G in Psycholinguistic # 7 said:
SLA is any language / s a child learns (learning process) after the L1
(Usually after the age of 5). Second language (SL) becomes umbrella terms for
second and foreign languages (FL). Both differ in terms of on frequency of use and
political affiliation of corresponding country.
Frequency of use refers to the extent to which the language is used to fulfill the wide
range of communicative needs of the speakers. The frequently used indicators are
needed of communication at home, smaller and larger community, public
services, education, work place, and religious services.
Political affiliation refers to the status that the language acquires in certain
region/country. In the case of English in Indonesia, the status was awarded
through the political decision of ministry of education on behalf the Indonesian
government in 1967.
The theories:
Behaviorism
According to hand out of Mr. Imam G in Psycholinguistic # 7 said:
The theory claims that language learning undergoes the same process of
learning of other fields, that habit formation (S R R). Briefly the
 process involves providing linguistic. Stimuli in order to that the learner produces
Response which is appropriate or correct to the S. If the learner can do so the
teacher should give Reinforcement. But when the learner can not do so, or makes
inappropriate or incorrect response, the teacher should nor give R. she / he should
corect the mistake to avoid the formation of bad habit (habit of making incorect
forms). To help learner produces the expected or correcr R, the provision of S
should be repeated over and over, called over learning. So as the case with
production of R by the SL/FL learner. By means of this the bond between S and
R becomes authomatic, when this is established the new habit formation is
completed.
To facilitate te habit formation process, behaviorism applies principles of
contrastive analysis (CA). They believe that as the learner has established L1, thie
cognitive capacity is filled with system of L1. When the learner wants to learn
another habit, that is habit of L2, the L1 system dominates the process. This
means that all forms, or rules, simliar to the L1 will be easily learned or
established. But when the forms are different, they become potential problems
(inference) in learning.
Therefore, CA belives that the learning process will be facilitated when
there is an analysis of the system of both of languages (L1 &L2). Based on
comparison, some same rules or forms will facilitate the learning, while
differences will become constraints. Teacher should be aware that establishing
different form would take more thought and energy.
In classroom, the form of behaviorism can be seen from some methods of
language teaching, especially Audio Lingual Method (ALM) or Aural- Oral
Method (AOM). The teaching procedure in these methods consists of teacher
providing S, learner makes R, teacher gives R. Habit formed in First language can
interfere with L2 learning. Audiolingualism (stimuli and reinforcement.)
b. Innatism
According to hand out of Mr. Imam G in Psycholinguistic # 8 said:
The theory claims that every child was born with some innate capacities,
one of which is specially used to process languages. It means the nature of
language learning is different from learning other fields. This specific capacity
consists of underlying abstract representation or rules or grammar, which is also
called univesal rules of language or more popularly called universal grammar
(UG). This consists of a set of potential rules that becomes materialized (mastery
of language rules) after they get (largely subconscious) exposure of language
input.
Two important isssues concerning this theory deals with access to the UG,
and age:
There is split argument on the first issue. Some innatists believe that learners
cannot access UG to process L2 the same way as they do for L1. This is
because the facility of UG has been used in the FLA. (This is called no
access) some other innatists contend that learners still get the same access
to UG to process L2 the same way as they do in L1,( this is called full
access). Some others still believe that to some extent learners still can
access UG to process L2 but not as much as when they process L1,( this is
called limited access). Therefore, the SLA process is said to undergo from
their acquired modalisties. i.e. L1.
The second issue concerns with age. Briefly stated, problem revolves around
biological condition, especially the brain capacity of the power to process
the language. In ordinary word, in can be formulated whether languge
learning process differ as a function of age. On the other hand, adults learn
the language the same or different way from children. Answer to this
problem should be referred to the basic claim that the children were born
with some innate capacity, especially LAD consisting of UG. UG is
biological factor and it can change with age. The answer to this problem
relates to access and age. E. Lenneberg (1967) proposed a critical period
hypothesis (CPH) for language learning in that biological condition
changes at puberty. The biological condition after puberty makes adult-
learners hard to learn any language to develop complete mastery of second
language in the same way as children do for their L1. Lamandela, although
claims that such access is different between children and adult, believes
 with efforts complete mastery is still possible.
However, some research results reveal that:
Adults may learn more quickly than children in short term.
Adults who are good classroom learners may learn more efficiently than
young children language classrooms.
Those who begin learning when they are younger and continue learning
may ultimately reach a higher level of proficiency than those who
begin adults, especially in learning pholonological components.
Evidence of this can be observed from quality of pronounciation of
learners learning the language from early ago and those learning after
puberty.
The application of innate theory in real classroom can be seen in
kreshen and Terrel’s theory of natural approach and expressed in terms of
saveral hypothesies.
According to hand out of Mr. Imam G in Psycholinguistic # 9 said:
The hypotheses are accomodated in terms of natural approach which was
first proposed by Terrell in 1977 and later reformulated by Kreshen and Terrell in
1983. Then the reformulated theory called “hypotheses” was formulated by
Kreshen in 1985.
The five and later become Six hypotheses are:
The Acquisition Vs Learning Hypothesis
This says that there are two possible broad model of learning: learning and
acquisition. Learning is a process that undergoes ‘concious learning’ that
is ‘rule-based’ explicit teaching-the process typically taking place in
regular language classroom.
The other model is called acquisition in which learners ‘subconciously
learn’ the language focusing on meaningful interaction. The natural
hypothesis is favour of the acquisition process because it enables learners
use language in meaningful communication. To Forster the acquisition
should be exposed to an input-rich environment with plentiful
opportunities to do meaning-based communication.
 It is concluded that there are two distinct ways of developing competence
(see; kreshen):

Acquisition: real communication

Learning: knowing about language.

The Monitor Hypotesis (Checking grammar)

Result of learning process serves as monitor to check the language
production if conditions are permitted. Use of monitor requires enough
time, knowledge of the rules and a focus on the necessary forms.
However, monitor does not lead to acqusition.
The Natural Order Hypothesis
SLA, like FLA, follows a natural order (natural route). Differences from
adult, first language grammars are not errors but indication of natural
development.
4. The Input Hypothesis
Acquisition is forstered by plentiful input that is at a level beyond
the learner’s level of comprehension. This can be expressed in the form of
i + 1, in which i = current level of language development / comprehension.
1 = a level slightly higher than / beyond the current level.
To provide comprehensible input, the teacher should provide in put
at the approprite level which is input with plenty opportunities for
meaningful interaction. If this is provided, acqusition will take place.
We acquire (not learn) language by understanding input that is a little
 beyond our current level of (acquired) competence.
5. The Affective Fiter Hypothesis
This hypothesis claims that three is an affective filter component in
the acquisition process. This component affects language indirectly acting
as a barrier, if the affective filter is high or becomes facilitator if it is low.
The affective filter can be raised when learners are overly anxious, lack
self-confidence in their ability and poorly motivation, low anxiety, or non-
threatening athmosphere can be created, the affective factor will not in
habit the process, and acquisition will be facilitated.
6. Reading Hypothesis
Reading acts as a kind of input that extends acquisition especially
for reading comprehension, writing style, vocabulary, spelling and
advances grammar competence.
c. Interactionist
Based on Mr. Imam’s hand out # 10 was said:
1. Theoritical framwork
This theory is influenced by sociolinguistics views and
language as a means of communication. Briefly, it is sated that language
learning involves learners in real communication process in which the
environment and innate capacity play important roles. More specifically, the
theory addresses components of interactio such as input, negotiation, out put,
and interacton feedback. The followings are some facts on the theory.
- a research is found that adult language learners find it easly to understand the
input when the task is modified. Modification is designed to simplify the
language. For example:
Q how do you want to egg fried? Do you want the egg
fried or half-done?
Result shows that such as modification help less professional language users,
i.g. language learner easier to be engged in conversation. The more she or he
engaged in conversation, the further their language competency improves.
- Language development would be more enhanced through negotiation of
 meaning.
T: yes, can I help you?
S: need… (Shows hand movement to nail in)
T: do you need something to drive the nail in the wood? (Repeats the
movement)
S: yes…yes
T: ooh, so need ahammer, then
S: yes, a hammer.. I need a hammer…
Negotiations of meaning help the learners engaged in conversation longer and
help them to communicate effectively. This way she or he should develop
more language proficiency. This example also shows that the language
development depends on the learner’s involvement in interactionduring which
she or he comes across many minor process such as identifying language
input, negotiation of meaning, feedback, etc. all of this do not neglect the
other theories that put the role environment, or the child’s innate capacity for
the final development of second language mastery.
2. Practical aspect
The application of this theory in classroom language learning
teaching can be seen from communicative language methodology (CTL).
Although, there are partially unlimited numbers of CLT models, some
common principles can be summarized as follows:
More learners-centered and less teacher-centered classes.
Little reliance on driil work, memorization and rule-based learning.
Use of pair and group work.
Contextualized teaching of vocabulary and grammar.
Less explicit, rule-based teaching of vocabulary and grammar.
Exposure to language as communication is emphasized.
Some attempts to address pragmatic aspects of language.
According to Mrs. Yuyun’s hand out is said that there are basic principle in
learning FL & SL.
Basic principle of both FL & SL
 Acquisition occurs through learners figuring out how the languages work.
Learners need opportunities to use and experiment with the new language.
Mistakes are natural and inevitable part of language learning.
Natural basic principle
Acquisition occurs through social interaction in authentic communication
setting.
Learners need to talk with each other and need to have language inout from
others.
2. Interlanguage
English as second language or interlanguage of Indonesia has different from in
learning process, according to Mr. Imam’s hand out # 12, language learnng process can
be described to embark from completely no mastery of SL (called MT point, or L1) to
prorass towards native like mastery (target language condition, or L2). The process which
reflects to movement from zero point towards the native like mastery can be seen to
consist of stages. These stages are real but difficult to describe with out proper indicators
and labels.
The stages closer to zero point reflect the relative distance to the target, while
those closer to the native-like point reflects the relative distance to the zero point. All the
stages can be cosidered as interlanguage, which is kind o f language which lies between
the MT and the TL.
NOTES:
MT: mother tongue. TL: third language.
From O master : it means, there are many steps to learn interlanguages, for
example, someone learns english from elementary school upto senior high school, even
upto university.
a. Interlanguage
Interlanguage is the type of laguage produced by second and foreign language
learners in the process of mastering the laguage, thus called interlanguage (IL). IL is
characterized by its different features from those of L1 & L2. The second is that it is
systematic, not random. The kind of language has a system of its own, which to some
extend is simiar to those of L1 & or TL. The third is that it is dynamic in that it moves to
the direction of more and more similar to the mature TL features as the learning process
proceeds, but it also fossilizes if learning process stops at a certain period where the
learning is incomplete. The forth is that it is independent from both the learners’ L1 &TL
system she or he is trying to learn.
b. Error VS mistake
In learning of second language is often found many error language or make
sentence either in writing or oral language, because according to Mr. Imam’s hand out #
12,
In interlangauge system, the different (between L1 & TL system) is often
referred to as error. Error is different from mistake in that it reflects” learner’s
competence” while mistakes occur because of some other causes such as – false start,
fatigue, short memory or other physical and emotional condition. In this context, errors
can be used as a measurement to reveal the degree of mastery of L2. Therefore, to reveal
learner’s language mastery linguisticts devise error analysis study. This tries to reveal
what systems a learner have mastered and which are still in the process of learning.
c. Error analysis (EA)
In EA errors can be clsified into two:
Interlingual error is an error which results from language transfer, which is caused by
the learners’ native language transfer. It sometimes is called negative transfer. It
can be seen as borrowing patterns from mother tongue.
Intralingual error is one which results from faulty of partial learning of the target
language. Interlingual error may be caused by the influence of one target language
item upon another.
d. Surface level taxonomy
From the type of errors commited there are four types of errors, they are: 1.
Movement, 2. Addition, 3. Deletion, and 4. Substitution.
e. Significance of errors
Study of errors gives information that they show the developmental satge, problems
faced by learners, show attempts, and show their creativity.
 School of though in SLA
Time frame School of thought Typecal themes
Early 1900s & 1940s 1950s Structuralism& Description.
behaviorism Observable performance.
Scientific method.
Empiricism
Surface structure
Conditioning, reinforcement
1960s & 1970 Rationalism& Generative lingualistics
cognitive Acquisition, innateness
psychology Interlanguage systematicity
Universal grammar
Competence
Deep structure
1980s,1990s and early 2000 constructivism Intractive discourse
Sociocultural variables
Cooperative group learning
Interlinguage variability
Interactionist hypotheses

To support the observation, the writer wants to know the character of young children.
According to Wendy A.Scott & Libeth H. Yireberg (2003:2), In Teaching English to
children said:
The character of the young language learner:
They know that the world is governed by rules. They may not always understand the
rules, but they know that they are there to be obeyed and the rules help to nurture a
feeling of security.
They understand situation more quikly and they understand the language used.
They use language skill long before they are a ware of them.
Their own understanding comes through hand, eyes, and ears. Physical world is dominant
at all time.
Young children are enthusiastic and positive about learning.
 It means, we all thrive on doing well and being praised for what we do and this is
especially true for kids. It is important to praise them if they keep their enthusiasm and
feel successful from the beginning.
From those characteritic, it can be concluded that young children have habit to improve
their innate capacity by hearing what the people said. They learn language word by word
through social interaction. As according to J.D.O. Cannor (1967:1) in Better English
pronounciation said:
“Language starts with the ear. When a baby stars to talk, he does it by hearing the
sound his mother makes and imitating them “
So, it can be concluded that Language is habit:
Speaking is mouth-action: so, you must use your mouth.
Reading is mouth and eye-action: so, you must use your mouth.
Listening is ear-action: so, you must use your ear.
Writing is hand-action: so, must use your action.
Someone can speak depend on hearing, but just hearing, it is not enough, she or he must
listen to it, and it is not for the meaning but for the sound of it. It means that language is
habit.
B. Function
Language is very important for human life. English language is one of the
tools of communication in international community. Therefore, English is needed
here because not only English is used to communicate in international community,
but also the fact that this language is mostly needed in transferring the knowledge of
modern technology, scientific publications, books, newspaper and magazine.
In learning a language especially in writing, it is needed a good ways. In the
other word, learning English can be begun early when children still in elementary
school, in a good writing can be learned by over learning either in school or at home,
minimally, the children can write in their diary about experience, school, and friends.
Reference lists
A. Scott wendy and lisbeth H. Ytreberg, 2003 “Teaching English to children”
Longman.
Connor J.D.O, 1967 “Better English Pronunciation” Cambridge at the University Press
Ghazali Imam, 2007 “Psycholinguistics’s Hand out” UST Yogyakarta
Harnby As “Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English “Oxford
University press, 1995
Sir Randolph Quirk Professor “Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English
“Longman Group UK Limited, 1987
Yulia Yuyun, 2007 “CLA and EFC hand out” UST Yogyakarta.

Presented by MOHAMMAD AGUS SALIM EL BAHRI

Now, he is studying at Sarjanawiyata Tamansiswa University of Yogyakarta Indonesia.
He comes from Madura Island East Java Indonesia