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2009/HSAB@KTT

CHAPTER 1
1.2 TISSUE
GENERAL

1. Plant cell are differentiated possessing structural adaptations that


make specific functions possible.

2. Modifications of cell walls also play a role in plant cell differentiation.


3. Major types of differentiated plant cells:
a. Parenchyma
b. Collenchyma
c. Sclerenchyma
d. water-conducting cells of the xylem
e. sugar-conducting cells of the phloem.
TYPES PLANTS TISSUES

1. Dermal tissues: Epidermis and periderm


2. Ground tissues: Basic Cell: Parenchyma, collenchyma, sclerenchyma
(Modified parenchyma)
3. Vascular tissues: phloem and xylem
DERMAL TISSUES

1. The dermal tissue is the outer covering.


2. Guard cells:

To facilitate gas exchange between the inner parts of


leaves, stems, and fruits, plants have a series of openings known
as stomata (singular stoma).

These openings would allow gas exchange, but at a cost of


water loss.

Guard cells are bean-shaped cells covering the stomata


opening. They regulate exchange of water vapor, oxygen and
carbon dioxide through the stoma.

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3. In non woody plants:

It is a single layer of tightly packed cells, or epidermis that


covers and protects all young parts of the plant.

The epidermis has other specialized characteristics


consistent with the function of the organ it covers.

For example: The root hairs are extensions of epidermal


cells near the tis of the roots.

The epidermis of leaves and most stems secretes a waxy


coating, the cuticle, which helps the aerial parts of the plant
retain water.
4. In woody plants:
Protective tissues periderm replaces the epidermis in older
regions of stems and roots.
GROUND TISSUES
Parenchyma
1. Mature parenchyma cells have primary walls that are relatively thin and
flexible, and most lack secondary walls.
2. The protoplast of a parenchyma cell usually has a large central vacuole.
3. Parenchyma cells typical plant cells because they generally are the
least specialized, but there are exceptions. For example: the highly
specialized sieve-tube members of the phloem are parenchyma cells.
4. Parenchyma cells perform most of the metabolic functions of the plant,
synthesizing and storing various organic products. For example:
photosynthesis occurs within the chloroplasts of parenchyma cells in the
leaf.

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5. Some parenchyma cells in the stems and roots have colorless plastids
that store starch.
6. The fleshy tissue of most fruit is composed of parenchyma cells.
7. Most parenchyma cells retain the ability to divide and differentiate into
other cell types under special conditions, such as the repair and
replacement of organs after injury to the plant.
8. Characteristic: large, thin-walled, and usually have a large central
vacuole
9. In areas not exposed to light, colorless plastids predominate and
food storage is the main function. The cells of the white potato are
parenchyma cells.
10. Where light is present, e.g., in leaves, chloroplasts predominate and
photosynthesis is the main function.
11. Palisade parenchyma cells are elogated cells located in many leaves just
below the epidermal tissue.
12. Palisade mesophyll: Column-shaped cells found below the upper
epidermis. The cells contain many chloroplasts to carry out
photosynthesis.
13. Spongy mesophyll cells occur below the one or two layers of palisade
cells Isodiametric or irregular-shaped cells. They are loosely packed
with many large intercellular spaces for gaseous exchange. They have
fewer chloroplasts than palisade cells to carry out photosynthesis.

14. Endodermis:

Consists of a single-celled ring which forms a selective


barrier between the outer contex and the inner pericycle tissue.

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In roots, the endordermis cells are impregnated with to


form a distinctive Casparian strip and prevent the movement of
water via the apoplast pathway.

Non-suberised passage cells in the endordermis permit


lateral movement of water and mineral salts. The endordermis
cells contain starch granules as energy store.

Mineral ions are actively secreted into the xylem vessels to


maintain the root pressure.
15.Pericycle

One to several layers of parenchyma cells. Pericycle is


found between the endordermis and the central vascular tissues.
It can divide to produce the lateral roots and is involved in the
secondary growth of roots.

Collenchyma Cells
1. Have thicker primary walls than parenchyma cells, though the walls are
unevenly thickened.
2. Grouped into strands or cylinders, collenchyma cells help support young
parts of the plant shoot.
3. Young stems often have strands of collenchyma just below the
epidermis, providing support without restraining growth.
4. Mature collenchyma cells are living and flexible and elongate with the
stems and leaves they support.

Sclerenchyma Cells

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1. Have thick secondary walls usually strengthened by lignin and function


as supporting elements of the plant.
2. They are much more rigid than collenchyma cells.
3. Unlike parenchyma cells, they cannot elongate.
4. Sclerenchyma cells occur in plant regions that have stopped
lengthening.
5. Many sclerenchyma cells are dead at functional maturity, but they
produce rigid secondary cells walls before the protoplast dies.
6. In parts of the plant that are still elongating, secondary walls are
deposited in a spiral or ring pattern, enabling the cell wall to stretch like
a spring as the cell grows.
7. Two types of sclerenchyma cells, fibers and sclereids, are specialized
entirely for support.
i. Fibers are long, slender, and tapered, and usually occur in
groups.
Those from hemp fibers are used for making rope, and
those from flax are woven into linen.
ii. Sclereids are irregular in shape and are shorter than fibers.
They have very thick, lignified secondary walls.
Sclereids impart hardness to nutshells and seed
coats and the gritty texture to pear fruits.
VASCULAR TISSUE

1. Continuous throughout the plant, is involved in the transport of


materials between roots and shoots.
2. Xylem conveys water and dissolved minerals upward from roots into the
shoots. Four types of cells: Vessels, Tracheids, Fibres, Xylem
parenchyma
3. Phloem transports food made in mature leaves to the roots; to non
photosynthetic parts of the shoot system; and to sites of growth, such as
developing leaves and fruits.

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4. The vascular tissue of a root or stem is called the stele


5. In angiosperm, the vascular tissue of the root forms a solid central
vascular cylinder, while stems and leaves have vascular bundles,
strands consisting of xylem and phloem.
6. Xylem:

The water conducting elements of xylem, the


tracheids and vessel elements, are elongated cells that are
dead at functional maturity.

The thickened cell walls remain as a non


living conduit trough which water can flow.

Both tracheids and vessels have secondary


walls interrupted by pits, thinner regions where only primary
walls are present.

Tracheids are long, thin cells with tapered


ends.

Water moves from cell to cell mainly through


pits.

Because their secondary walls are hardened


with lignin, tracheids function in support as well as transport.

Vessel elements are generally wider, shorter,


thinner walled, and less tapered than tracheids.

Vessel elements are aligned end to end,


forming long micropipes or xylem vessels.

The ends are perforated, enabling water to


flow freely.
7. Xylem vessels:

These are only found in the xylem tissue of


flowering plants. Most water travels in the xylem vessels.

Xylem vessels are formed from a column


of tubular cells. The end cross-walls break down so that the
cells (xylem elements) combine to form a continuous long
tube.

The walls of these tubes become


strengthened by the deposition of lignin. The lignified walls are
impermeable to water, solutes and gases. Xylem vessels are
composed of dead cells.

There is no protoplasm in the xylem


vessels and hence more water can flow through the hollow
continuous tube with less friction.
8. Tracheids

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The xylem of ferns and conifers contains


only tracheids. The xylem of angiosperms contains more
vessels and less tracheids.

Tracheids are generally longer but more


narrow than vessel elements.

They are elongated spindle-shaped single


cells with tapering end walls. The tapered ends of the
tracheids overlap and interlock with one another further
increasing their combined strength.

The cell walls are lignified. When mature,


tracheids are dead cells with empty lumens.

Pits are present in the walls to allow water


to move from one tracheid to another and also to the
surrounding living cells.

Tracheids transport water and mineral ions


but are less efficient than vessels. They do not have large
perforated or open ends between the cells and water has to
move through smaller pits.

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9. Xylem fibres:

These are similar in structure to


sclerenchyma fibres: They are dead cells with thickened
lignified walls.

They help to support the plant body


and are not involved in water transport.

10. Xylem parenchyma:

The xylem parenchymas are living


cells. They act as packaging tissue in the primary xylem.

In secondary xylem, the


parenchyma cells form radial medullary rays which function in
radial transport of food and water, gases and food storage.

Phloem is a component of the


vascular tissue. In angiosperm, phloem of sieve tubes
element, companion cells, phloem parenchyma, fibres and
sclereids.

11. A sieve tube:

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Consist of sieve elements(sieve cells) joined together to


Form a long tube.
Their end walls are perforated forming sieve plates with
sieve pores. This allows cytoplasmic connections between the
sieve elements and the flow of liquid from one sieve element
to the next.
The cells are alive, with thin cellulose cell walls and
protoplasm. As the cells mature some of the organelles for
example, the nucleus, ribosomes and the Golgi apparatus
degenerate.
This leaves a narrow layer of cytoplasm containing few
small mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum at the
periphery to facilitate smooth flow of soluble food.
In some plants the sieve tube elements also contain fibrous
phloem proteins.

12. Companion cells:


Companion cells are found only in the angiosperm.
They are adjacent and closely associated with the sieve
tube elements.
Companions cells have a nucleus, dense cytoplasm with
small vacuoles. They are metabolically active and have
numerous mitochondria and ribosomes.
The companion cells are linked by numerous
plasmodesmata to sieve elements.
Companion cells move sugars such as sucrose and amino
acids into the sieve elements.
13. Phloem fibres and sclereids:

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They occur occasionally in the primary phloem but are


more common in the secondary phloem of dicotyledons.
They help to support other phloem cells when the plant is
growing.
14. Phloem parenchyma:
Phloem parenchyma is only found in dicotyledonous plants.
They act packaging tissue in the primary phloem. In secondary
phloem, the cells for radial medullary rays.
Function of phloem:
Translocation of organic products of photosynthesis.
Sugars and ar acids for example, are translocated from
the leaves (source) to ot parts (sinks) of the plant
such as the meristem and roots where are utilised or
stored.
The companion cells are closely associated with the sieve
elements, actively move substances such as sugars and amino
acids into the sieve elements.
EUDICOT & MONOCOT SYSTEM
1. In eudicot stems, ground tissue is divided into pith, internal to vascular
tissue, and cortex, external to the vascular tissue.
2. The function of ground tissue includes photosynthesis, storage, and
support.
3. For example, the cortex of a eudicot stem typically consists of both
fleshy storage cells and thick-walled support cells.
4. A eudicot stem. eudicot stem (sunflower), with vascular bundles forming
a ring. Ground tissue toward the inside is called pith, and ground tissue
toward the outside is called cortex.
5. A monocot stem. A monocot stem (maize) with vascular bundles
scattered troughout the ground tissue. In such an arrangement, ground
tissue is not partitioned into pith andcortex.
SUMMARY OF PLANT TISSUES:
Cell type

Distribution

Parenchym
a

Cortex, pith,
ground tissue
in xylem and
phloem.

Cell shape and


structure.
Living cells.
Usually isodiametric,
sometimes
elongated.
Thin cell wall
contains cellulose,
hemicellulose and
pectin.
Large central
vacuole, thin layer of
cytoplasm and

Function
Ground tissue in stems
and roots. Turgid cells
give support especially to
herbaceous.
Metabolically active.
Stores food.
Permits transport of food
through apoplast or
symplast pathways.
Large intercellular spaces
gaseous exchanges.

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nucleus push to the


periphery.

Collenchym
a

Below
epidermis,
midribs of
leaves, leaf
petioles.

Sclerenchy
ma

Below
epidermis
xylem and
phloem,
pericycle of
some stems.
Vascular
tissue

Xylem
vessels and
tracheids

Phloem
sieve tubes
and
companion
cells.

Vascular
tissue

Living cells.
Polygonal, elongated
with tapering ends.
Uneven thickenings
of cell walls, usually
at the corners of cell
walls with deposits
of cellulose, pectin
and hemicellulose.
Dead cells. Lignified
walls. Polygonal,
elongated with
overlapping and
interlocking tapering
ends.
Dead cells. Lignified
walls. Xylem vessels
are continuous
hollow tubes.
Tracheids are
elongated cells with
tapering ends.
Sieve tubes are
elongated and
tubular, consisting of
phloem elements
Companion cells are
smaller, with dense
cytoplasm.

Some parenchyma cells


are modified to form
specialized cells e.g.
epidermis, mesophyll,
endodermis and
pericycle.
Gives mechanical
support, flexibility.
Some cells contains
chlorc that carry out
photosynthesis.

Supporting tissue.

To transport water and


mineral salts.
Supporting tissue.

To translocate organic
products of
photosynthesis.
Companion cells closely
associated with sieve
tubes.

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EXERCISE
1. Which tissue system of the plant body is largely responsible for
photosynthesis?
A. Ground tissue system
B. Vascular tissue system
C. Dermal tissue system
D. Primary tissue system
[AS/OCT 2006/BIO200]

2. The extremely flexible tissue that provides support in soft, nonwoody


plants, allowing them to grow upward is
A. parenchyma tissue.
B. collenchyma tissue.
C. sclerenchyma tissue.
D. dermal tissue.
3.
A.
B.
C.
D.

[AS/OCT 2006/BIO200]

The two simple tissues that are specialized for support are
parenchyma and collenchyma.
collenchyma and sclerenchyma.
sclerenchyma and parenchyma.
parenchyma and xylem.

[AS/APR 2007/BIO200]

4. ________ are living cells that do not conduct sugar themselves but play a
crucial role in assisting the movement of sugars.
A. Companion cells
B. Sieve tube members
C. Sieve plates
D. Vessel elements
[AS/OCT 2007/BIO200]

5. Which tissue system of the plant body is largely responsible for


photosynthesis?
A. Ground tissue system
B. Vascular tissue system
C. Dermal tissue system
D. Primary tissue system

[AS/OCT 2007/BIO200]

6. X is a living plant tissue and the cell walls are unevenly thickened with
pectin, cellulose and hemicellulose. Every cell is closely packed together
with very small and no intracellular air spaces. Tissue X is
A. endodermis.
B. collenchyma.
C. epidermis.

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D. sclerenchyma.
7.
A.
B.
C.
D.

Which of the following give rise to the cork layer?


Phellogen
Root meristem
Shoot meristem
Vascular cambium

[AS/APR 2008/BIO200]

[AS/APR 2008/BIO200]

8. Explain briefly the four cell types, namely tracheid, vessel element,

sieve tube member and companion cell, found in the vascular tissue system
and describe the function of each.
(8 marks)

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[AS/APR 2006/BIO200]

9. Explain how the structures of the following tissues are suited to their
functions.
i. Parenchyma
ii. Xylem

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_______________________________________________________
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(8 marks)
[AS/OCT 2006/BIO200]

10. Describe briefly the structure and function of the three types of tissues
found in the ground tissue system of plants. (9 marks)

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[AS/APR 2007/BIO200]

11. Explain how the structures of tracheids and vessel elements are

specialized for their conduction of water and dissolved minerals. (8 marks)

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[AS/OCT 2007/BIO200]

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12. What features of the epidermis contribute to the overall photosynthetic


success of a plant? (2 marks)

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13.Explain the differences between:
i. Epidermis and periderm
ii. Fibers and sclereids
iii. Parenchyma and collenchyma

[AS/OCT 2007/BIO200]

(12 marks)

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[AS/APR 2008/BIO200]

Ground tissues

Parenchyma, collenchyma, sclerenchyma ( modified


parenchyma tissue epidermis, mesophyll, endodermis and pericycle)

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[Structure, function and location of each tissues]


~Campbell,Reece (2008), 8th edition, Benjamin Cummings (Pg:744)
Vascular tissues

Phloem and xylem


[Structure, function and location of each tissues]
~Campbell,Reece (2008), 8th edition, Benjamin Cummings (Pg:745)
Dermal tissues

Epidermis and periderm


Structure, function and location of each tissues]
~Campbell,Reece (2008), 8th edition, Benjamin Cummings (Pg:742-743)

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