Adolescent Development and Psychology

By: Stan Zajko (Fall 2007)

Adolescence: An Overview I have chosen to address the various developmental stages of adolescence because that is the prime population that I have worked with, am familiar with, and will be endorsed to work with in the future. Each of the following topics covered relate to human development and adolescent psychology, and will directly or indirectly affect a teens educational development. The study of adolescence is a comprehensive, widely studied field that offers many views and theories, but personal views of adolescence (and all it encompasses) can also be subjected to criticisms and alternative opinions. Adolescence is the transition phase between childhood and adulthood. It is a time of much physical, social, mental, and emotional change. It is also a time of opportunity and risk. Stanley Hall (the father of adolescent psychology) stated that its a time of storm and stress. In terms of a time frame, adolescence begins around the onset of puberty (age 11-12) and ends during the late teen years and young adulthood (age 19-20). The adolescent period has changed dramatically over the past 50 years and has encountered many revolutions (computer, materialistic, education, family, vocational, violence, and sexual) which has impacted this developmental phase in life. The popularity of computers has exposed adolescents to limitless information, some of it violent, explicit, and age- inappropriate. Studies show that exposure to pornography, violent video games, and gory images may have deep psychological effects on teens, directing affecting their cognitive and psychosocial development (Rice & Dolgin, 2002). Family life can also profoundly affect the years of adolescence. Many households have both parents working, resulting in less interaction and involvement between parents and children. Many adolescents have their own job to save up for college or to buy clothes and other material possessions. As a result, many of these adolescents sleep less, often resulting in poorer academic skills, and generally being more tired an unfocused (Rice & Dolgin, 2002). The family unit has also been split up (ie separation and divorce) and many teens are being raised by one parent which can be more difficult on a teen, often leading to self-blame, resentment, jealousy (if another person marries the parent), or moodiness (Rice & Dolgin, 2002).

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The sexual revolution has also had an effect on teens. Teens are sexually active at a younger age, before being emotionally ready for an intimate relationship. Many adolescents feel powerless or forced into sexual experimentation due to peer pressure. As a result, there have been increases in STDs and HIV cases. Even though contraceptives are readily available, many teens lack the knowledge or experience surrounding responsible sexual behavior. Educational and vocational issues are also important to a teenagers life and teens are leaving the household later and focusing on college and their careers. Moreover, they are choosing to marry later than in the past. Overall, adolescents have to deal with issues and circumstances not present decades ago. These revolutions have had positive as well as negative or potentially destructive impacts on adolescents.

Cognitive and Psychosocial Development in Adolescents As children grow and enter the adolescent stage of their life, certain developmental aspects proceed with a transformational quality, primarily: the physical, cognitive, and psychosocial aspect of development. Because development is a unified process, these three areas will often overlap, and will be addressed in the following sections. While adolescence may normally be an emotionally charged, confrontational, yet exciting and fulfilling period for the average teenager, at-risk youth tend to experience many added emotional and behavioral difficulties (Levy, 2001; Papalia, Olds, & Feldman, 2001) which may continue through adulthood. But regardless of background, every individual normally faces a series of developmental tasks and learning during adolescence. Some of these major processes include the movement towards independence, formation of sexual identity, developing career interests, and the integration of morals and ethics (Canadian Parents Online Inc, 2001). It is reasonable to assume that these factors will have a profound effect on both boys and girls as they grow and develop, and certainly influence the childs educational experience and academic achievement.

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Physical Development The hypothalamus and pituitary gland in the brain are key in initiating, controlling, and regulating the release of hormones (chemical messengers) during puberty in males and females. Puberty is a transition phase where these hormones are released into the blood and act on particular cells in the body. The result is changes in the primary sex organs, and the development of secondary sexual characteristics (ie height spurts, pubic hair, growth of armpit hair). In addition, the timing of hormone release during puberty can result in early-maturing or late-maturing teens, and consequent judgment (favoritism, rejection) from family, peers, and society. Aspects of physical development during puberty are unique to the individual, but can often lead to issues of self-image and identity, develop into nutrition and eating disorders, involve drug use, and sometimes lead to delinquent behavior (Papalia, Olds, & Feldman, 2001).

Cognitive Development Cognitive development in human beings can be addressed by various theories and clinically-based results. Some of the better known contributions to cognitive theory include: Piagets age-related developmental stage theory, Kohlbergs theory of moral reasoning, and Elkinds description of immature characteristics of adolescent thought (Papalia, Olds, & Feldman, 2001). Middle school roughly coincides with students entering the formal operations stage of Piagets cognitive development theory, at roughly the age of 11. The formal operations period is the beginning of the highest level of cognition, as viewed by Piaget, a stage characterized by the growing ability to think hypothetically and abstractly. Children develop a capacity for manipulating information and using symbols, and their thought processes are at the ultimate level of intellectual development. When taking Kohlbergs (1969) three levels of moral reasoning into consideration, middle school aged children are entering the conventional level. This level is further divided into two stages----- stage 3 (children judging intentions of self and others, evaluating whether that means they are good or not) and stage 4 (maintaining social order, performing their duty). Eventually, these children will enter the post conventional level where focus develops around

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the welfare of society, adherence to the law, rational thinking and internalized standards. (Papalia, Olds, & Feldman, 2001).

Level 1 (Pre-Conventional) age 4-10 1. Obedience and punishment orientation 2. Self-interest orientation (Whats in it for me?) Level 2 (Conventional) age 10-13 or beyond 3. Interpersonal accord and conformity (The good boy/good girl attitude) 4. Authority and social-order maintaining orientation (Law and order morality) Level 3 (Post-Conventional) young adolescence 5. Social contract orientation 6. Universal ethical principles (Principled conscience)

Source: Kohlberg's stages of moral development. (2007, September 19). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia.
Retrieved 02:30, September 20, 2007, from http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kohlberg%27s_stages_of_moral_development&oldid=158887073

David Elkind (1984), based on his research, presents a view of adolescence that classrooms are all too familiar with. He devised a list of characteristics that represents immaturity in adolescent thought, primarily: Argumentativeness Indecisiveness Finding fault with authority figures Apparent hypocrisy Self-consciousness o Imaginary audience (presumption that everyone is thinking about him/her)

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 Assumption of vulnerability o Personal fable (uniqueness, No one understands what I am going through)

(Papalia, Olds, & Feldman, 2001).

The aforementioned characteristics are important to consider when planning classroom management strategies. By understanding (or least respecting) the notion that students are not always aware of their behaviors, or accept that teens lack control over the stages of puberty and cognitive development, teachers can implement strategies that acknowledge and work through some of these issues. Cognitive development directly relates to educational and vocational issues, and there are influencing factors in a students life that affect success at school, a paramount concern for most students. One example is academic motivation and the notion of self-efficacy. Believing in ones own abilities and setting goals for success will improve the chances for educational achievement. Having the support of friends and family (see parenting styles on page 12) can also affects student performance at school. Studies reveal that children of authoritative parents (ie. open discussions, student encouragement, and participation in family meetings) are inclined to do better at school (Papalia, Olds, & Feldman, 2001). Parental involvement can include monitoring their childs progress at school, offer encouraging words, and address concern for any falling grades. Similarly, peer influence can be a powerful factor that affects performance at school. Choice of friends and conflicting views towards education can result in everything from achieving academic excellence to dropping out of school. The quality of schooling should also be taken into consideration when evaluating student success. Factors such as the schools reputation, available resources and finances, quality of teaching, support and approachability of administration, curriculum development, and expectations for students all contribute to the learning experience of students at a given school. Some other influences that affect success in school are ethnicity and socioeconomic status.

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Process of Adolescent Vocational Choice Vocational selection for an adolescent is important in order to help lead to the concept of self-identity and a feeling of self-worth and usefulness to society. Factors previously mentioned that affect career aspirations include: parents, peers, school personnel, and socioeconomic status, in addition to gender. These factors will be readdressed with supplemental information. According to Hollands (1985) model of career selection shown below in Table 1, an individual will tend to find an occupation that reflects their own interests and environmental characteristics. The occupational model has several categories, each comprising unique personality types. Holland believed that an individual would be attracted to one of these categories and most likely find an occupation that follows these similar characteristics. For example, an artistic personality type may strive to become a fashion designer or an art teacher, while a realist may choose to pursue vocations such as electrician or pilot. Table 1: Hollands Occupational Environment Theory

Source: Rice, F. P., & Dolgin, K. G. (2002). The Adolescent: Development, Relationships, and Culture. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

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Regardless of the process of adolescent vocational choice, there are several factors that may influence the eventual outcome. Parents, as an example, often provide games, toys, and other resources at an early age that help develop the childs interest and exposure to particular fields. Parents often encourage (or worse, demand) their children pursue a certain field, living vicariously through the child, or want the child to choose a career associated with prestige (ie. doctor, lawyer). Teens agree that parents should have some feedback in their career selection and aspirations, but teens with authoritative parents seem to select careers that lead to more satisfaction and gratitude (Papalia, Olds, & Feldman, 2001). Most importantly, parents need to support, guide, and accept the decisions of their teenagers occupation selection. When parents are supportive in their childs academics and have open communication, this often leads to a more satisfying and respectful relationship between parents and child. Peers are also important in helping a adolescent choose a particular career. Peers will little aspiration or motivation may directly (or unintentionally) influence a teen to not pursue education and career aspirations. Peers may also ridicule the teen if a particular career choice is viewed as unacceptable to peers, or appears not cool. School personnel and especially teachers can be influential in an adolescents vocational pursuits. Many teachers tend to encourage those of higher SES, non-minority status. Boys tend to be encouraged in some fields (ie. math, science) more than girls. Teachers must understand that they have the capacity to motivate students to excel in their studies and to provide guidance and information in certain fields to both genders. Socioeconomic status is an important factor in career selection, as well. Individuals in a lower SES category get less support from parents, peers, and the school system, and are often discouraged from pursuing a satisfying career (Papalia, Olds, & Feldman, 2001). Poverty often restricts them from selecting better schools, and society still offers less opportunity to minority groups and those of lower SES. Finally, gender plays a role in career aspirations. Females are often discouraged from occupations normally associated with those of males such as carpentry, mining, logging, and construction. Scientific fields such as physics and engineering also appear to be male dominated. Even in todays more informed society, females are still encouraged to pursue the traditional role of elementary school teacher, nurse, or secretary. However, the gap between traditional roles is narrowing and there is more gender overlap in modern societys occupational spectrum than in the past.

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Psychosocial Development Psychological issues also permeate a teenagers life and Table 2 presents six aspects of those issues and the resultant change in adolescents.

Table 2: Psychosocial Issues in Adolescent Development Issue Attachment Adolescent Change Transforming childhood social bonds to parents to bonds acceptable between parents and their adult children. Extending self-initiated activity and confidence in it to wider behavioral realms.

Autonomy

Sexuality

Transforming social roles and gender identity to incorporate sexual activity with others. Transforming acquaintanceships into friendships; deepening and broadening capacities for self-disclosure, affective perspectivetaking, altruism. Focusing industry and ambition into channels that are future -oriented and realistic.

Intimacy

Achievement

Identity

Transforming images of self to accommodate primary and

secondary change; coordinating images to attain a selftheory that incorporates uniqueness and continuity through time. (Source: J.P. Hill, Understanding Early Adolescence: A Framework. Carrboro, NC: Center for Early Adolescence, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 1980.)

During adolescence, a teenager normally strives to become less dependent on his/her parents, and gradually seeks out emotional independence from those at home (Levy, 2001). The teen may become argumentative as conflicting views develop around family issues and established house rules, further encouraging the teen to explore alternate views and ideas. Consequently, the parent may be viewed as a hindrance toward the individuals evolving self.

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At-risk youth are especially vulnerable to the lack of structure at home and conflicting parenting practices, which may lead to patterns of delinquency, poor academics, and risky behavior if not resolved (Gorman-Smith, 1998; Papalia, Olds, & Feldman, 2001). Emotional problems, if not properly managed or dealt with, may lead to depression, suicide, or anxiety (Andrews, 1996). At the same time, there is also a drive for a teen to seek out new friends and form peer groups, in an attempt to develop a group identity. Peer influence is so powerful that troubled youth will tend to gravitate to those who also share similar patterns of behavior and delinquency (Papalia, Olds, & Feldman, 2001). I have witnessed this formation of peer groups at both the middle and high school level, observing how some students become attached to others with similar habits and behavior. As an educator, I need to accept that students may be finding solace in each others company during a very sensitive period in their lives, regardless of their influence on one another. Most of the students Ive worked with come from dysfunctional homes and are at a point in their adolescence where there is a strong emphasis on friendship and increasing detachment from their home environment (Levy, 2001). Unfortunately, students often show up to school with unresolved family issues, and given their highly unstable nature, these same teens will frequently display an outward manifestation of their internal struggles and conflicts, encouraging their friends to do likewise. As a result, these distractions often lead to poor academic grades for the instigators and those around them. From this perspective, staff members are sensitive to the youths developmental history, and act in accordance to the special needs and considerations of each student. A second major process of development during middle adolescence is the search for sexual identity. The typical teen becomes self-absorbed about his/her sexual attractiveness, wants to explore feelings of love and passion toward others of the opposite sex, and frequently changes relationships and sexual partners (Canadian Parents Online Inc, 2001; Andrews, 1996). With proper education, parental support, and available resources, a teen can feel comforted, understanding that his/her safety and well being is valued. However, because adolescence is often characterized by lacking in self-restraint and acting out impulsively, risky sexually behavior can develop. Results can include early sexual activity and promiscuity, sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), unwanted pregnancies, and emotional scars due to feeling pressured into having sex (Andrews, 1996; Papalia, Olds, & Feldman, 2001). Although risky sexual behavior can involve any teen, some are at higher risk due to underlying factors such as, school failure, poverty, and behavior problems (Papalia, Olds, & Feldman, 2001). All of my students fall into

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one or more of these categories, and therefore pose an increased risk as they evolve sexually. These students are often vulgar to one another, focusing on issues that are sexually demeaning and degrading. Even though these teens are emotionally insecure, irresponsible, and lack maturity, some have been pressured into sexual activity and have gotten pregnant as a result. The term personal fable (a cognitive trait) depicted by David Elkind, reflects the egocentric nature of these adolescents and their feelings of invincibility (Papalia, Olds, & Feldman, 2001). To help intervene and curtail risky sexually behavior among our students, classroom instruction includes topics dealing with life skills, social skills, and proper health practices. On the path to self-identity, the typical adolescent normally continues to develop and explore interests that may eventually lead to a fulfilling career. According to Erik Erikson however, identity formation develops as the individual moves through various stages, and failure to complete each stage may lead to role and identity confusion (Levy, 2001; Papalia, Olds, & Feldman, 2001). Since many of us define ourselves by the work that we do, an unresolved identity crisis may lead to unsatisfactory career choices and even lead to delinquency and behavioral problems (Levy, 2001). Given the fact that my students are all functioning below grade level in most areas, and have difficulty reading and performing simple computations, career choices become limited, usually resulting in low paying, unfulfilling occupations. The pressure for adolescents, and especially at-risk youth, to excel in their academics, form an identity, and then pursue a career, all presents a difficult challenge. Because of their dysfunctional background, most of my students are not goal-oriented and they lack ambition, preferring to focus on immediate gratification and rewards. With a lack of concern for the future, many students decide to drop out of school. Statistics show that dropouts are likely to be unemployed, have low incomes, and get involved with crime and delinquency (Papalia, Olds, & Feldman, 2001). According to this information, students from a disadvantaged, dysfunctional background who decide to become dropout, will have an even more difficult time trying to survive as they get older. On the other hand, a student who is actively engaged in his/her education has a greater chance of finishing school (Papalia, Olds, & Feldman, 2001). Family involvement, small class size, and a supportive classroom environment are important factors in helping determine whether or not a student will finish school. Another major developmental task that every adolescent will encounter is the formation of morals and ethics, which requires evolving and more abstract thought. According to Jean Piaget, the fourth stage in cognitive development is the formal operational stage, a period of

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symbolic, abstract, and hypothetical thought (Huitt & Hummel, 1998; Papalia, Olds, & Feldman, 2001). Low functioning and at-risk individuals tend to possess a distorted and unpredictable cognitive development, which may affect their moral reasoning. Lawrence Kohlbergs theory of moral reasoning can be categorized into three levels. The first level, pre-conventional morality, is typical of children aged 4 to 10, (Papalia, Olds, & Feldman, 2001) but is often associated with troubled and at-risk youth (Garbarino, 1998). These target groups often function on the basis of reward and punishment, and act out of self-interest. Without proper guidance and intervention, they rarely advance beyond level 2 of moral development, known as conventional morality. As a result, at-risk youth will often make decisions that are ego based, and demonstrate severe opposition toward authority figures, such as, police, parents, and teachers (Levy, 2001). From this perspective, it is essential to properly counsel, guide, and educate these adolescents before they pose a greater risk to society and to themselves. Impact of Parenting Styles and Divorce on Adolescent Behavior Family and parenting styles both have an enormous impact on adolescent development. Parents that demonstrate affection, tolerance, trust, acceptance, encouragement, and who listen to and have an open communication with their teen, increase the chances of having their teen develop with higher self-esteem and better social skills. Teens strive for a sense of belonging and connectedness with their family and the need for structure and guidance for positive development. Four Primary Parenting Styles Controlling Warm Cold
Source: Based on Baumind (1971)

Undemanding Permissive parents Uninvolved parents

Authoritative parents Authoritarian parents

The four primary parenting styles are authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, and uninvolved (or detached). Studies suggest that authoritative parenting is the most effective and constructive parenting style. These parents are open-minded and understanding, offer autonomy, self-reliance, and trust for their teen, but also set limits and guidelines. As a result,

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these teens frequently exhibit higher self-confidence and self-esteem, develop better social skills, and have positive parent/teen relations. Authoritarian parents, on the other hand, are considered cold and controlling. They devise all the rules and decisions at home and are very strict and reserved with the child. As a result, many of these teens grow up feeling that they are not trusted, not good enough, may develop low self-esteem, possible rage and resentment toward authority, and feelings of a lack of self-worth. Another parenting style exhibits permissiveness. These parents give in to a childs demands and do everything to please the child. The parents do not have much control or offer much guidance or structure to their child, so the child often grows up being demanding, needy, and seeking to be pampered. The child can also become more self-centered and less empathetic. The fourth primary parenting style involves detachment where the parent or guardian does not take any (or limited) role in the adolescents development. The parent is often absent or doesnt care what the teen does. In essence, the teen makes his or her own rules and develops independent of parent guidance or control. The possible consequence of this parenting style is a teen that may become involved with delinquency, and use drugs and alcohol. The detachment of parents from their teen sets up a scenario of the teen getting into trouble, developing poor social skills, and poor parenting skills one day. As for divorce and the potential effect on a teen, the short term effects are difficult for both males and females. However, after 2 or 3 years, teens have less resentment, aggression, guilt, and denial than they had when the parents initially got divorced. There does not seem to be any major negative impacts on long term divorce for teens. Many grow up leading productive, happy lives and are very successful. However, there is increased chance that children of divorced parents will themselves one day get divorced. The divorced parents should be on speaking terms and be present in the teens life in order to lessen the impact of divorce.

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101 Ways to Praise your Child

WOW WAY TO GO SUPER YOU'RE SPECIAL OUTSTANDING EXCELLENT GREAT GOOD NEAT WELL DONE REMARKABLE I KNEW YOU COULD DO IT I'M PROUD OF YOU FANTASTIC SUPER STAR NICE WORK LOOKING GOOD YOU'RE ON TOP OF IT BEAUTIFUL NOW YOU'RE FLYING YOU'RE CATCHING ON NOW YOU'VE GOT IT YOU'RE INCREDIBLE BRAVO YOU'RE FANTASTIC HURRAY FOR YOU YOU'RE ON TARGET YOU'RE ON YOUR WAY HOW NICE HOW SMART GOOD JOB THAT'S INCREDIBLE HOT DOG DYNAMITE YOU'RE BEAUTIFUL YOU'RE UNIQUE NOTHING CAN STOP YOU NOW GOOD FOR YOU I LIKE YOU YOU'RE A WINNER REMARKABLE JOB BEAUTIFUL WORK SPECTACULAR YOU'RE SPECTACULAR YOU'RE DARLING YOU'RE PRECIOUS GREAT DISCOVERY YOU'VE DISCOVERED THE SECRET YOU FIGURED IT OUT FANTASTIC JOB HIP, HIP, HURRAY BINGO MAGNIFICENT MARVELOUS TERRIFIC YOU'RE IMPORTANT PHENOMENAL YOU'RE SENSATIONAL SUPER WORK CREATIVE JOB SUPER JOB FANTASTIC JOB EXCEPTIONAL PERFORMANCE YOU'RE A REAL TROOPER YOU ARE RESPONSIBLE YOU ARE EXCITING YOU LEARNED IT RIGHT WHAT AN IMAGINATION WHAT A GOOD LISTENER YOU ARE FUN YOU'RE GROWING UP YOU TRIED HARD YOU CARE BEAUTIFUL SHARING OUTSTANDING PERFORMANCE YOU'RE A GOOD FRIEND I TRUST YOU YOU'RE IMPORTANT YOU MEAN A LOT TO ME YOU MAKE ME HAPPY YOU BELONG YOU'VE GOT A FRIEND YOU MAKE ME LAUGH YOU BRIGHTEN MY DAY I RESPECT YOU YOU MEAN THE WORLD TO ME THAT'S CORRECT YOU'RE A JOY YOU'RE A TREASURE YOU'RE WONDERFUL YOU'RE PERFECT AWESOME A+ JOB YOU'RE AOK-MY BUDDY YOU MADE MY DAY THAT'S THE BEST A BIG HUG A BIG KISS SAY I LOVE YOU! Source: http://www.kinderteacher.com/101WaysToPraise.htm

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Adolescent Alienation There exists various forms of adolescent alienation and acting out behavior; two of them being running away and suicide. Running away is a behavior that many youth pursue when conditions in the home (or school) are less than ideal. Runaways normally use this choice as a last resort and have thought our other option first. Therefore, running away is usually planned out for some time. Intent runaways plan to leave and not return. To a lesser extreme, other runaways leave for a few hours or days, normally returning after 48 hours. About 1 in 7 adolescents have tried to run away (Rice & Dolgin, 2002). Reasons for running away includes: parental neglect or abuse, being a throwaway (when parents intentionally kick out the youth from home), feelings out being rejected or unloved, personal loss, and as a last resort to unhappiness in the household. Fortunately, there are services available to teens that run away. In many cities, shelters temporarily feed and provide a safe haven for these teens, education programs are available to continue teaching the essentials, and there are therapeutic services available to communicate with teenagers and offer choices. Suicide is the 3rd leading cause of death in teenagers after accidents and homicides (Rice & Dolgin, 2002). Teenage suicide accounts for about 5000 deaths annually (Rice & Dolgin, 2002). The most important factor or reason in leading to teen suicide is depression. Teens often feel alienated, hopeless, or worthless, and some decide that suicide is the only solution. Both males and females attempt suicide but males are five times more likely to be successful in their attempts than females (Rice & Dolgin, 2002). Suicide rates for males increase throughout their life into their 80s. They often use violent means of taking their own life, such as: stabbing, gunshot, and planned car accidents. Women suicide peaks in their 40s-50s, and they will commonly use pill overdose. An adolescent may attempt suicide for several reasons. As previously stated, depression is a highly motivating factor. The teen may also have mental problems, impulsive behavior, a drug abuse problem, or an abusive family. Many of these teens feel unloved, rejected, and unimportant. Many are alienated, lonely, and desperate. Crisis hotline is an alternative to suicide and is available for those who need to talk to someone that will listen. Family therapy is also available, as is medical intervention.

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Adolescent Culture It has been generally acknowledged that adolescents and adults have very different views on what is acceptable, trendy, and permitted. Adult culture tend to be more conservative, links the past with the present, is more traditional, less tolerant of new trends and fashions, and takes less risks. Adolescent culture, on the other hand, is considerably more liberal, tolerant, focused on the present and future, is more idealistic, revolves around experimenting, and the desire to grow up but not be old. These differences between adults and teens have led many to view adolescence as a subculture. Material possessions for teens center on clothing, cars, and cell phones. These material goods are very important to teen development and interactions, and helps with self-expression, power, prestige, and a feeling of acceptance and belonging. Non-material possessions, primarily slang and music, produces some distance or division from parents and further promotes the existence of adolescent subculture. For adolescent development, it is crucial for the individual to feel a sense of belonging and acceptance from peers. Cliques are small groups of tightly knit friends (3-10 people) that hang out almost constantly. They develop the same likes and dislikes and often dress similarly. They participate in the same activities, listen to the same music and are normally of the same color, age, grade, and SES group (Rice & Dolgin, 2002). Although these groups are close, they are also volatile. Within a year, only 10% of cliques have the same members (Rice & Dolgin, 2002). Cliques, which normally have leaders in the group, often persuade members to leave or join depending on their conformity standards and participation requirements. Crowds are normally loosely associated friends that gather on weekends, attend concerts, or go to the movies together. Once again, there is a need for conformity and sense of belonging, and crowds provide this requirement. The amount of friends that one normally has peaks in early adolescence when there is a crucial need for belonging and acceptance. Friendship can also quickly be broken as teens view others as phony and break off their bond to that person. In later adolescence, when one has developed better social skills, some form of self-identity, and less of a need to conform, friendships become fewer but more intimate and longer lasting.

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Teens and Personal Safety Most teens would probably admit that personal safety is not a top priority during their years of personal growth, experimentation, and risk-taking. Teens tend to feel invincible, untouchable, and develop the mentality of, It cant happen to me. Like adults, teens also want to have fun, relieve stress, and be accepted by their peers. Unfortunately, personal safety is often risked as teens try to defy authority, get involved in drugs and alcohol, engage in risky sexual behavior, or drive recklessly. Consequently, their behavior is perceived as irrational and a threat to wellbeing, often leading to accidents and fatalities. In addition, crime and the threat of terrorism instills fear in teenagers (and all of us), causing many to be distrustful of others and be responsible for their own safety (ie. carry a gun, gang formation), adding to the risky behavior and possible dire consequences.

Morals and Television Ads Television ads portray material possessions as the path to happiness. These commercials place high value on looking attractive, owning the latest products (ie cars, electronics, new and improved house products), wearing the latest fashions, and satisfying your appetite. Teens are especially susceptible to these temptations as they continue to define themselves and establish developing morals. These ads have a profound effect on the individual by making them believe that they must own these products in order to feel better, satisfied, and happier. Commercials represent false values by preying on peoples insecurity and tricking them into feeling momentarily satisfied, until a new product comes out that is better, smaller, faster, or more desirable. Unfortunately, too many of us are swayed by these ads and succumb to a lifelong habit of acquiring stuff from the outside, instead of focusing on our inner selves and the goodness and peace that comes from within.

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Bibliography Andrews, D.W. (1996, Spring) Understanding Adolescent Problem Behavior Retrieved September 14, 2007, from the World Wide Web http://www.hec.ohio-state.edu/famlife/bulletin/volume.2/bull21a.htm Canadian Parents Online Inc. (2001) Steps & Stages of Adolescent Behavior Retrieved September 15, 2007, from the World Wide Web http://www.canadianparents.com/teens/teen_stages.htm Garbarino, J. (1999). Lost Boys: Why Our Sons Turn Violent and How We Can Save Them New York: The Free Press. Glasser, W. (1993). The Quality School Teacher New York: HarperCollins Publishers. Gorman-Smith, D. (1998, October) Relation of Family Problems to Patterns of Delinquent

Involvement Among Urban Youth

Retrieved September 12, 2007, from the World Wide Web http://www.findarticles.com/cf_0/m0902/5_26/53286529/print.jhtml Huitt, W. & Hummel, J. (1998, January) Cognitive Development Retrieved September 12, 2007, from the World Wide Web http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/cogsys/piaget.html Levy, K. (2001, Summer) The Relationship Between Adolescent Attitudes Towards Authority,

Self-Concept, and Delinquency.

Retrieved September 13, 2007, from the World Wide Web http://www.findarticles.com/cf_0/m2248/142_36/79251803/p1/article.jhtml?term=+Teenagers ++Psychological++aspects Papalia, D.E.; Olds, S.W.; and Feldman, R.D. (2001) Human Development, 8th Edition. New York: McGraw-Hill. Pritchard, A. (2005). Ways of learning: learning theories and learning styles in the classroom. London: David Fulton. Rice, F. P., & Dolgin, K. G. (2002). The Adolescent: Development, Relationships, and Culture. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

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Wong, H.K, & Wong, R.T. (1998). The First Days of School Mountain View, California: Harry K. Wong Publications

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