r]

ir

REPORT 80.TR4244

Studies of Plasma Properties

in Rocket Plumes.

RICHARD H. C. LEE and I-SHIH CHANG Vehicle Engineering Division Engineering Group and GORDON E. STEWART Laboratory Operations The Aerospace Corporation El Segundo, Calif. 90245

17 May 1982

Q-

C,
LA.-

Interim Report (1 April 1981 - 31 March 1982)

APPROVED FOR PUBLIC RELEASE; DISTRIBUTION UNLIMITED

Prepared for SPACE DIVISION AIR FORCE SYSTEMS COMMAND Los Angeles Air Force Station P.O. Box 92960, Worldway Postal Center Los Angeles, Calif. 90009

82

2LA

This Center,

interim

report

was

prepared

for

the

Western

Space

and

Missile CA

Vandenberg AFB,

CA 93437 by The Aerospace Corporation.

El Segundo.

90245,

under Contract No.

F04701-81-C-0082'with

the Space Division, Air FoLce

Systems Command, P.O. Box 92960, Worldway Postal Center, Los Angeles, CA 90009. It was reviewed and approved for The Aerospace Corporation by E. 0. Hertler, Principal Director, Aero Engineering Subdivision. First Lieutenant Karl Kortepeter was the Project Engineer for the Analysis Branch, Western Space and Missile Center. This report has been reviewed by the Public Affairs Office (PAS) and is releasable to the National Technical Information Service (NTIS). At NTIS, it will be available to the general public, including foreign nations. This technical report has been reviewed and is approved for publicati)n. Publication of this report does report's findings or conclusions. stimulation of ideas. not constitute Air Force approval of the It is published only for the exchange and

Lt. Karl N. Kort

eter

ard Lane,

Ch ef

Scientific Analrst Analysis Branch

fAnalysis

Branch

Kingst6n A. George,

Chief,

Requirements and Analysis Division FOR THE COMMANDER

Harold C. Reck Acting Director of Plans,

Programs and Requirements

mom-

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T DOCMENTTIONPAGEBEFORE
12. GQVT

READ LNSTRUCTIONS COMPLETING FORM

NUM13EP

I RPORT

Nu

ACCtSSION PIN;_. 3.

RECIPIENT'S CATALOG

STUL:DfES OF PLASMAL, ROCKET PLUMES

Ri.hardWOe H.C. Lee,

.in Report; 'IR1PERTIE'S

IN
*rrA
"'A #

I.'~ 31 :!ir 1982 to

G. REPORT NUMBER

I-Shih Chang, and

-_

Gordon r. Stewart
mE~rOh4IN .4AM~l4NO&DOCSS OnGNIZAION RE"VOR ATI INGOR MEANI N N kNO ADD ES 4AM~ E.EMENr PROJEC, AIRLA A WORK UNIT mumBEIAS -A$,(

The Aerospace Corporation El Segundo, Calif. 9024~5I

I.CONTROLLINGOF RPICE N4AME AWL) ADDRESS 12. REPOIPT OATEI

W,estern Space and Missile Commxand

17 'May 1.982
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Vondenberg AFBl, CA 93437

I& MONITOR IN G AGENCY NAME & ACORESS(It dillotentfIrom,Controlling Office)

ISp Division, ZT.SC ace Gnlssf Los Angeles Air Force Station P. 0. Box 92960 14oridway Postal Center

iSa. DECLASSIFICATION DOWNGRADING

Los Angeles, California 90009SCEUL

16. OISTAINUTIQN STATEMENT (of this Report)

Approved for public release; distribution unlimited

17.

DISTFIISUUlN STATEMENT (of the abstract mntered in Block 20, it different from Report)

11- SUPPLEMENTARY NOTIES

This work was performed in supp,. of the launch operation activities of Western Space and Missile Center at Vandenberg Air Force Basei. Lieutenant Karl

Kortepeter, WSMC/XRQA, was Project Manager.

IS.

KEY WOPIOS (Continue on eovers* side It notsovary and Identify by block numnber)

Rocket Plume Attenuation Telemetry *Launch operations

*20.

Plasma Radio Frequency Two-Phase Flow MX Missile

Solid Rockets

A@STRACT (Continue an reverse side Itnecesseary and Identity by block number)

Various factors which affect the gas density and electron density distribution in the exhaust lume from solid rocket engines were studied. The particulates affect the plume density distribution through their effects on the nozzle flow field, The two-body attachment reaction HC1 + e - H-+ Cf- is the dominant reaction in determining the ionization level in the nozzle expansion. The chemical and physical phenomena required to accuratel~y determine the plume plasma properties for subsequent radio frequency interaction analysis are ideiutified.. 0D

R,~M 1473 1

UNCLASSIFIED
1ECuRITY CLASSIFICATlI)N OF THIS PAGE ("oen Data Entered)

PREFACE

The Inforrmation

authors

appreciate

the

efforts The

provided

by

George

R.. Judd In

of

the

Processing

Division,

Aerospace

Cor-pcration,

Co U"0tr

prcgramming support.

Ii

:11

r*ic

Ussi-Ct.

'!
Ju4stification-

ii
a lpvrLc rd/o SCoPY Distributio/ INSPFC Ecl" t }1i S~~Avashl 1ty Codes
Dit sp

"IfI

S" .. ... .............

...

. .. .. ... .. .

vilabilty'

CedeB

::..

CO.NTENT S

i .... RODUCTION.. 2.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ...

9 13

METHODOLOGY OF RF-PLUME PLASMA INTERACTION ANALYSIS ..............

2.1 2.2 2.3 Rocket Engineer Characterization and Exit Plume Flow Properties ................ ......................... Rocket Plume Flow Field ............. ..................... RF-Plume Plasma Interaction ................ ................... .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . ..................

... . ..

13 L5 17 21

RESULTS. 3.1
3. 2 3.3

Effects of Tonic Reaction Rate .......

Two-Phase Flow in Rocket Nozzle ......... Rocket Exhaust Plume Flow Field ....... 3.3.1 3.3.2 Approximate Far Field

.................
... ... .............. ... ................. ............

...
. .. ...

21
5 4 44

Plume Models ..... on Plume Electron

Effect of Particulates Density. Effect of Nozzle Wall

Effect of

3.3.3
3.3.4

Effect of External Atmosphere

Boundary Layer
.
. . . . .

................ .
.
. . . . . . . . . . . .
.........

.
. . .

52
. 52
54

3.3.5
4. CONCLUSIONS

Nozzle Length.
.

...............

.......

57 59

REFERENCES APPENDIX

...............................

..................... ......................
.63

...........

I'i

3I
I
3
S

Sn {ii1iii :.,.

.... ....i I

FIGURES

..
3. 4. 5 0. 7. 3. 9. 10. II.
12.

,.,itria.

C,-.eial Species Distribution alon.

Rocket

N"zzle . ......

Ionic Species Distribution along Rocket Nozzie. ...

Effect of
M14,X Thirl

... . . j

integration Step Size on Electron 'lole Fraictimn Sta;e M!otor Interior Confizuration . . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

Computational Grid for Transonic

Flow Regime ............

.

Cross-Sectional Grid for Supersonic Flow Regime . Mach Number Contour, Gas Density Contour, Mach Number Contour, Gas Density Contcur,
Mach Number Contour,

......... . . . . . . . . .

32 33 33 . .......... .

Two-Phase (Tronsonic

Regime) .

Two-Phase (Transonic Regime) Two-Phase

.....

.........

3upersonic Regime) ......... Regime) ....

Regime) .
. .

Two-Phase (Supersonic
One-Phase (Transonic

.... 4
. .

...

35

13. 14. 15. 16.

Gas Density Contour, Mach Number Contour, Gas Density Contour,

One-Phase (Transonic Regime) .... One-Phase

.......... ..

.. .. . ..

35 36 36

(Supersonic Regime)....... ..........

One-Phase (Supersonic Regime) ....

Profiles of Mach Number and Temperature at Nozzle Exit Plane with Single Particle Size of 6.7 Jim ....... .............. Profiles of Pressure and Density at Nozzle Exit Plane with Single Particle Size of 6.7 Jim ........... . . Radial Profiles of Gas Temperature and Density at Nozzle Exit ......................... ............................ Radial Profiles of Mach Number and Gas Pressure at Nozzle Exit.............................................. Effect of Mean Particle Diameter on Exit Mach Number ............

..

37

17.

38

18.

40

19.

42 ... 43

20.

.. .

....

..

....-

FIGURES (Concluded)

2.

!-id.s FloW d 1 7hi'C 3 age P 1Me A:-.. Contours of Constant Electron Density for 'Uniform Exit Mcach Number ................... ........................... ... 48 50 51' 53
. 55
1

23. 24. 25.

26.

Electron Density Contours for Gas and Two-Phase Plume ........... Effect of Two-Phase Nozzle Flow on Gas Plume at 310 kft Atmospheric Effect of UHF Overdense Contour ........
.
. . . . . . . . . .

...... ............

Effect of Nozzle Boundary Layer

27.

UHF Overdense Contour of -X Third Stage Plume at 310 kft .......

56

..
I -

. T... . -..

.LES
0I

2.

Effects of Ionic Reaction Rates on Electron Mole Fraction at Nozzle Exit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Gas and Solid ProperLies for Two-Phase Nozzle Flow
Calculation... ............................

. .

. .

. . .

. .

3.

29..

.I
v,7

1.

INTRODUCTION

Thc ohjec2ive of
,-.)MDute-r
CO:4

this

is

todev

h the necessary
,0 at

technius
.h -st

and
.u:e,

ec ica 1 v e s t o thleo r,eo hsstudy. .(RF) signal

s t ne L r-7_,r

3 effe t heeeson Cts '- between will the be

on

radio

frequency

propagation

launch missile placed on The of Lhe the focus stt1 e

and

gr'ound or airborne regime for the

station.

Primary

emphasis of

aititude of of the the

third stage solid engine thus far were to re';,_w

the 'tX

missile. aspects

studies conducted art in

'arious

RF interference affecting to define

from rocket the plume

plumes,

to study and determine in influencing

tihe dominant inter-

factors in action, and

plasma and

the RF plume for its

the state-of-the-art in

models

required

solution.

The results and findings are presented

this report.

Continuous communicatlon the successful and safe

with

. MiS3iec during of the launch

launch

is

essential

for

completion

operation. and

Critical

opera-

tions,

such as target

tracking,

telemetry

transmission,

command-destruct, the radio

all depend upon adequate

propagation of electromagnetic launch vehicle.

radiation in it

wave spectrum from or to the that to

Unfortunately,

often occurs

the rocket exhaust may be in free electrons interfere in in with the exhaust

a high level of plume. of Thesa

ionization which gives rise free electrons can, in many they

cases,

the propagation

an electromagnetic

signal when of

are present

sufficiently

large amounts and when the line

sight between

the missile and the ground antennas traverses the missile plume.

The amount of electrons in metal impurities in ally not

the plume is

intimately related to the alkali gener-

the propellant, to cause

for the rocket engine temperature is of the other combustion and sodium)

high enough because the

ionization

products. have low

However,

alkali

metals

(notably

potassium

ionization potentials,

they become highly ionized with the result that considgenerated and deposited in the exhaust plume.

erable amounts of electrons are In general, potassium

solid rocket propellants contaminants than liquid

contain much larger amounts of sodium and propellants. This is mainly due to the

chemical process of manufacturing ammonium perchlorate, in the solid alkali

fl-e CD:oma

an essential ingredient raw materials con-

propellant,

which

carries

over

some

original

ta1in-.

al compounds. ioid~e as well. The

While this stud'; is

.gt-

-rimariiv a.ed at
;.-_3 '.~

a~;~ differences

to

thc'-e th" two in

I.': types o:

r,,cket

engines

principal

between

rocket plumes lie in

the presence of large amounts of particulates Therefore, liquid

&he solid

rocket plume and the different chemical composition. calculate solid rocket plumes automatically includes

the ability to plume by

rocket

deleting the particular phase in

the plume flow field.

RF

interferences

from

rocket

plumes

have

been

observed

in

numerous

launch operations in the existing data.

sites may be found in

the past.

References

1 and 2 provide good

of

summaries of

More detailed description of field data from various launch

Refs. 3 through 9. A large amount S-band telemetryv

attenuation data are also available from numerous Minuteman III launches from
T

lVictor, A.C., "Plume Signal Interference, Part 1: Radar Attenuation," Report NWC-TP-5319, Part 1, Naval Weapons Center, China Lake, CA, June 1985. 2
.Victor, A.C., "Plume Signal Interference, Part i: Plume-Induced Noise (U)" Report NWC-TP-5319, Part 2, Naval Weapons Center, China Lake, CA, June 1975 (Confidential). 3 poehler, H.A., "Results of Special Flame Measurements of Titan III-C Tests 3656/6025 and 6020/6546," Report ETV-TRM-66-30, Pan American World Airways, Guided Missile Range Division, 1966. 4 poehler, H.A., "Project See-Thru, Flame Attenuation Interference MeasureETR-TRments, Titan III-C Test 8275/2250, Preliminary Report," Report No. 68-6, Pan American World Airways, 1967. 5 poehler, H.A., "Project See-Thru, Flame Interference Measurements, Titan I11-C Launch Test 8275/2250, Final Report," Report No. ETR-TR-68-3, Pan American World Airways, 1968.
6 Poehler,

Report,

H.A., "Rocket Exhaust Signal Attenuation and Degradation, Final I1," Report No. ETR-TR-69-4, Pan American World Airways, Vols. I, II,

-Aerospace Service Division, 1969/Ely, O.P., "Rocket Exhaust Effects on Radio Frequency Transmission," J. Spacecraft, 3, pp. 310-314, 1966. 8 Vicente, F.A., E.C. Taylor, and R.W. Phelps, "Analysis of Flame Effects on Measuring Electromagnetic Propagation Data," J. Spacecraft, 4, pp. 1069-1075, 1967, 9 Golden K.E., E.L. Taylor, and F.A. Vicente, "Diffraction by Rocket Exhaust," Communication in IEEE Transaction on Antenna and Propagation, APl6, pp. 614-616, 1968.

10

. ... ......

Western Test Range distances viriations of apart and, of plume

(WTR).

They were

recorded

at antenna

locations

over

some

therefore,

should provide indications oi the aspect angle They' are available issued bv as Post-Launch Soace and Analysis Missile

interfetrence. (PLATS)

Telemetry

Systems 0' I

re orrs

Western

Center (;4SMC).

These data have signal due to

shown

both of

amplitude

and

phase

interference In many that

of

the RF

the presence

the rocket

exhaust

plume. It

instances, the noise

i2

both amplitude and phase noise were may be due to turbulent fluctuations

also detected. in

appears

the plume plasma.

Spectral

analysis of

the amplitude noise has been made and indicated a peak noise at about 1 kiiz.

Nlthough it tions define this

arilitude

is

necessary in

to account values

for amplitude as well as

and phase noises initial on the

will

perturbacompletely efforts of

in

the

RF

signal

the mean

to

rocket s~u'

plume effects be confined

Only

on RF signal to
the mean plume

propagation, the
field flow

the

will

determining

effects

mean

signal

and phase.

properties

be calcu-

)ared, thchanges.

an"' the RF-plasma plasma

This is

interaction analysis will be restricted and

in

to employing and phase

to a efforts

mean

properties
necessary

determining
order to

the

mean
the

amplitude
initial

confine

tractable level.

The inclusion of amplitude and phase noise study will necesfluctuations in the rocket of the art. plume It flow field and may appears that at the

sitate treating turbulent entail studies beyond

the present

state

altitudes of interest associated with the the turbulence in the rocket plume is

third stage

burn of the MX missile, from the combustion

mainly

originated

10

"Post Launch Analysis Telemetry Systems Preview--Operation 3162," Report No. PA300-T-79-31P, Systems Performance Analysis Department, Western Test Range Division, Federal Electric Corporation, 26 July 1979. 11 "Post Launch Analysis of Telemetry Systems--Operation 5544, Final," Report

No. AS300-T-81-21F, Systems Performance Analysis Department, Western Test Range Division, Federal Electric Corporation, 1 April 1981. 1 2 McKelvey, G.R., "Exhaust Plume Test Results--Report Number 2," Technical Note PA300-N-79-23, Systems Performance Analysis Department, Western Test Range Division, Federal Electric Corporation, 27 September 1979.

chamber of the rocket engine and retained by the core

is in contrast

flow of the plumre.

such as during the

This
2irst

to plume turbulence

at

low

altitudes,

stage burn, layer

.,here the dominant plumize tas

plume turbulence the a -'

is

generated by e. a 7,

-he

free shear aizounL:

'bezween the

and in

data of turbulent fluctuations

the plume co of small require

does , thrust.

exis

it

Pertains to solid

to those from a liquid rocket engine rocket engines and higher thrust is

Applications study. The effort.

levels

further

inclusion

of plume turbulence

beyond the scope of the present initial

The and that

results to

and

conclusions the

of

this

report

consist models

of and

various

studies codes rocket

analyses determine

define

necessary amplitude

theoretical and phase

computer due to

the RF signal

interference

plumes.

13

Sutton, G.A., "Boost Measurem.nts and Analysis Program Final Report, Vol. 7: Plasma Properties Derived From Full Scale Rocket Motor Measurements," Ford Aerospace and Communications Corporation Report No. U-6511, prepared by Concord Sciences Corporation, Concord, MS, 15 March 1979. 14 August G. and D. Tremain, "Boost Measurements and Analysis Program Final Report, Vol. 9: Rocket Plume Measurements and Data Evaluation," Ford Aerospace and Communications Corporation Report No. U-6511, pve-ared by Concord Scieaces Corporation, Concord, MS, 15 March 1979.

12

2.
i!,

METHODOLOGY OF RF-PLUME PLASMA INTERACTION ANALYSIS

,he propagation into

analyses

necessar)y and

-or

&-cermining
t:

.he useful to

efec iane s separate chemical

on Cite and

Z; n.ai L anaLi",es physical

are complex of

lenuchy.

is

a number

sequential

zalculations

for

various

phenomena:

o 0 0 o

Rocket Engine Characterization Rocket Plume Flow Field RF-Plume Plasma Interaction

&nd Exit Plane Flow Properties

These calculations are briefly described below.

2.1

ROCKET ENGINE CHARACTERIZATION AND EXIT PLUME FLOW PROPERTIES The first step exhaust in at the analysis is exit... to determine the prcperties data to of the out

rocket

engine

the nozzle

The essential

carry

this

calculation the and

are

the of

chemical alkali

composition

of

the of

rocket the

propellant chamber

including pressure,

amount

metal

contaminants,

rocket

the detailed geometrical and nozzle contour.

configuration

the engine chamber,

nozzle throat,

The availability of lant is plume. essential These

the alkali metal contaminant of the electron in

levels density

:n the pro~nlin the rocket

to the determination are

contaminants

introduced

the propellant mainly via ammo-

nium perchlorate,
rule of (ppm) thumb to

an essential
estimate

ingredient
content

in
is

the common solid propellants.

to assume 200 parts per in

their

million

of potassium and 125 ppm of sodium by weight to be their weight

present in

the ammo-

nium perchlorate.* and then to compute

fraction

the composite

!i

~*Private

communication with E.M.

Landsbaum,

The Aerospace

Corporation.

'I i

13 y

propellant. unreliable

This is results.
alkali ilfur

only a very crude estimate, It is imperative

to1e10

however,

and it often produces be chemically on ac curat,2 I. ana-

that
,1;

the

propellant
fract

ezed for

toe ''e:h-

The characterization calculation of the rocket

of the rocket e-.hausc engine chamber flow

fiow properties pruperties ani

begis

.ith

a by

composition

assuming chemical equilibrium to prevail constant etthalpy. ture is high, 3icause

at the specified is

chamber pressure at a temperathe time Under

thle flow velocity time is very

low and the chamber in comparison with

the combustion

short

required for the combustion products to flow through the entire chamber. this condition, chemical equilibrium is flow attained. into the entrance and deviation region of

As the combustion products throat, their velocities Therefore, increase

the nozzle equilireacin the

rapidly

from chemical

brium starts.

the calculation must consider flo,.s

finite chemical is expandel

tion rates as the engine exhausc rocket nozzle. tion products flow in

into the- tht )at and is

Since a.large amount of solid propellants,

of particulates it is often

present in

the combustwo-phase

necessary

to treaL

the throat and nozzle calculations.

While a number in this section,

of computer

codes

exist

for

the

calculations

described

the Solid Performance

Program (SPP)

code developed under the combined them into one

auspices of the Air Force Rocket Propulsion Laboratory code which has been adapted for the present study.

The

gas

velocity

is

subsonic

in

the

chamber

and

becomes

supersonic

downstream of the nozzle throat.

Much attention has been devoted to the method from the SPP code flow

of computing the transonic flow as the two-phase rocket exhaust passes chamber avoids to the nozzle. treating elliptic The approximate partial transonic analysis for of the the

differential nozzle

equations

subsonic

by solving

the inlet region of the through

as a

one-dimensional

flow problem. flow with from the

As the exhaust passes constant fractional

the throat,

an uncoupled

particle-gas Solutions

thermal a-.d velocity lag was assumed.

14

SPP code will be compared with the cylindrical three-dimensional

two-phase flow

(CY3D2P)
*

codei
:ode

developed at The Aerospace Corporation to check the accuracy of

the

former

The CY

72)P

.le 1

ra2s

z:I e

fu 11

1ou L i ,

1ns - S't1,1r:',Ln2 3'

hyperba 'o.icfor-i of %he ziverning the two-phase flow problem;

equations. it does

It so

provides

an exaz o

atcn

however,

at the expense

of additional

computing time and storage. Ty;pical results from the SPP code as well as its comparison with report. It is anticipated the CY302P

i
for the third stage of the "'X code will be presented is Later missile in it this will

that when the SPP code

thus validated,

be adopted for all subsequent calculations.

2.2 ROCXET PLUM!E FLOW FIELD

The next step in properties

nozzle.

tihe an3alysis is exit

is

to take

the rocket the

of

engine e:xhaust outside

fLow the

at

the nozzle

plane

to

continue

calculation
simplified

When only gas

phase

considered,

a number

approxima-

16-1
tions may be used for the far field of the rocket plume. 18 The approximations assume Lhat the gas has been sufficiently expanded outside the nozzle to approach a source-like in the vicinity of flow, and the detailed mechanisms are of minor of the gas expansion Their ability in to the nozzle density

the gas

importance. was

describe

the plume

distribution

investigated.

Also,

low altitude regime of the MX third stage burn for the BOA3 trajectory, action between the plume gas and the ambient atmosphere becomes

interin

important

15

Chang, I-S., "Three-Dimens4onal, Two-Phase Supersonic Nozzle Flows," AIAA Paper No. 81-1219, AIAA 14th Fluid and Plasma Dynamics Conference, Palo Alto, CA, 23 June 1981. 16 Hill, A.F.J. and J.S. Drapev, "Analytical Approximation for the Flow from a Nozzle into a Vacuum," J. Spacecraft, 3, pp. 1552-1554, 1966. 1 7 Brook J.W., "Far Field Approximation for a Nozzle Exhausting into a Vacuum," J. Spacecraft, 6, pp. 626-628, 1969. 18 Boynton, F.P., "Exhaust Plumes from Nozzles with Wall Boundary Layers," J. Spacecraft, 5, pp. 1143-1147, 1968.

15I

151

affecting the plume plasma properties. and the barrel ered. The shock in the plume.

The interaction generates on the plume

the bow shock considt,

Its effect (MOC)

_i!nh sone

shape was

method

of characteristics

solution19 has been

F , c :es s

Ipplied to s th1

invisci,d

fLo'4 of P plume

ne in
flow field

t 4, , .

'as an,'q... 1C

'',j

..

to compute :he

and

plasma

properties.

uias

-apabiLiLt,

of treating the barrel

shock formation while assuming modified

Newconian pres-

sure at the plume boundary.

When the presence the computation becomes

of particulates more complex

in

the plume needs lengthy. Two

to be considered, codes are

and

computer

available for calculating

two-phase plume flow tields by the method of characS21

teristics,
used in

namely,

the

Reacting

Multi-Phase

Code

(RAMP)20,
The

1 and

the

Two-

Dimensional Two-Phase Plume Analysis Program (TD2P).22'23

latter code was

this work to study the effects of particulates on the plume gas density The effects of the presence of the particulates will be dis-

distribution. cussed in

Section 3.3.2.

More ionization in addition to that occurring in

the nozzle was found by

the

Martin-Marietta

Corporation24 when the region just outside the nozzle was

l9Smith S.D. ment, Penny,

and A.W.

Tatliff, "Rocket

Exhaust Plume Computer Program ImproveLMSC/HREC D162220-IV-A, Lockheed

Volume IV: Final Report,"

Report No.

Missiles and Space Company, 20

Huntsville,

AL,

June 1971.

M.M., et al., "Supersonic Flow of Chemically Reacting Gas-Particle Mixtures, Volume I: A Theoretical Analysis and Development of the Numerical

Solution," Report No. LMSC/HREC TR D496555-I, Lockheed Missiles and Space Company, Huntsville, AL, January 1976. 2 1 Penny, M.M., et al., "Supersonic Flow of Chemically Reacting Gas-Particle Mixtures, Volume 11: RAMP--A Computer Code for Analysis of Chemically Reacting Gas-Particle Flows," Report No. LMSC/HREC TR D496555-I., Lockheed Missiles and Space Company, Huntsville, AL, January 1976. 2 2 Kliegel, J.R. and G.R. Nickerson, "Axisymmetric Two-Phase Perfect Gas Performance Program, Volume I: Engineering and Program Description," Report No. 02784-6006-ROOO, TRW, 3 April 1967. 2 3 "User's Manual for the Two-Dimensional Two-Phase Plume Analysis Computer Program," Report No. SN-141, Dynamic Sciences, Inc., December 1968. 24 Romine, G.L., et al., "RF Signal Degradation from the MX Stage III Plume," Report No. SE4-116037, Martin-Marietta Corporation, Denver, CO, May 1981.

i
]

16

........

considered.

Presumably,

their

calculation fan tv

was

done

in tip

I:he does

region not
t

near

the

thrust axis where the

ur',he r ',1down1 c red . a1 3 U

expansion
i2'd'..,

from the nozzle

)n - L .!:1,an1; e

reach
'tu

until
:Z

2r,

tI L,

aZ i

Thus,
exist.

downstream of the ,axit

This aspect of requi.e in

plane,

.rariations of the ionizatiun

:homLcal been we

:c:nposition fully

.:,V!

the additional additional the whole in the

las not

investithe elecThe gas

it

gated and would tron mole electran dansit,

analysis. to be can

At present, aL the be

assume exit

fraction density

plunr

nozzle

value. from the

anywhere

plume the

then

computed

diicribution.

Togecher

with

plume

temperature

,ii;:bution,

enables the collision

requency to be calculated.

These are the plasma propof the 'alectromagnetic waves

erties required for de ermining the interference

by the rocket plume.

2.3

RF-PLUME PLASMA INTERACTION

Analysis

of

the ,interaction

between

the

RF

signals Cno

and

the

plasma

is

based on the concept of an effective dielectric constant, the ratios quency. 25 of plasma frequency and collision frequency

which depends on the signal fre-

to

"0

C 1(v/w) 2

1+(Jl) 2

where

w = 2wf is

the radian signal frequency,

V is

the collision frequency for

momentum transfer, aad the plasma frequency is given by

-)

2 e

/m E

e o

25

Heald, M.A. and C.B. Wharton, Plasma DiAgnostics with Microwaves, & Sons, Inc., New York, 1Y, p. 6, 1965.

John Wiley

17

t1

!I

The permittivity e, the electron

of

free

space

is

designated and *

by E , is

the electron mass.

charge

by

number density by 'I , n

the electron

-k tL:le

a
tron density n e

2iid ;na Ir " or which w

t: 1. d'De piasma

is

rr said

ar 2

to 62 underuense ':rieu has none a reflective tra,,',s1t.ed

n t, < n I? and overdense when n 2- > n ec An C c.nstanlt o unity so thar. it' :na Is through the plasma.

overdense ir e

me di.-m and

reflecced

initial estimates of the effect from the missile

the
socln

of the rocker based

a be

plume on RF propagation
26

to a ground station were

4a

on ray optics.
of rays

That
could

is,
be

incident
ed

signal rmzced

considered

to

bundle

wh.h.ch

individuall' 1
so-called tion of tha

EiknaIl

Eikonal .i,.;nal

the plunme. ;his t, ,t .1na Iv'/s is hased ont 27 equation which describes the ray trajectories. Absorpthroug;h
eutong

,?aon- ,

:h ray pi2 h

:an b.e c nnut

x ,; comparing

the

i;,

gence of the incident bundle of rays

with Chat o the existing bundle

of rays,

the effects of refraction can be determined. effective radiated (ERP) power incident on the at radiated power can be computed

The re.uit is some

that

for a given an effective

plasma at a somewhat

angle,

different

exiting angle.

Once the transformation from incident to exit angle has been determined, the attenuation of the signal received by a ground station can be obtained by cornparing the ERP with and without the plume present. It is possible for an exit angle to correspond to more than one incidence angle, in which case the

signals must be summed with the appropriate phasing.

I
I

2 6 Malmud,

P.,

"Raybend--A Tracing Program for Microwaves Propagating through

paper presented at the JANNAF 12th Plume Technology Meeting, Pergamon Press, London, p. 110, 1959. Principles of Optics,

Rocket Plumes,"
2 7

October 1980.
Born & Wolf,

18

L!

It
predict

has

been

recognized
produced T .

that

the

ray

optics

treatment
especially

tends
in

to

over-

the

attenuation

bv the

plasma plume, the

the )n nhe

case Of assunp.iound :a,:_1 wave

that

lar-e attenur.itions.

is tis be-a.u!e Le!e rt And

aean'si iis
res

based

tion )f
the diffraction

an

rnfrn!

.asva
'.',at

4aY

-:-a, "he

.l-n:l

iffrEacud
issumec

pIume.

-a-, y

.;arocs afLhe ) be based

-

7-plume on a

Lnc;..-action

estimates

should

blockage

of it

the has

incident been

by a

the ov.rdense
somewhat mitter

coct of th!
is

pllum.

*Mo.e recently,
both the rays are block%-ed

rioted

larger area rays core

blocked, roim a

since

incident refracted area can

from the awa -e ,;l be

trans-

and

projected of

,,round station effective

overdense

the' plume.' 9An

det~ermine,!

by

using a

ray

tracing

program

and determining

the

intersection

of

the

rays

approaching closest to the overdense core. along the ray path are ignored. alternate tcchnique
.30

In these two diffraction estimates, and the attenuation

the concentration of the rays at the edge by refraction

An Rajasekhar,

has

been

developed

by

Boy t:n,

Davies,

and Thomson.

The effect of the plume is analyzed by dissecting The incident field is

the plasma into a sequence of absorbing phase screens.

evaluated on a planar surface; the plasma between that plane and the succeeding plane is assumed to modify the field at that plane in phase and amplitude. Propagation to the next plane is calculated using the Fresnel-Kirchoff

Succeeding Rteps are handled in the same way until the electron integral. density has dropped to a point that phase and amplitude changes are negligible. Fast Fourier transform techniques are used to reduce the computation time. From the Fourier transform of the field at the last plane, the far--field radiation may be directly evaluated. refraction and diffraction and This technique has includes, in principle, that both the additional capability the gross

features of plasma turbulence can be included.

2 8 Vicente,

F.A., E.C. Taylor, and R.W. Phelps, "Analysis of Flame Effects in Measured Electromagnetic Propagation Data," J. Spacecraft, 4, pp. 1069-1075, 1961. 2 9 Peng, S.Y., "Analytical Model for Predicting R-F Amplitude and Phase Effects Plume Technology Meeting, 1977. of Plume," JANNAF lth Boynton, F.W., A.R. Davies, P.S. Rajasckhar, and J.A. Thompson, "Effects of Large AbsorbLng Rocket Exhaust Plumes on R.F. Signals," JANNAF 10th Plume Technology Meeting, CPI Publications 291, pp. 143-1.73, 1977.

191

For-

In this study, we shall first different analyses--ray optics, -- with the naute.:
c, ,

compare the radiated fields from the three and the phase screen approximation prnblem
. ..

diffraction, a -3
1 r:diL

result

for

3ct3ring
',

which

can
j7'" .

be

,:x'-I. T

".iLI ,

.ctted by eit-er tric and magnetic

-in-l-ctric

or magnetic

Line

soure.

The

use o4a t

C-

line sources will allow the assessment

of the effects of the

two different polarizations on the result. lar to those computed for the criird stage

The plasma parameters will be simiof the it MX missile. will of provide the Although a direct the com.since

problem

analyzed will be only the results of

two-dimensional,

pari son with

the di~fraction

anal'ysis

MX plume,

that model is also two-dimensional.

Comparison will be made with the diffracAlternate selection

tion model,

selecting the strip size based on the assumption of an overdense

core or using the ray optics method previously described.

procedures will also be considered.

Similarly, solution to see if

the

ray

optics

prediction

will

be

compared

wi,h

the

e2XacL

there exists any region of validity for its use,

particular-

ly at grazing angles to the plume. Finally, a two-dimensional formulation of the absorbing phase screen

model will be compared with the exact solution.

Of particular interest will be for a given signal fre-

the manner in which the step sizes must be selected quency and plasma parameters.

It

is anticipated that the absorbing phase screen model will provide the the interaction of the RF with the plasma plume;

best approach to modeling

however, validation of this model is currently unavailable.

After screen model satisfactory and comparison solution is for obtained a between the absorbing an phase

the exact

cylindrical

plasma,

RF-plasma by the

interaction code will be written to use the plasma properties generated

plume flow field codes in order to compute the effects of the plasma on the
phase and amplitude of the RF wave propagating through it.

20

m--. I

! t

',_.

l_____.___.

__

_,_i

_L

__,._

3,

RESULTS

-a

D c-f;-,I, pla,
aq uiv a 1a n tI,,Qi. ,l: r'n ,]an, :1. di t r ib u-

PI .,n~ne

d eIsity

disz r b.u

i.

(o r ,

tion)

to

various plume

factors flow

in

the

plume in

flow which

field. all

The

aim

is

to

define

a are

theoretical included.

fiel model

the pertinent

phenomena

The results of these studies are given below.

2.1.

EFFECTS OF IONIC REACTION RATE

As mentioned previously, in the rocket nozzle

finite rate chemical reactions must be included in order to determine the electron mole

flow calculation

fraction at the nozzle exit. Both neutral and ionic reactions need co be considered. The neutral reactions can affect the flow field temperature and the concent'ations of the neutral species that enter into ionic reactions. Both have effects on the ionic reaction rate and, tion. For a reaction in which the therefore, the electron concentrainto the

reactants

A and B are converted

products C and D

A+

B-I

C + D

kr

the

specification the reverse

of

the

forward

reaction kr can

rate coefficient be computed

kf

is the

sufficient, equilibrium

since

rate

coefficient

from

constant K.

Thus
k n kf/K

I
(1) r f

where k

varies with the gas temperature T as follows:

kf

= AT-nexp(-E/RT)

(2)

where

R is

the

gas

constant

and

the

constants

and

are

determined

from

experimental reaction rate data.

21

,I
For i-H, C-, k Eq. (2) and their uncertain': limits. a propellant and Na, the combination neutral in containing the chemical elements C, N, 0, the in1 At, K, and ionic reactions a= necessary ' to describe ,

svstem, are

Li:,Lted

the

Ap.p _endix.
3L

ther.

th.n ,,,

An examination exist effect in on their the values,

of

the reaction the

rates ionic In

indicates reactions

that

large have the

uncertainties the dominant

especially

which

electron

concentration.

order

to evaluate

uncertainties

of the electron concentration in tion rates, for the electron mole value
in

the plume due to the

inaccuracies

of the reac-

fraction at upper
and the

the nozzle exit plane was calculated lower bounds

The

the nominal
as listed

and

the
1

and

of
results

the

ioaic
are

reaction
listed in

rates

Table

Appendix.

Table 2 for a solid propellant containing 80 ppm sodium and 30 ppm potassium.

Table

I.

Ionic Reactions

R19

+ e + M = K + M

R20

Na+ + e + M - Na + M

R21

C9.

+ e

+ M -

C9.

+ M

R22

K49-

K + CZ

R23

Na

+ CiL

= Na + C9

R24

HCL + e = H + CL

3 1

Jensen,

D.E.

and G.A.

Jones,

"Gas-Phase

Reaction Rate Coefficients Report No.

try Applications," Rocket Propulsion Establishment of Defense, London W.C. 2, October 1971.

for Rocke71/9, Ministry

22

Table 2.

Effects of Ionic Reaction Rates on Eleccron

Iolae Fraction at Nozzle Exit

"nina
5 x R19 and R20 i1/5 x R19 and R20
30 x R2L 1/30 x RZ1 10 x R22 and R23 1100 x R.. and R2.3 30'x Rx.4 1/100 x R24

3.a X 10" 6.27 x 10-7 1.13 x 10-6 9.2 x10-7

7.45 x 10-7 8.46 x 10-7 x
2.3 x 0 10-6

3.86 x 10-7

Lc appears that no significan,

zhan4e

in

the electron

density

is

caused

five reactions. by the uncertainties in the first reiaction kReaction 24), however, has the predominant level as shown iu Table 2 and Fig. 1 where X

The two-)od, effect ,On the the

attachment ionization mole The

denotes

electron

fraction,

R* the throat radius,

and Z the axial distance

from the throat.

uncertainties in

its reaction rate can cause a factor of three increase

based upon the of about seven state of in the the art plume in

or a

factor of two decrease in the electron density from the value predicted on the
basis of its nominal reaction rates, an rate. Therefore, factor the uncertainty electron

density is

to be expected.
until such time that the rate of In Reaction

This situation will prevail

24 can be more accurately determined by

laboratory experiment.

the absence

of more accurate reaction rate data,

the recommended approach is

such as some of

to vary the
the S-band The for

rate of Reaction 24 to match existing flight data, telemetry data available same reaction rate is for Minuteman Stage III used to predict

flights

from Vandenberg. on RF signals

then

plume

effects

future flights.

23

<

<<

-4

-4

)000)
C

CPJ-4

24

The dominant effect of Reaction 24 can be rraced to the fact that in nozzle the gas density is
t3 t0O' en'1 i

the i.

rapidly decreasing. i: 4.. L'1-2i, i 1:V'I _C'; C.

LsL'.:.e t .i~ l Iio , kL)C, t'ie tlo,,

Since the rate of Reaction 24

IaZ

o" ",.n, ,r~ p)oe,-: 4 .-o

t, n '', d en L s i toe JTn, 1.v

j)a n_ J, e o,: r,, a 3 4-:-yan3 ~on L'.

:, : .

,b

*,.''

ca.3.s

t'.-

?,eact-.i,on3 in the

19 throu,,h 21 to 31ow down mnuch mnore . direction in the nozzle to

?,eact D;-r.'Ieds actious n 2a more electrons from the

reverse

geneonte

negative chlorine ion.

Since the concentration of atomic hydrogen is in Reactions greater 19 to 23, error in

orders of

M.aenitude higher than the other reactants ty in the rate

This is

an uncertainthe
'ro

of

Reaction
illustrated

24
in

produces

much

electron
a olId

density.

Figs. 2 and 3 wh.re This propellant amount of HCZ was are

the

3pec.es

propellant exhaust

are plotted. so that in the

contains formed not is

low percentage only in 1 percent Fig. 3.

of by The

ammonium perchlorate mole. major Also A9+

exists (CO,

the

nozzle

but

included

species

H2 , H2 0,

CO2 ,

and AC))

essentially frozen during the

flow exoansion in 3peciea3 undergo

the nozzle. considerable

However, change.

the minor neutral species and the ionic This demonstrates in the importance ot

accounting for

finite rnte chemical is

reactions The in

the nozzle when ionization of

the rocket engine exhaust that considerable care

considered. be

ionization reactions are so fast choosing a sufficiently It small was the

must

exercised

integration step size to integrate discovered that by reducing the

the species conservation equations. integration step size

progressively, than 0.2 together radius. too large.

solution no longer changed when a step size equal of the throat radius was taken. This is shown

to or less in Fig. 4

percent with a

solution using a step size equal to 1 percent large errors can result when the size of Az/R* = 0.002 was integration for all

of the throat step size chemical is

Clearly, A step iLai

adopted

kinetic

calculations

this study.
3.2 TWO-PHASE FLOW IN ROCKET NOZZLE

Liquid

propellants

generally

do

not

form

condensed In

solid

particles

except perhaps from erosion of the nozzle particulates carried by the exhaust gas is

throat.

that case,

the amount of on the flow

so small that effects

field can be neglected.

25

1.0

10 H20
_0, HUI

2 H

0-3

S~~~10-4-_

-CI
102

OH

53

1010-

1
Z7R I

10

Fig.

2.

Neutral Chemical Species Distribution along

Rocket Nozzle (composite double-based)

26

i. -

10-6-/
U-

}I
Na+

lo-

-,
10

I0"

1 0

10o2

Fig.

3.

Ionic Species Distribution Rocket NozzlR.

along

27"

Fi
6L

o#00
L0

ITI

P-4

r4 28

P/

Solid

propellants burns,

generally

contain is

aluminum

as part

of

the

fuel.

As

the propellant
C

the aluminum

oxidized,
Laseous

forming

liquid aluminum oxide

u. '.i

le

')tf

'1.1':10.ou113
..
Lin

sZ

anid

oc.er

a-..JmJi'in>:emO(und3. no
;as tha
oz =le.

l'i~miun

i'~..

heat

:o the expandin'

4n

The

amounct

of particulates

for-ned can be a large

fraction of the Lotal exhaust, formulation.

generally

from 20 to 40 percent,

depending , upon the propellant

The causes

presence

of

large

amounts and

of

tarticulates

in

the the

rocket as for

nozzle and :he

considerabla A fully

mcmentum coupled

heat

crans:'r" between solution was

particles.

two-phase

flow

obtained

the AX

third stage nozzle geometry, single size particles of

using the Aerospace CY3D2P code. wm diameter were assumed.

Perfect gas and 3 lists the

6.7

Table

,as and solid properties used in

the calcilition.

Table 3.,

Gas and Solid Properties for Two-Phase Nozzle Flow Calculation

r.:v, Phase Ratio ')f specific heats - 1.318 Heat onpacity - 0.436 Btu/tb- R Orar%(tl .-umber m 0.5 Emiss7,ity - 0.0 Chamber pressure - 693 psia Chamber tempera ire u 6000R
4

Partidle Phase Particle diameter u 6.7 .m Particle heat capacity - 0.326 Btu/lb-*R ';olld mass density - NO0 lb/ft EmissIvity - 0.25 Percentage by weight of particles - 30.5%

Viscosity at 6000"R a 5.67 x 10 -h/ft-sec Temperature exponent for viscosity - 0.65

-5

29

I
VM.i

Figure
used in

shows

the

MX

third The

stage

mutor

configuration this
ici

and

the

domain

the transonic

analysis.

expanded Fig. attains

view of n. .t

domain and side o4 in

the grid The tranthroat

system for the computation sonic domain, the gas is

are siomwn in subsonic. the It

The

3ontc

velocity ....

the

r-,.ion and passes throu,,h

right-hand unsteady

comprtat

'ma L

idr', :3', ,.
equations to

,,-",-:1 Iare solved aixed in Z time 0 te

In
'y

the transonic finite

domain,

the to

two-phase difficult

governing 'if The

diffe:ences

avoil

the

'iaving

so'/e

elliptical-hyperbol'ic '.ntiL steady nozzle the ilo.:

differential no is this

equations. 'orger chnge g "L

computation aiid ht

marches Sluo u t in 1

:ariables The

ii e the

state. exit is

soiution In

continued region,

into the

expanding

nozzle

uncti

reached.

steady-state

governing

equations

are solved.
are depicted

The computational grids at a number of selected

in FLg. 7.

axial stations

The results in Figs. 8 through Contours of

of 15

-the computtation with and without

to demonstrate Mach the effects and ratio of the of

t'ee

narticles
on

ire shown
the nozzLe to chamber

particles gas

flow.

constant

number

density

density from the two-phase flow solution aie plotted in Figs.

8 through 11.

The large radial gradient of the Mach number near the nozzle wall as shown in Fig. 8 is the result of the absence of the particulates.
negotiate formed. rhe large throat curvature, and a limiting At nozzle radius larger than the boundary of this

The particles cannot

particle streamline is limiting streamline,

the region is occupied only by the gas.

Similar contour plots from the solution without the particles are pre-

Comparison of the results with and without the sented in Figs. 12 through 15. particles shows that the presence of the particles greatly decreases the gas
Mach number, while the gas density is relatively unaffected.

i
In order to check the gas and validity particle of gas of the SPP code, and at the same case gas was commode of puted using identical the SPP code. properties properties the perfect nozzle in Radial profiles the exit Figs. plane are 16 and 17. for Mach

compared with those obtained Satisfactory agreement

from the Aerospace CY3D2P code from the two codes is

of the results

obtained

,,

//

-,

-. J

>-

u20n,

"

NOZZLE TVA

Fig.

5.

MX Third Stage Motor Interior Configuration

I1
I1

I I
t=|

Fig.

6.

Computational Grid for Transonic Flow Regime

I~~~~~~~~~~

31

_____________________

-4

N'..

'N.
if0

32I,-

,i

\\

Fig.

8.

Mach Number con:.)ur,, (Transonic Regime)

'AP= 0.05
P= 0.95
\ \\ ,\\ "'

Fig. 9.

Gas Density Contour, Two-Phase

(Transonic Regime)

33

L..

. ..ii ii iil'

-I
-M . 2W-

"r

VI

3.0

F-L

1).

cr

0.0305

Fig.

11.

Gas Density Contour, (Supersonic Regime)

Two-Phase

i'I
Fig. 12. Mach Number Contour, (The-Phase (Transonic Regime)

~=

0 .95

Fig.

13.

Gas Density Contour, (Transonic Regime)

One-Phase

35

Fig.

14.

Mach Number Contour, (Supersonic Regime)

One-Phase

I
I

A -0.005

Fig.

15.

Gas Density Contour, (Supersonic Regime)

One-Phase

36

36 :

-pop,

M,,

I-

00

I3w
WiVhE SV

AOV

37-.

/ Rt /J
= :

IJ
to
1 U-4

I
L i.. - .4

U,0,~

$w-

00 01 X IIN0

I~

Il

j;q

II

I
VSd 3bnSSbdoSV

38'.-

-IM

am

number,

temperature,

pressure,

and

density.

The

small

differences

can

be

explained in
,
.is~ ,juc

part by the different particle drag and heat transfer coefficients

~
-.,.

Co .?'o )U_3,s,
.erI

it: is
Da:CicS . pJhen~

Lmnoc;

,_.ac t
Te rtcLe,

he

zas

emperacur.:
0coo .i:: .

:ri-~

.ie

rese:'c.C

lower rai.,!, the core. ture starts zles.

heata

up the

gas.

As a Cesult,

the

'as LeIIDeCature

iS

1nCreased kA

The particles to approach .he r

are absent near the value

the nozzle wall, gas

and the gas

temperaparti-

for one-dimensional in the two-phase

flow without

f the '4ach number

flow is

largely due to

the higher ,as

temperature

as the sonic velocity is

greater.

With the SPP code validated for the case of a single-size particle, phase flow computation throat radius of for a distribution of particle of 6.7 into the MX urm. five third stage, the sizes was made. code is predicts then viz.,

twoFor a

4.32-in. particle divide 6-3-4,

SPP

a mean to

diameter

A log

normal of

distribution equal the weight,

assume 3.01, and in

the 9.36,

particles and 15.6

diameters 1U

4.89, density

1.;m. Figure

slhows gas

gas

temperature increase

profiles is

at the nozzle .exit plane. are

The

t.mperature The radial

the

core is

again seen when particles Fig.

present. shown in

temperature due

gradient

much steeper in

18 than that

Fig.

16. of

This is

to the multiis smaller as turn the

ple particle sizes. the particle

The drag-to-weight is increased. to reach The sizes

ratio

the particles the gas The

diameter

Consequently, the nozzle limiting define Thus,

cannot larger

larger particles therefore, Fig. 18 for remain

sufficiently in the

lip.

particles, shown in in

core.

streamline the largest

locations radial

the various

particle

location

the nozzle such particles

can extend.

more particles are

located closer

to the nozzle axis and cause more heating of the gas.

The

shape of the gas

temperature profile is the result of this separation of particle sizes.

These results

for the case of multiple particle

sizes

differ

from those

of single-size particles not only because of the particle because of the differences i ithe two computations. in the chamber

size effect but also gas properties in

condition and the

39

E-4

CII

IN!I~

c;

40

Figure nozzle related exit. co "n -c

19

shows

the Mach of

number M and the Mach

pressure in

variation core also is

across

the

The

lowering gas

number However,

the gas

undoubtedly loses tth,, e considrI

he hivier

te,'.DeraturEs. hy

the an s

e ...

:,,Cu,

in

, ,"ch

i2) vp',the gas momentum flux.

The mecnhanisms not well understood. however, radius.

in to a molten break up

for creating particles that As the

form. into

of various size is

si.zes are complex and plays a part. throat region,

causes

The combustion process undoubtedly the mean particie particles

The shear

It was upon they

the

-iscovered,

somewhat the

dependen;

the throat
are still

travel
force

through
in Some the

throat

region of

particles data does shear

smaller size by

sizes.

correlation

experimental

show the mean particle k correlation throat of for the

forces).

to increase with the throat radius (less 32 yields 9 Pm mear particle Radke, et al. the MX third stage engine. In nozzle order flow from

diameter

for the nozzle the sensitivity repeated

radius o2 the particle

to determine analysis was

sizes, in the

the

two-phase

increase

mean

particle

diameter

Comparison of the exiL 6. 7 Wn to 9 4m. shows that the uncertainty in the particle deviations grossly in in the gas flow properties,

Mach number size does the mean

profiles in Fig. 20 not introduce large particle diameter is :1

unless

error.

We causes This

have

shown

that

the in

presence the the gas gas

of

the

particulates at the

in nozzle

the exit

nozzle plane. in the

appreciable

changes

properties density (and

,:il

subsequantly

affect

electron in

density)

exhaust plume,

the e'Atent

of which will, be discussed

Section 3.3.2.

:1
32

'I

Radke,

H.H., L.J. Delaney, and P. omith, "Exhaust Particle Size Data from Small and Large Solid Rocket Motori," Report No TOR-l001(S2951-18)-3, The Aerospace Corporation, El Segundo, CA, July 1967.

41

i7

I
wV

4-4

42

-J

II

,
I
'I

1 I

.2
IJcJ

I
I
]

I I,
0 -

1 I I

-A..

Ii
0

C-,

Cz.1

I
0 0 0

II
A

38WflN

H3VW

I
I'

43

3.3

ROCKET EXHAUST PLUME FLOW FIELD

-i

L~~

~C r.~per

et,rmined at the no, Lo

3i

"1"rocket ,e 'o -
a vacuum and che gas density decrease from the nozzle and with increasing lower alcitudas, confines balance the huwever, into a polar angle

cani be .issumed with

;y,_J

i,

monotonically

increasing

distance At

from the plume centerline.

interaction between region the

the atmosphere of which is

and the plume ;is determined

plume

boundary

sv

of th-! dnamic

prassures

of the two mixing gases.

A study was made to determine the effects of various physical phenomena

on the plume gas density and electron density distributions a proper plume model in which the significant in order to define

physical phenomena are included.

The results are presented below.

3.3.1

Approximate Far-Field Plume Models

A number of

semi-empirical

plume models are available

to compute

the

plume flow field when atmospheric interaction can be neglected.

These approxi-

mate models have been successfully applied to the far field of the plume but
become inaccurate as the nozzle exit is approached and the near field expansion

of the nozzle flow is

felt. investigated model

to
17

Two such models were application,

tion so that

for the MX third stage the Boynton model.18

of the

vacuum plume The

rocket

viz.,
it is

the

Brook

and

former
engine

model, however, requires some adjustment of parameters to match an exact soludi.fficult apply from knowledge

characteristics alone.
In the Brook model, the plume density is computed from

-_r2

F(rm)exp

-2(l.-cose)m

(3)

with

p/p

V/V*

r - r/R

(4)

44

whe re

-' U

*'tS.; n ' t..

-i t iCJ ,t l:1 ,f'y 3t ,r'

"' %:
*,~. *j .L

'~
Y ..

''
,-

i%~

":'," =Voli

,el :it)y ac zh,,

,o;I hr-a

Re - nozzle exit radius

r , radial distance from :he nozzle " -polar an3le

rI

"M X depends on the rocket ie

parameter and Eq. (1) to be matched becomes

engine

and

nozzle

characteristics, Along the plume

and axis,

m isa

to an exact

solution.

From a method of char.acteristics soLution for uniform flow properties

at

the nozzle exit plane (i.e.,

neglected), the function F, is

with the particulate

effects

in the nozzle
(5) is

flow

which represents the mass flow per unit solid angle and the parameter m in Eq. adjusted

along the plume axis,

evaluated

to yield the best fit (see Fig. 21).

to the exact solution in r.

Note that m a 0.825 provides the best fit

and large errors are expected for small (3)

the far field,

With the parameter m fixed,

the plume density can be computed from isentropic relations.

from Eq.

and any other flow properties computed

The Boynton model gives the following expression for the plume density:

TcP*

V-

-2cos Y2 1 (6)

with
j

'

-- Tr 2

260

(7)

I
45 0--,

-46

'I

rw

I
-I

ti

I w

'A

whie re

"I t Ln -. mi 4

'1 loc it-ir,- I t

,, mn ").ximtn P~ln~ r.[-A-" r c,i rn in,g

o*

density at th, nozzle chroat

V* = sonic velocity at the no-z le throat

R'N =throat radius

The constant C is

close to 1, and for the present case C

0.816.

In

Fig.

22,

predictions

of

the constant

electron density contours ic olti !:Cit )nt :'. r Lh,, elctr,n

from

the two appro:cimatae models

Ire compnred to the , exit properties and

C'. th i r--

stage plume with uniform nozzle of 8.6 x 10 dense boundary The for contours the UHF

mole fraction

labeled ne a 2.156 x 109 correspond to the overcommand-destruct frequency of 416.5 MHz. It is

evident that the Brook model

yields better agreement with the exact solution.

These

studies in will

indicate

that is

for

liquid

rocket

engines where the of

the

amount vacuum

of particulate plume models

the exhaust provide

nil or and when

insignificant, estimates

approximate the plume

quick

simple

electron are pres-

density distributions. ent, as in

However,

large amounts engines, the

of particulates exit

#.ne cane of solid They cannot

rocket be

nozzle

flow properties models, and

are nonuniform.

accounted

for by the approximate

numerical solutions muse be found.

3.3.2

Effect of Particulates on Plume Electron Density

A study was made to evaluate the effect cles in the MX third stage plume

of the presence of solid parti-

on the gas density and electron density disas shown in Figs. 18 and 19

tributions.

The nozzle exit plane flow properties

47

00

00

-0

ii

/0
00-010

48

were used to continue

the plume

flow field calculation solves the inviscid

utilizing both the TD2P equations of motion

trn

"and the MOC code.

i"ha,,,

The latter code The resule3

4,n "i.;.

for

onlvy
Z 7 -a d

are

;',n,'red

int,

dens1 itv

':onE ),-;

Apparent ly,

the

presence

of

30

percent

A 203

particles

in The

the paras two 23.

plume has only a small effect on the

ti:ulates

electron density distribution.

gas properties of the rocket

cause

large

changes of

in

the

nozzle,

shown phases. ?

previously, This

because was

exchange in

of all

heat the

and

momentum

between in

the Fig.

effect

included

results

presented

When the rocket exhaust expands tne gas density is fer between the

into a much

lower pressure outside the nozzle, the heat and momentum transthe gas and particle motions

greatly reduced. phases

As a result, and

two

quickly ceases,

become essentially independent of each other. gas-only and the two-phase

The close agreement

between the of the

flow solutions demonstrated

this decoupling

mnotions of the two phases.

As the

two-phase

plume

calculation

is

more

complex

and

time-consuming and

than the gas-only calculation, economical accuracy and should

the latter approach appears more attractive electron density distribution For of

generate RF

sufficient reasons,

for

the

subsequent

interaction

calculation.

these

results shown in plume only.

the remainder of this report were generated

for the gas phase

However,

the presence of the particulates

affects the plume density and

electron density distributions the rocket nozzle ously. This is

through their interaction with the gas phase in as shown previwere made at the

to produce nonuniform nozzle exit properties Fig. both 24 where gas the constant plume calculations and the nonuniform

shown in using

310 kft altitude, in Figs.

flow properties

18 and 19 as inputs. At the 310 kft

The latter properties reflect altitude, the atmosphere is

the effects of the sufficiently in Fig. dense

particulates.

to confine the plume to within the plume boundary as shown generation of the barrel the presence of the shock interior to the boundary. in the nozzle increases

24 with the

Figure 24 shows that the plume size and

particulates

LI

D.

444

500

-w

/
'.0

/ /
/

o
LU 0

I
1

',

=
LU
.4-

N-I N 0 '12

I
I
I

0
Lj'

I-4

II

o od

-.1

>1
0 0

2
"
j

I
51
.>J.o',-

causes significant tions. I For solid nozzle

changes rocket

in

the gas density and electron therefore, Ide to 0 a two-phase for

density

distribuin the

engines, be P

flow calculation Lhe effects of

rockeC

should

10ount

3.3..3

Ect

of Excernal Atmosphere

Wh-2n

the

ignition

.1ititude of

the

rocket

engtne

is

sufficiently

low,

such as for the BOA-3 trajectory of the planned "CXtest

flight where the third

itae ignites at 259 kft, interaction irith the surrounding atmosphere causes the plume to be confined. The plume boundary will increase with altitude until

the atmospheric density is

expanding into a vacuum. shaded portion depicts RF signals in to the

so small that the plume can be considered to be

25 demonstrates re-.ion at reflected. etweon this atmospheric effect. The frethe UHF command-destruct In addition plume the to

Figure

the overdense are totally ds gas

quency where

the overdense and L1, The

-,SCthe3*e1i." barrel shock due

region density

the

boundary barrel

increase

across

shock.

maximum diameter of the shock-layer overdense region increases with altitude and then decreases until at some altitude the shock layer is no longer overdense and only the overdense core remains. estimated to be at about 310 kft.
should be considered. However,

For the MX third stage this is the atmospheric effect

Below this altitude,

this effect occurs only within a small portion Its impact on the overall range safety

of the entire ignition altitude region.

operation needs more careful evaluation.

3.3.4 Effect of Nozzle Wall Boundary Layer

As the rocket exhaust flows through the nozzle,

near the nozzle wall is generated. For the large employed for the various stages of the launch vehicle,

a thin boundary layer

levels generally the boundary layer is Because of

thrust

usually turbulent.

The Mach number in the boundary layer decreases from superr edge to subsonic near the nozzle wall.

sonic at the boundary la.

the lower Mach number and its proximity to the wall, the gas in the boundary
layer expands to much larger angles than the rest of the exhaust gas once it

52

__

__

--

I -

-.

-.

},INA

CNJ

177

.LA.LA

"

~a ~,

S53

.4'

exits

from

the

nozzle. the

The presence electron

of

the

boundary

laver, in those

however, regions .en.3i.'

is of in

not the
':hat

expected

to alter 2

density

signi&'cantly since the

Ktume where A a
1 !' t h r' h

interac'ion

13 appreciable,

alectr,'n l.u'23r r-

i imne wh t -'.h or i .2. r .,i.v

C, rom the :-OM.h '.Q,.

in

che iacacior oC the plume because oC

the la cr.

iangle expansion of rhe bondi-

.ar'" layel" -as.

'Ne'ertheiess, tile effect of the boundary layer was investigated

by computing the inviscid expansion of the boundary layer with the MOC code.

In Fig.
:jnt.

26,

results with and without It is evident

the figure,

the presence of the nozzle boundary is insi,;nififor density distributions

Lay.r are compared.

Lhac the boundary layer effect

the electron

Although not shown in

the two cases are nearly identical.

It

is concluded that for RF-plume inter-

action analysis the presence of the nozzle boundary layer can be neglected.
3.3.5 Effect of Nozzle Length
che study uf iMXthird stage plume effects on RF signal propaga-

In

the

tion, the effect of nozzle extension was considered.

tion before the second and third stage separation,

In the stowed configurathe third stage nozzle

measures 36.5 in. from the throat. The nozzle is extended to 75.0 in. when the third stogo is deployed. The plume flow field was computed for both
nozzle tion. lengths to determine the difference Fig. 27. in the elect-on density distribuThe results are presented in The exhaust plume from the un--

extended nozzle has a smaller UHF overdense core.

lower electron mole fraction in shown by the electron mole fraction variation

This is mainly due to the

the nozzle in Fig. 4.

the exhaust gas from the unextended nozzle as along

Some displacements of the plume boundary and the barrel shock are also noted. However, the change in the plume shape is small. These
nozzle will

results
cause

imply

that the
RF

exhaust
and

plume
should

from
be

the fully extended

chosen as the more

greater

inceraction

consarvative case.

54.

iA

................. ... .... . . . .. ... ...,. . .. ... ........ .... [].......... .......... . .. ..... . . ,,

,. ,.. . ..._ I , ,......., ...... . .!

00

00

L le

C-)4
II

0J
LT

55I

____________

LL X

00P-

CL

v~ I
00

LLI
C.0

00

r--0

561

4.

CONCLUSIONS

]
a rc~:s:as Ir3o'
fL[w field propertie, distributions, which plumne of from temperature factors exhaust influence a sol ii in the

F~~r th~
RF signal such as propagation, gas density, prediction. and the gas

of it i'

1et-rm inin:

tha 3fac:._3

n,-cessary to provide nlume density, of and

electron

theoretical

From studies

the various

the ionization rocket engine,

density distributions

following conclusions are obtained:

Electrons
the alkali level

in the rocket
contaminants as the

exhaust are generated

in the rocket flows ionic H + chamber. through species, CZ

by

ionization of
The ionization due to nozzle the

Ii

changes

exhaust among the e

the

additional attachment controlling

reactions reaction the

with

two-body in

HCZ

being upon the

predominant pre.ent

ionizvtion rate,

level. a

3a4;cd

knowin the

ledge of its reaction

factor of

seven uncertainty

plume electron density distribution can be expected.

The particulate matters in

the two-phase exhaust

affect the plume

electron density distribution mainly through their effects on the nozzle exchange flow field as they interact with the gas in phase in the flow

of heat

and momentum. in

Their presence of

the plume

field can be

neglected

the determination

electron

density

distribution due to the weak interaction between the particulates and the plume gas.

In the

the altitude interaction causes

range below of the MX

310

kft,

the

plume exhaust

shock with

formed the

by

third

stage

surregion

roundings

the appearance in

of an outer UHF overdense

which should be considered

the calculation

of RF signal degra-

dation. o The presence of

effect on the

the nozzle wall boundary layer has a negligible

plasma properties and the RF signal propaga-

plume

tion. 57

RPM"

The exhaust from the fully extended presents a more severe

nozzle

of to

Lhe MX third stage RF signal propaga-

plasma environment nozzle.

tion than that of the unextended

pI

Approximate

far

field may

plume models, be useful

such as for the

.he Brook model of the

and

the Boynton model, from liquid rocket

description account in the for

plumes internozzle rocket !

engines.

They cannot and

action between

the particulates enough

the gas

rocket

and are not accurate eng ine s.

to describe plumes

from solid

ii:

58

REFERENCES

'/ic tor, A.C , 'P uie Si znaL I tn er rtnce , Part r: c e. ,ort NWC-TP-53 1 , P rt N, " Ipns ;enter, -J)vol

:,.i r C- i nA Lak a

,in.ia1 i,?n
,

" ::'.r, A.C., r "Pl 'I e Si na 1ntef.er-ncC , ? r I L: ...... .. u d Noi. C (U)," Report NWC-TP-5319, Part 2, Naval Weapons Center, China Lake, CA, 1975 (Confidential). SJune 3. Poehler, H.A., "Results of Special Flame Measuraments of Titan I1t-C Testz 3656/6025 and 6020/5546," Report ETV-TRM-66-30, Pan American WorLd Airways, Guided :Iisi ie ',,ne DiviLsion, 19oO . Poeler, H.A., "Project See-Thru, Flame Attenuation interference Measurements, Titan III-C Test 8275/2250, Preliminary Report," Report No. ETR-TR68-6, Pan American World Airways, 1967. Poehler, H.A., "Project See-Thru, Flame Interference Neaiurements, Titan LUI-C Launch Test 8275/2250, Final Report," Report No. ETR-TIrR-b-3, P1an American World Airways, 1968. Report, Vols. 1, 11, 111," Report Airways, Aerospace Service Division,
Poeliler, H.A. , "Rocker Exhaust Signal

4.

3.

o.

No. ETR-TR-o9-4, 1969.

Attenuac ion

and

Pan

Degradat io,

American

World

Finea

7.

Ely, O.P., "Rocket Exhaust Effects on Radio Frequency Transmission," J. Spacecraft, 3, pp. 310-314, 1966. Vicente, F.A., on Measuring pp. 1069-1075,
Golden

8.

E.C. Taylor, and R.W. Phelps, "Analysis Electromagnetic Propagation Data," J. 1967.
E.L. Taylor,

of Flame Effects Spacecraft, 4,

by Rocket

9.

Exhaust," A16,

K.E.,

Communication

in

IEEE

and

Transaction

F.A.

Vicente,

in

Antenna

"Diffraction

and

Propagation,

pp.

614-616,

1968.

I
10. "Pos' Launch Analysis Telemetry Systems Preview--Operation 3162," Report No. PA200-T-79-31P, Systems Performance Analysis Department, Western Test Range Division, Federal Electric Corporation, 26 July 1979. "Post Launch Analysis of Report No. AS300-T-81-21F, Western Test Range Division, Telemetry Systems--Operation 5544, Final," Systems Performance Analysis Department, Federal Electric Corporation, I April 1981.

11.

12.

McKelvey, G.R., "Exhaust Plume Test Results--Report Number 2," Technical Note PA300-N-79-23, Systems Performance Analysis Department, Western Test Range Division, Federal Electric Corporation, 27 September 1979.

59

REFERENCES

(Continued)

S - ut ton,

3.A.

"3oost

M2,1-a.urmtments , i e

and

An1:,1'y Ls '' 3c .:o ' ...

"r

'rim
?.... ..

i';.oi

S a.jma

u~

,.:

2ard CoMzuniaation; Curporat-'Ia F0,d Aerospaca Muia;, , :, rd 'v Conceord 3c i nc.es Co rno r.-i on , Conco rd S, ,pa 14.

.
X r
..

"'i,
.

August G. and D. Tremain, "Boost Measurements and Analysis Program Final Ford And Daa Ei Iat Iti, 9: R.ocket Plume MI-asurein ent Vol. Report, and Communications Corporation Report ' o. U-b5ll, pr.pa.r-d by Aerospace
Concord Sciences Corporation, Concord,

MS,

15

March 1979.
Dynamics Conference2, PaLo

,,.

',oaR,

.,

"Three-Dinen.iona

"wo-Pn o

Paper No.

81-1219,

AIAA

14th

Fluid

and

Plasma

Alto, CA,
16. Hill,

23 June 1981.
and J.S. Draper, "Analytical Approximation for the Flow from L532-1&5, 1, )p. 3, into a Vacuum," J. So.c'ecraft,

A.F.J.

a Nozzle

17.

Brook
Vacuum,'

J.W.,
J.

"Far

Field
6,

Approximation
pp.
Plumes

for
1I)

Nozzle

Exhausting

into

Spacecrift,
"Exhaust

626-29,
Crorn

.3.

~Boynton,
J.

F.P.,

Noziles

with

Wall

Boundary

Lyers,

Spacecraft,

5,

pp.

1143-1147,

1968.

19.

"Rocket Exhaust Plume Computer Program Smith S.D. and A.W. Tatliff, Final Report," Report No. LMSC/HREC Dl62220-.IV-A, Improvement, Volume IV: Lockheed Missiles and Space Company, Huntsville, AL, June 1971. "Supersonic Flow of Chemically Reacting Caset al., M.M., Penny, Particle Mixtures, Volume I: A Theoretical Analysis and Development of LMSC/HREC TR D496555-I, Lockheed the Numerical Solution," Report No. Missiles and Space Company, Huntsville, AL, January 1976. "Supersonic Flow of Chemically Reacting Gaset al., Penny, M.M., II: RAMP--A Computer Code for Analysis of Particle Mixtures, Volume TR L.MSC/HREC No. Report Flows," Gas-Particle Reacting Chemically AL, Huntsville, Space Company, and Lockheed Missiles D496555-II, January 1976.
Kliegel, Report No. J.R. and G.R. Nickerson, "Axisymmetric Two-Phase Perfect Gas

20.

21.

22.

Performance
23.

Program,

Volume

I:

Engineering
3 April 1967.

and

Program

Description,"

02784-6006-ROOO,

TRW,

"User's Manual for the Two-Dimensional Two-Phase Plume Analysis Computer

Program," Report No.

SN-141,

Dynamic Sciences,

Inc.,

December 1968.

60 ---- ------ -,,--------'--,--,'--.-.--.----.---

REFERENCES (Concluded)

'. ..

P umie,

Repor ..

tN

Z-i ,

"RE3 o

',* .. i ,

d ti

f o

.. .v

S. '

_-, l

25. 2,.

Heald, MK.A. and C.B. Wharton, Plasma Diagnostics witn Microwaves, John Witley & Sons, Inc., New York, NY, p. 6, 5 . Mai.Lud , P. , "Rayvbenid-.. fPo)gt Po, Rayoeri,--A 4 uc.igI Pr;am . mi,;yowavea Io i Pro',)atIrIg through R cc t Plumes," )ap r prt - r o ,nted at the JA>I'IAF 12th Plume Technulogy M.eing, October I90. Born & Wolf, Principles of Optics, Pergainon PI'ess, London, p. 110, 1959.

2 7.

28.

Vicente,
in pp.

F.A.,

E.C.

Taylor,

and R.W.

Phelps,

"Analysis of Flame Effects

Data, J. Spacecraft, 4,

Measured 1069-1C75, S.Y.,

'lectromagnetic 1967. "Analytical Model

Propagation

29.

Peng,

for

Predicting

R-F

Amplitude

and

Phase

fffect: 30. Boynton,

of Large

of Plume," JA,\t,,'AF 10th ?Ium~i Technai,;y Meetine, F.W., A.R. Davies,

Rocket

1977. Thompson, 1977. 'Eef,!cts

10th

P.S.

Rajasckha-,
Plumes on

and J.A.
R.F.

Absorbing

Exhaust

Plume Technology Meeting, 31.

Signals,"

CPI Publications 291,

JANNAF

pp.

143-173,

Jensen, D.E. and G.A. Jones, "Gas-Phase Reaction Rate Rocketry Applications," Rocket Propulsion Establishment Ministry of Defense, London W.C. 2, October 1971.. Radke, H.H., L.J. Delaney, and P. Smith,
Motors," Small and Large Solid Rocket

Coefficients for Report No. 71/9,

32.

"Exhaust Particle Size Data from

Report No. TOR-1OO1 (S2951-18)-3,

The Aerospace Corporation, El Segundo,

CA, July 1967.

6I

I I
*1

APPENDIX CH4MkCAL REACTIONS IN ROCKETRY APPLICATION

Unce.,ria
Upper Bound*

LC: 'inCv

No.

Reactions

A 7.5 x 10 2 3 6, .L7

(kcal/ mole)

Lower Bound*'."

1. 2.

M + H + OH H M +1 i +

H,2 0 + M H' + M

2.6 1.) 0.

10 30

t. 10

3.
4.
5. 6. 7.

M + CO + 3 " C02 + M
M4 + H + C9
1 M + AICI + CZ HCZ + M

1.38 x 1034
3.0 x 1016

5.24
0.5

5.6
0.
o. Q. 5.15

3
00

30
o00

Ii
AICZ., + 4 M 3.0 x 1016 3.0 x 1016 2.09 x 1013 0.5 0.5 0. [O0 100 3 1')) 100)

M + AIC%2 + CZ9" AICtZ 3 Hi + OH m H + H2 0,

8. 9. 10.
ii.

CO + OH0 HCZ + OH

CO + 14 2 1H20 + CZ

5.6 xJ01I 1.011 1.05 x 1011

3.0 x 1014

0. -0.5 -0.5
0.

1.08 6.0 2.566

3.0

5 30

5 30

A"9C + H - A.CZ + HC9 2

CZ 2 + H HCZ + Ck

12.
13. 14.

CO + 0
AL + HCZ ALO + HC2.

CO 2
-

1.78 x 1010
+ H 5.0 x lOll l01

0.
-0.5 -0.5

2.53
5.673 5.673

A2..C
-

A0OCZ, + H

15.
16. 17. 1.8.

ARCi + OH a A20C9, + H
A9OH + OH - H + HA10 2 K + HC9, Na 4 IC KCk + H " NaC2 4 H

I011
loll 3.612 x 10I4 3.01 x O14

-0.5
-0.5 0. 0.

5.619
5.627 5.0 8.0 10 10 30 30

19.

M + K + e = K + M

7.25 x 1025
increased decreased

1.5

0.

Factor by which the rate is Factor by which the rate is **

63

SqI

E (kcal! mole)

Uncertainty Factor Upper Bond'n Lower

2..

Reac t ions

2).
21.

Na4 + M + CZ +
. C:-

Na

M 1.09 x

v)
10

1 18

2.) 0.
0.3 0.5 1). 0'L5

). 0. 0. 0. 19.67

5 5.x 30 30
.00 10 C

tCY-+ M
K * CZ

1 .3L "+C x [016

101
10 30

23. 2 4.

Na+ + CZHCO o.02

= Na K?

+ CZ
C+

1.31 x 10l6 x

100 1'),)

The present causing in

symbol the

M in

the The

three-body species

reactions

denotes

any chemical

species of

system.

have

different

catalytic The

efficiencies listed

the reaction

to proceed

during

collisions. !, The

factors

below before

for Reactions their

I and 2 ara are

used to 'nutp summed in the

individual rate

concentration

concentrations

reaction

calculation.

For

all

other reactions,

a catalytic efficiency of 1 is

used.

Catalytic Efficiencies

for Three-Body Reactions

Species Reactions H2 tQ H 0 OH CO

1 2

20 20

5 4

12.5 25.0

12.5 25.0

12.5 25.0

8 4

8 4

64
64