DC MOTOR D c machines are characterized by their versatility.

By means of various combinations of shunt-, series-, and separately-excited field windings they can be designed to display a wide variety of volt-ampere or speed-torque characteristics for both dynamic and steady-state operation. Because of the ease with which they can be controlled, systems of dc machines have been frequently used in applications requiring a wide range of motor speeds or precise control of motor output. In recent years, solid-state ac drive system technology has developed sufficiently that these systems are replacing dc machines in applications previously associated almost exclusively with dc machines. However, the versatility of dc machines in combination with the relative simplicity of their drive systems will insure their continued use in a wide variety of applications. Before the widespread application of power-electronic drives to control ac machines, dc motors were by far the machines of choice in applications requiring flexibility of control. Although in recent years ac drives have become quite common, the ease of control of dc machines insure their continued use in many applications.

Typical steady-state dc-motor speed-torque characteristics are shown in Fig. 7.6, in which it is assumed that the motor terminals are supplied from a constant-voltage source. In a motor the relation between the emf Ea generated in the armature and the armature terminal voltage Va is

Va = Ea + IaR. Where, Ia is now the armature-current input to the machine. The generated emf Ea is now smaller than the terminal voltage Va, the armature current is in the opposite direction to that in a generator, and the electromagnetic torque is in the direction to sustain rotation of the armature. In shunt- and separately-excited motors, the field flux is nearly constant. Consequently, increased torque must be accompanied by a very nearly proportional increase in armature current and hence by a small decrease in counter emf Ea to allow this increased current through the small armature resistance. Since counter emf is determined by flux and speed (Eq. 7.4), the speed must drop slightly. Like the squirrel-cage induction motor, the shunt motor is substantially a constant-speed motor having about 6 percent drop in speed from no load to full load. A typical speed-torque characteristic is shown by the solid curve in Fig. 7.6. Starting torque and maximum torque are limited by the armature current that can be successfully commutated. An outstanding advantage of the shunt motor is ease of speed control. With a rheostat in the shunt-field circuit, the field current and flux per pole can be varied at will, and variation of flux causes the inverse variation of speed to maintain counter emf approximately equal to the impressed terminal voltage. A maximum speed range of about 4 or 6 to 1 can be obtained by this method, the limitation again being commutating conditions. By variation of the impressed armature voltage, very wide speed ranges can be obtained. In the series motor, increase in load is accompanied by increases in the armature current and mmf and the stator field flux (provided the iron is not completely saturated). Because flux increases with load, speed must drop in order to maintain the balance between impressed voltage and counter emf; moreover, the increase in armature current caused by increased torque is smaller than in the shunt motor because of the increased flux. The series motor is therefore a varying-speed motor with a markedly drooping speed-torque characteristic of the type shown in Fig. 7.6. For applications requiting heavy torque overloads, this characteristic is particularly advantageous because the corresponding power overloads are held to more reasonable values by the associated speed drops. Very favorable starting characteristics also result from the increase in flux with increased armature current. In the compound motor, the series field may be connected either cumulatively, so that its mmf adds to that of the shunt field, or differentially, so that it opposes. The differential connection is rarely used. As shown by the broken-dash curve in Fig. 7.6,

a cumulatively-compounded motor has speed-load characteristics intermediate between those of a shunt and a series motor, with the drop of speed with load depending on the relative number of ampere-tums in the shunt and series fields. It does not have the disadvantage of very high light-load speed associated with a series motor, but it retains to a considerable degree the advantages of series excitation. The application advantages of dc machines lie in the variety of performance characteristics offered by the possibilities of shunt, series, and compound excitation. Some of these characteristics have been touched upon briefly in this section. Still greater possibilities exist if additional sets of brushes are added so that other voltages can be obtained from the commutator. Thus the versatility of dc-machine systems and their adaptability to control, both manual and automatic, are their outstanding features.

Speed Control The three most common speed-control methods for dc motors are adjustment of the flux, usually by means of field-current control, adjustment of the resistance associated with the armature circuit, and adjustment of the armature terminal voltage. Field-Current Control In part because it involves control at a relatively low power level (the power into the field winding is typically a small fraction of the power into the armature of a dc machine), field-current control is frequently used to control the speed of a dc motor with separately excited or shunt field windings. The equivalent circuit for a separately excited dc machine is shown in Fig.1. The method is, of course, also applicable to compound motors. The shunt field current can be adjusted by means of a variable resistance in series with the shunt field. Alternatively, the field current can be supplied by power-electronic circuits which can be used to rapidly change the field current in response to a wide variety of control signals. Figure 11.2a shows in schematic form a switching scheme for pulse-width modulation of the field voltage. This system closely resembles the pulse-width modulation system discussed in Section 10.3.2. It consists of a rectifier which rectifies the ac input voltage, a dc-link capacitor which filters the rectified voltage, producing a dc voltage Vdc, and a pulse-width modulator. In this system, because only a unidirectional field current is required, the pulsewidth modulator consists of a single switch and a free-wheeling diode rather than the more complex four-switch arrangement of Fig. 10.45. Assuming both the switch and diode to be ideal, the average voltage across the field winding will be equal to Vf = DVdc

where D is the duty cycle of the switching waveform; i.e., D is the fraction of time that the switch S is on. Figure 11.2b shows the resultant field current. Because in the steady-state the average voltage across the inductor must equal zero, the average field current If will thus be equal to

Thus, the field current can be controlled simply by controlling the duty cycle of the pulse-width modulator. If the field-winding time constant Lf /Rf is long compared to the switching time, the ripple current if will be small compared to the average current If.

Armature-Circuit Resistance Control Armature-circuit resistance control provides a means of obtaining reduced speed by the insertion of external series resistance in the armature circuit. It can be used with series, shunt, and compound motors; for the last two types, the series resistor must be connected between the shunt field and the armature, not between the line and the motor. It is a common method of speed control for series motors and is generally analogous in action to wound-rotor-induction-motor control by the addition of external series rotor resistance. Depending upon the value of the series armature resistance, the speed may vary significantly with load, since the speed depends on the voltage drop in this resistance and hence on the armature current demanded by the load. For example, a 1200-r/min shunt motor whose speed under load is reduced to 750 r/min by series armature resistance will return to almost 1200-r/min operation if the load is removed because the no-load current produces a voltage drop across the series resistance which is insignificant. The disadvantage of poor speed regulation may not be important in a series motor, which is used only where varying-speed service is required or can be tolerated. A significant disadvantage of this method of speed control is that the power loss in the external resistor is large, especially when the speed is greatly reduced. In fact, for a constant-torque load, the power input to the motor plus resistor remains constant, while the power output to the load decreases in proportion to the speed. Operating costs are therefore comparatively high for lengthy operation at reduced speeds. Because

of its low initial cost however, the series-resistance method (or the variation of it discussed in the next paragraph) will often be attractive economically for applications which require only short-time or intermittent speed reduction. Unlike field-current control, armature-resistance control results in a constant-torque drive because both the field-flux and, to a first approximation, the allowable armature current remain constant as speed changes. A variation of this control scheme is given by the shunted-armature method, which may be applied to a series motor, as in Fig. 11.3a, or a shunt motor, as in Fig. 11.3b. In effect, resistors R1 and R2 act as a voltage divider applying a reduced voltage to the armature. Greater flexibility is possible because two resistors can now be adjusted to provide the desired performance. For series motors, the no-load speed can be adjusted to a finite, reasonable value, and the scheme is therefore applicable to the production of slow speeds at light loads. For shunt motors, the speed regulation in the low-speed range is appreciably improved because the no-load speed is definitely lower than the value with no controlling resistors.

Armature-Terminal Voltage Control Armature-terminal voltage control can be readily accomplished with the use of power-electronic systems. Figure 11.4 shows in somewhat schematic form three possible configurations. In Fig. 11.4a, a phase-controlled rectifier in combination with a dc link filter capacitor can be used to produce a variable dc-link voltage which can be applied directly to the armature terminals of the dc motor. In Fig. 11.4b, a constant dc-link voltage is produced by a diode rectifier in combination with a dc-link filter capacitor. The armature terminal voltage is then

varied by a pulse-width modulation scheme in which switch S is alternately opened and closed. When switch S is closed, the armature voltage is equal to the dc-link voltage Vdc, and when the switch is opened, current transfers to the freewheeling diode, essentially setting the armature voltage to zero. Thus the average armature voltage under this condition is equal to Va = D Vdc

where

Va = average armature voltage (V) Vdc = dc-link voltage (V) D = PWM duty cycle (fraction of time that switch S is closed) Figure 11.4c shows an H-bridge configuration as is discussed in the context of inverters in Section 10.3.3. Note that if switch $3 is held closed while switch $4 remains open, this configuration reduces to that of Fig. 11.4b. However, the H-bridge configuration is more flexible because it can produce both positive- and negative polarity armature voltage. For example, with switches S 1 and $3 closed, the armature voltage is equal to V~c while with switches $2 and $4 closed, the armature voltage is equal to -Vdc. Clearly, using such an H-bridge configuration in combination with an appropriate choice of control signals to the switches allows this PWM system to achieve any desired armature voltage in the range -V~c < Va < V~c.

Armature-voltage control takes advantage of the fact that, because the voltage drop across the armature resistance is relatively small, a change in the armature terminal voltage of a shunt motor is accompanied in the steady state by a substantially equal change in the speed voltage. With constant shunt field current and hence field flux, this change in speed voltage must be accompanied by a proportional change in motor speed. Thus, motor speed can be controlled directly by means of the armature terminal voltage. Frequently the control of motor voltage is combined with field-current control in order to achieve the widest possible speed range. With such dual control, base speed can be defined as the normal-armature-voltage, full-field speed of the motor. Speeds above base speed are obtained by reducing the field current; speeds below base speed are obtained by armature-voltage control. As discussed in connection with field-current control, the range above base speed is that of a constant-power drive. The range below base speed is that of a constant-torque drive because, as in armatureresistance control, the flux and the allowable armature current remain approximately constant. The overall output limitations are therefore as shown in Fig. 11.6a for approximate allowable torque and in Fig. 11.6b for approximate allowable power. The constant-torque characteristic is well suited to many applications in the machine tool industry, where many loads consist largely of overcoming the friction of moving parts and hence have essentially constant torque requirements. The speed regulation and the limitations on the speed range above base speed are those already presented with reference to field-current control; the maximum speed thus does not ordinarily exceed four times base speed and preferably not twice base about one-tenth of base speed, corresponding to a total maximum-to-minimum range

not exceeding 40:1. With armature reaction ignored, the decrease in speed from no-load to full-load torque is caused entirely by the full-load armature-resistance voltage drop in the dc generator and motor. This full-load armature-resistance voltage drop is constant over the voltage-control range, since full-load torque and hence full-load current are usually regarded as constant in that range. When measured in r/min, therefore, the speed decrease from no-load to full-load torque is a constant, independent of the no-load speed, as we saw in Example 11.3. The torque-speed curves accordingly are closely approximated by a series of parallel straight lines for the various motor-field adjustments. Note that a speed decrease of, say, 40 r/min from a no-load speed of 1200 r/min is often of little importance; a decrease of 40 r/min from a no-load speed of 120 r/min, however, may at times be of critical importance and require corrective steps in the layout of the system.

Figure 11.7 shows a block diagram of a feedback-control system that can be used to regulate the speed of a separately excited or shunt-connected dc motor. The inputs to the dc-motor block include the armature voltage and the field current as well as the load torque Tload. The resultant motor speed Wm is fed back to a controller block which represents both the control logic and power electronics and which controls the armature voltage and field current applied to the dc motor, based upon a reference speed signal Wref. Depending upon the design of the controller, with such a scheme it is possible to control the steady-state motor speed to a high degree of accuracy independent of the variations in the load torque. In the case of permanent-magnet dc motors, the field flux is, of course, fixed by the permanent magnet (with the possible exception of any effects of temperature changes on the magnet properties as the motor heats up). The voltage generated voltage can be written in the form, Ea = Kmwm and that the electromagnetic torque can be written as Tmech = Km Ia Hence it can be observed that the analysis of a permanent-magnet dc motor is identical to that of a shunt or separately excited dc motor with the exception that the torque-constant Km must be substituted for the term Kf If .

Pulse Width Modulation (PWM):

Pulse-width modulation (PWM), or pulse-duration modulation (PDM), is a commonly used technique for controlling power to inertial electrical devices, made practical by modern electronic power switches. The average value of voltage (and current) fed to the load is controlled by turning the switch between supply and load on and off at a fast pace. The longer the switch is on compared to the off periods, the higher the power supplied to the load is. The PWM switching frequency has to be much faster than what would affect the load, which is to say the device that uses the power. Typically switchings have to be done several times a minute in an electric stove, 120 Hz in a lamp dimmer, from few kilohertz (kHz) to tens of kHz for a motor drive and well into the tens or hundreds of kHz in audio amplifiers and computer power supplies.

The term duty cycle describes the proportion of 'on' time to the regular interval or 'period' of time; a low duty cycle corresponds to low power, because the power is off for most of the time. Duty cycle is expressed in percent, 100% being fully on. The main advantage of PWM is that power loss in the switching devices is very low. When a switch is off there is practically no current, and when it is on, there is almost no voltage drop across the switch. Power loss, being the product of voltage and current, is thus in both cases close to zero. PWM also works well with digital controls, which, because of their on/off nature, can easily set the needed duty cycle. PWM has also been used in certain communication systems where its duty cycle has been used to convey information over a communications channel.

Principle: Pulse-width modulation uses a rectangular pulse wave whose pulse width is modulated resulting in the variation of the average value of the waveform. If we consider a pulse waveform with a low value , a high value and a duty cycle D (see figure 1), the average value of the waveform is given by:

As for

is a pulse wave, its value is for . The above expression then becomes:

and

This latter expression can be fairly simplified in many cases where as . From this, it is obvious that the average value of the signal ( ) is directly dependent on the duty cycle D. The simplest way to generate a PWM signal is the intersective method, which requires only a saw tooth or a triangle waveform (easily generated using a simple oscillator) and a comparator. When the value of the reference signal (the red sine wave in figure 2) is more than the modulation waveform (blue), the PWM signal (magenta) is in the high state, otherwise it is in the low state.

There are many forms of modulation used for communicating information. When a high frequency signal has amplitude varied in response to a lower frequency signal we have AM (amplitude modulation). When the signal frequency is varied in response to the modulating signal we have FM (frequency modulation). These signals are used for radio modulation because the high frequency carrier signal is needs for efficient radiation of the signal. When communication by pulses was introduced, the amplitude, frequency and pulse width become possible modulation options. In many power electronic converters where the output voltage can be one of two values the only option is modulation of average conduction time.
1 . Linear Modulation

The simplest modulation to interpret is where the average ON time of the pulses varies proportionally with the modulating signal. The advantage of linear processing for this application lies in the ease of de-modulation. The

modulating signal can be recovered from the PWM by low pass filtering. For a single low frequency sine wave as modulating signal modulating the width of a fixed frequency (fs) pulse train the spectra is as shown in Fig 1.2. Clearly a low pass filter can extract the modulating component fm.

2. Sawtooth PWM The simplest analog form of generating fixed frequency PWM is by comparison with a linear slope waveform such as a saw tooth. As seen in Fig 1.2 the output signal goes high when the sine wave is higher than the saw tooth. This is implemented using a comparitor whose output voltage goes to logic HIGH when ne input is greater than the other. Other signals with straight edges can be used for modulation a rising ramp carrier will generate PWM with Trailing Edge Modulation.

Fig.1.4 Trailing Edge It is easier to have an integrator with a reset to generate the ramp in Fig1.4 but the modulation is inferior to double edge modulation.

3. Regular Sampled PWM The scheme illustrated above generates a switching edge at the instant of crossing of the sine wave and the triangle. This is an easy scheme to implement using analog electronics but suffers the imprecision and drift of all analog computation as well as having difficulties of generating multiple edges when the signal has even a small added noise. Many modulators are now implemented digitally but there is difficulty is computing the precise intercept of the modulating wave and the carrier. Regular sampled PWM makes the width of the pulse proportional to the value of the modulating signal at the beginning of the carrier period. In Fig 1.5 the intercept of the sample values with the triangle determine the edges of the Pulses. For a saw tooth wave of frequency fs the samples are at 2fs.

There are many ways to generate a Pulse Width Modulated signal other than fixed frequency sine sawtooth. For three phase systems the modulation of a Voltage Source Inverter can generate a PWM signal for each phase leg by comparison of the desired output voltage waveform for each phase with the same sawtooth. One alternative which is easier to implement in a computer and gives a larger modulation depth is using space vector modulation.

4. Modulation Depth

Fig.1.6 Saturated Pulse Width Modulation For a single phase inverter modulated by a sine saw tooth Comparison , if we compare a sine wave of magnitude from -2 to +2 with a triangle From -1 to +1 the linear relation between the input signal and the average output signal will be lost. Once the sine wave reaches the peak of the triangle the pulses will be of maximum width and the modulation will then saturate. The Modulation depth is the ratio of the current signal to the case when saturation is just starting. Thus sine wave of peak 1.2 compared with a triangle with peak 2.0 will have a modulation depth of m=0.6.

TIMER A timer is a specialized type of clock. A timer can be used to control the sequence of an event or process. Whereas a stopwatch counts upwards from zero for measuring elapsed time, a timer counts down from a specified time interval, like an hourglass. Timers can be mechanical, electro mechanical ,electronic (quartz), or even software as all modern computers include digital timers of one kind or another. When the set period expires some timers simply indicate so (e.g., by an audible signal), while others operate electrical switches, such as a time switch, which cuts electrical power. Electronic timers Electronic timers are essentially quartz clocks with special electronics, and can achieve higher precision than mechanical timers. Electronic timers have digital electronics, but may have an analog or digital display. Integrated circuits have made digital logic so inexpensive that an electronic timer is now less expensive than many mechanical and electromechanical timers. Individual timers are implemented as a simple singlechip computer system, similar to a watch and usually using the same, mass-produced, technology. Many timers are now implemented in software. Modern controllers use a programmable logic controller rather than a box full of electromechanical parts. The logic is usually designed as if it were relays, using a special computer language called ladder logic. In PLCs, timers are usually simulated by the software built into the controller. Each timer is just an entry in a table maintained by the software. Digital timers are used in safety devices such as a gas timer

Computer timers Computer systems usually have at least one timer. These are typically digital counters that either increment or decrement at a fixed frequency, which is often configurable, and which interrupt the processor when reaching zero, or alternatively a counter with a sufficiently large word size that it will not reach its counter limit before the end of life of the system. More sophisticated timers may have comparison logic to compare the timer value against a specific value, set by software , that triggers some action when the timer value matches the preset value. This might be used, for example, to measure events or generate pulse width modulated waveforms to control the speed of motors (using a class D digital electronic amplifier). As the number of hardware timers in a computer system or processor is finite and limited, operating systems and embedded systems often use a single hardware timer to implement an extensible set of software timers. In this scenario, the hardware timer's interrupt service routine would handle house-keeping and management of as many

software timers as are required, and the hardware timer would be set to expire when the next software timer is due to expire. At expiry, the interrupt routine would update the hardware timer to expire when the next software timer is due, and any actions would be triggered for the software timers that had just expired. Expired timers that are continuous would also be reset to a new expiry time based on their timer interval, and one-shot timers would be disabled or removed from the set of timers. While simple in concept, care must be taken with software timer implementation if issues such as timer drift and delayed interrupts is to be minimized.

555 TIMER IC
The 555 timer IC is an integrated circuit (chip) used in a variety of timer, pulse generation, and oscillator applications. The 555 can be used to provide time delays, as an oscillator, and as a flip-flop element. Derivatives provide up to four timing circuits in one package. Introduced in 1971 by Signetics , the 555 is still in widespread use, thanks to its ease of use, low price, and good stability. It is now made by many companies in the original bipolar and also in low-power CMOS types. As of 2003, it was estimated that 1 billion units are manufactured every year Design The IC was designed in 1971 by Hans R. Camenzind under contract to Signetics, which was later acquired by Philips. Depending on the manufacturer, the standard 555 package includes 25 transistors, 2 diodes and 15 resistors on a silicon chip installed in an 8-pin mini dual-in-line package (DIP-8).[2] Variants available include the 556 (a 14-pin DIP combining two 555s on one chip), and the two 558 & 559s (both a 16-pin DIP combining four slightly modified 555s with DIS & THR connected internally, and TR is falling edge sensitive instead of level sensitive). There is no 557. The NE555 parts were commercial temperature range, 0 C to +70 C, and the SE555 part number designated the military temperature range, 55 C to +125 C. These were available in both high-reliability metal can (T package) and inexpensive epoxy plastic (V package) packages. Thus the full part numbers were NE555V, NE555T, SE555V, and SE555T. It has been hypothesized that the 555 got its name from the three 5 k resistors used within,[3] but Hans Camenzind has stated that the number was arbitrary.[1] Low-power versions of the 555 are also available, such as the 7555 and CMOS TLC555.[4] The 7555 is designed to cause less supply noise than the classic 555 and the manufacturer claims that it usually does not require a "control" capacitor and in many cases does not require a decoupling capacitor on the power supply. Such a practice should nevertheless be avoided, because noise produced by the timer or variation in

power supply voltage might interfere with other parts of a circuit or influence its threshold voltages. Usage The 555 monolithic timing circuit is a highly stable controller capable of producing accurate time delays, or oscillation. In the time delay mode of operation, the time is precisely controlled by one external resistor and capacitor. For a stable operation as an oscillator, the free running frequency and the duty cycle are both accurately controlled with two external resistors and one capacitor. The circuit may be triggered and reset on falling waveforms, and the output structure can source or sink up to 200 mA.

Pin 1: Ground. All voltages are measured with respect to this terminal. Pin 2: Trigger. The output of the timer depends on the amplitude of the external trigger pulse applied to this pin. The output is low if the voltage at this pin is greater than 2/3 VCC. When a negative going pulse of amplitude greater than 1/3 VCC is applied to this pin, comparator 2 output goes low, which in turn switches the output of the timer high. The output remains high as long as the trigger terminal is held at a low voltage. Pin 3: Output. There are two ways by which a load can be connected to the output terminal: either between pin 3 and ground or between pin3 and supply voltage +VCC. When the output is low the load current flows through the load connected between pin3 and +VCC into the output terminal and is called sink current. The current through the grounded load is zero when the output is low. For this reason the load connected between pin 3 and +VCC is called the normally on load and that connected between pin 3 and ground is called normally off-load. On the other hand, when the output is high the current through the load connected between pin 3 and +VCC is zero. The output terminal

supplies current to the normally off load. This current is called source current. The maximum value of sink or source current is 200mA. Pin 4: Reset. The 555 timer can be reset (disabled) by applying a negative pulse to this pin. When the reset function is not in use, the reset terminal should be connected to +VCC to avoid any possibility of false triggering. Pin 5: Control. An external voltage applied to this terminal changes the threshold as well as trigger voltage. Thus by imposing a voltage on this pin or by connecting a pot between this pin and ground, the pulse width of the output waveform can be varied. When not used, the control pin should be bypassed to ground with a 0.01F Capacitor to prevent any noise problems. Pin 6: Threshold. This is the non-inverting input of comparator 1, which monitors the voltage across the external capacitor. When the voltage at this pin is greater than or equal to the threshold voltage 2/3 VCC, the output of comparator 1 goes high, which inturn switches the output of the timer low. Pin 7: Discharge. This pin is connected internally to the collector of transistor Q1. When the output is high Q1 is OFF and acts as an open circuit to external capacitor C connected across it. On the other hand, when the output is low, Q1 is saturated and acts as a short circuit, shorting out the external capacitor C to ground.

Pin 8: +VCC. The supply voltage of +5V to + 18V is applied to this pin with respect to ground.