Admixtures

Benefits of Admixtures:
The reason for the large growth in the use of admixture is that they are capable of imparting
considerable physical and economic benefits with respect to concrete. These benefits include the use of
concrete under circumstances where previously there existed considerable, or even insuperable, difficulties.
They also make possible the use of a wider range of ingredients in the mix.
It should be stressed that, while properly used admixtures are beneficial to concrete, they are no
remedy for poor quality mix ingredients, for use of incorrect mix proportions, or for poor workmanship in
transporting placing and compaction.
Accelerators:
These are admixtures which accelerate the hardening or the development of early strength of concrete.
Accelerators may be used when concrete is to be placed at low temperatures, (2 to 4), in the
manufacture of precast concrete (where a rapid removal of formwork is desirable) or in urgent repair work,
other benefits of using an accelerator are that it allows earlier finish of the concrete surface and application of
insulation for protection, and also putting the structure into service earlier.
The most common accelerator used over many decades was calcium chloride. Other examples of set-
accelerating admixtures are; aluminium chloride, potassium carbonate, sodium fluoride, sodium aluminate
and ferric salts. None of these should be used without a full study of consequences.
The use of calcium chloride reduces the resistance of cement to sulphate attack, particularly in lean
mixes. And the risk of alkali-aggregate reaction is increased for a reactive aggregate. Other undesirable
effects are that the addition of calcium chloride increases shrinkage and creep, and there is a lowering of the
resistance of air-entrained concrete to freezing and thawing at later ages. However, there is a beneficial effect
in increasing the resistance of concrete to erosion and abrasion.
The possibility of corrosion of reinforcing steel by integral calcium chloride has been the subject of
controversy for some time. When used in the correct proportions, calcium chloride has been found to cause
corrosion in certain cases while in other instances no corrosion occurred.
The explanation of the controversy is probably associated with a non-uniform distribution of chloride
ion and with the migration of chloride ion in permeable concrete, accompanied by ingress of moisture and
oxygen, especially in warm conditions.
Acceleration without risk of corrosion can be achieved by the use of very rapid hardening cement or of
chloride-free admixture. Most of the latter are based on calcium formate, which being slightly acidic,
accelerate the hydration of cement.
Retarders:
These are admixtures which delay the setting of concrete, as measured by the penetration test.
Retarders are useful when concreting in hot weather, when the normal setting time is shortened by the
higher temperature, and is preventing the formation of cold joints between successive lifts. Generally with a
retarder a delay in hardening also occur-a property which is useful to obtain an architectural surface finish of
exposed aggregate.
Retardation action is exhibited by the addition of sugar, carbohydrate derivatives, soluble zinc salts,
soluble borates and others. In practice, retarders which are also water reducing are commonly used. When
used in a carefully controlled manner, about 0.05 per cent of sugar by mass of cement will delay the setting
time by about 4 hours. However, the exact effects of sugar depend on the chemical composition of cement,
and the performance of sugar, and indeed of any retarder, should be determined by trial mixes with the actual
cement to be used in construction. A large quantity of sugar, say 0.2 to 1 per cent of the mass of cement, will
virtually prevent the setting of cement, a feature which is useful in case of malfunction of concrete mixers.
Water Reducers (Plasticizers):
These admixtures are used for three purposes.
1) To achieve a higher strength by decreasing the water/cement ratio at the same workability as an
admixture-free mix.
2) To achieve the same workability by decreasing the cement content so as to reduce the heat of
hydration in mass concrete.
3) To increase the workability so as to ease placing in accessible locations.
The principle active components of water-reducing admixture are surface-active agents. The surface
active agents are absorbed on the cement particles, giving them a negative charge, which leads to repulsion
between the particles and result in stabilizing their dispersion; air bubbles are also repelled and cannot attach
to the cement particles. In addition the negative charge causes the development of a sheath of oriented water
molecules around each particle, thus separating the particles. Hence there is greater particle mobility, and
water, freed from restraining influence of the flocculated system, becomes available to lubricate the mix so
that workability is increased.
The reduction the quantity of mixing water which is possible owing to the use of admixtures varies
between 5 and 15 per cent. A part of this is in many cases, due to the entrained air introduced by the
admixture.
With some cements, the influence of water reducing admixtures is very small but, in general term,
admixtures are effective with all type of Portland cement and also with high alumina cement. The actual
effectiveness of any water reducing admixture depends on the cement content, water content, type of
aggregate used, presence of air entrained agents or pozzolanas, as well as on temperature. It is therefore,
apparent that trial mixes, containing the actual materials to be used on the job, are essential in order to
determine the type and quantity of admixture to achieve optimum properties.
Superplasticizers:
These are a more recent and effective type of water-reducing admixtures also known as high range water
reducers.
Superplasticizers are used to produce flowing concrete in aituation where placing in inaccessible
locations, in floor or pavement slabs or where very rapid placing is required. A second use of superplasticizers
is in the production of very high strength concrete, using normal workability but a very low water/cement
ratio.
At a given water/cement ratio and water content in the mix, the dispersing action of superplasticizers
increases the workability of concrete, typically by raising the slump from 3 in to 8 in, the mix remaining
cohesive. The resulting concrete can be placed with little or no compaction and is not subjected to excessive
bleeding or segregation. Such concrete is termed as flowing concrete.
When the aim is to achieve high strength at a given workability, the use of a superplasticizer can result
in a water reduction of 25 to 35 per cent. In consequence, the use of low water/cement ratio is possible so that
very high strength concrete is obtained. Strength as high as 100 MPa (15000 psi) at 28 days, when the
water/cement ratio is 0.28, have been achieved. With steam-curing or autoclaving, even higher strengths are
possible.
For increasing the workability of the mix, the normal dosage of superplasticizers is between 1 and 3
litres per cubic meter of concrete, the liquid superplasticizers containing about 40 per cent of active material.
When superplasticizers are used to reduce the water content of the mix, their dosage is much higher 5 to 20
litres per cubic meter of concrete. In calculation of water/cement ratio and of mix proportions in general. The
volume of liquid superplasticizers must be taken into account.
Superplasticizers do not influence shrinkage, creep, modulus of elasticity or resistance to freezing and
thawing. The use of superplasticizers with an air entrained admixture can sometime reduce the amount of
entrained air and modify the air-void system but specially modified superplasticizers are available which
appear to be compatible with convential air entrained agents. The only real disadvantage of superplasticizers
is their relatively high cost, which is due to the expense of manufacture a product with a high molecular mass.
Curing:
In order to obtain good concrete, the placing of an appropriate mix must be followed by curing in a
suitable environment during the early stage of hardening. Curing is the name given to procedure used for
promoting the hydration of cement, and consists of a control of temperature and of the moisture movement
from and into the concrete.
The object of curing is to keep concrete saturated, or as nearly saturated as possible, until the
originally water-filled spaces in the fresh cement paste has been filled to the desired extent by the products of
hydration of cement. In the case of site concrete, active curing stop nearly always long before the maximum
possible hydration has taken place.
For hydration of cement to continue, it is sufficient to prevent the loss of moisture from the concrete.
This is truly only if water/cement ratio of the concrete is sufficiently high for the quantity of the mix water to
be adequate for hydration to continue.
Methods of Curing:
There are two broad categories of curing
i) Wet Curing ii) Membrane Curing
He first method is that of providing water which can be imbibed ( ) by concrete. This required
that the surface of the concrete is continuously in contact with water for of a specified length of time, starting
as soon as the surface of the concrete is no longer liable to damage. Such conditions can be achieved by
continuous spraying or flooding (ponding), or by covering the concrete with wet sand or earth, sawdust or
straw. Some care is required as staining ( ) may result. On inclined or vertical surfaces, soaking hoses (
) can be used. A continuous supply of water is naturally more efficient than an intermittent one.
As far as quality of water used for curing is concerned, ideally it should be the same as mixing water.
Sea water may lead to corrosion of reinforcement. Also, iron or organic matter may cause staining,
particularly if water flows slowly over the concrete and evaporates rapidly.
The second method of curing relies on the prevention of loss of water from the surface of the concrete,
without the possibility of external water ingressing ( ) into it. This could be called a water-barrier
method. The techniques used include covering the surface of the concrete with overlapping polyethylene
sheeting, laid flat, or with reinforced paper. The sheeting can be black, which is preferable in cold weather, or
white, which has the advantage of reflection of solar radiation in hot weather. Paper with a white surface is
also available
Quality of Mixing Water in Concrete:
The quality of the water is important because impurities I it may interfere with the setting of cement,
may adversely affect the strength of concrete or cause staining of its surface, and may also lead to corrosion of
the reinforcement. For these reasons, the suitability of water for mixing and curing purpose should considered.
Clear distinction must be made between the quality of mixing water and the attack on hardened concrete by
aggressive waters. Indeed, some waters which adversely affect hardened concrete may be harmless or even
beneficial when used in mixing.
Mixing water should not contain undesirable organic substances or inorganic constituents in excessive
proportions. In many specifications, the quality of water is covered by a clause saying that water should be fit
for drinking.
Such water vary rarely contains dissolved solids in excess of 2000 ppm, and as a rule less than
1000ppm. For a water/cement ratio of 0.5 by mass, the latter content corresponds to a quantity of solids equal
to 0.05 per cent of the mass of cement, and thus any effect of the common solids (considered as aggregate)
would be small. If the silt content is higher than 2000 ppm, it possible to reduce it by allowing the water to
stand in a settling basin before use.
The criterion of portability of water is not absolute; drinking water may be unsuitable as mixing water
when the water has a high concentration of sodium or potassium and there is a danger of alkali-aggregate
reaction.
While the use of potable water is generally safe, water not fit for drinking may often also be
satisfactorily used in making concrete.
Occasionally, the use of sea water has typically a total salinity of about 3.5 per cent. Such water leads
to a slightly higher strength; the loss of strength is usually not more than 15 per cent and can therefore be
tolerated.
In the case of reinforced concrete, sea water increases the risk of corrosion of temperature. In practice,
it is generally considered inadvisable to use sea water for mixing.
Segregation:
Segregation can be defined as separation of the constituents of a heterogeneous mixture so that their
distribution is no longer uniform. In the case of concrete, it is the difference in the size of particles and the
specific gravity of the mix constituents that are the primary cause of segregation, but its extent can be
controlled by the choice of suitable grading and by care in handling.
There are two forms of segregation. In the first, the coarser particles tends to separate out because they
travel further along a slope or to settle more than finer particles. The second form of segregation, occurring
particularly in wet mixes, is manifested by the separation of grout (cement plus water) from the mix. With
some grading, when a lean mix is used, the first type of segregation may occur if the mix is too dry, addition
of water would improve the cohesion of the mix, but when the mix become too wet the second type of
segregation would take place.
The actual extent of segregation depends on the method of handling and placing of concrete. If the
concrete does not have far to travel and transferred directly from the skip or bucket to the final position in the
form, the danger of segregation is small. On the other hand, dropping concrete from a considerable height,
passing along a chute, particularly with changes of direction, and discharge against an obstacle-all these
encourage segregation so that under such circumstances a particularly cohesive mix should be used. With a
correct method of handling, transporting can placing, the likelihood of segregation can be greatly reduced.
It may be noted that entrained air reduces the danger of segregation. On the other hand, the use of
coarse aggregate whose specific gravity appreciably from that of the fine aggregate would lead to increased
segregation.
Bleeding:
Bleeding, known also as water gain, is a form of segregation in which some of the water in the mix
tends to rise to the surface of freshly placed concrete. This is caused by the inability of the solid constituents
of the mix to hold all of the mixing water when they settle downward, water having the lowing specific
gravity of all the mix constituents.
If the bleeding water is remixed during the finish of the top surface, a weak wearing surface will be
formed. This can be avoided by delaying the finishing operations until the bleeding water has evaporated, and
also by the use of wood floats and by avoidance of over-working the surface. On the other hand, if
evaporation of water from the surface of concrete is faster than bleeding rate, plastic shrinkage cracking may
result.
Durability of Concrete:
The durability of concrete is one of its most important property because it is essential that concrete
should be capable of withstand the conditions for which it has been designed through the life of the structure.
Lack of durability can be caused by external agents arising from the environment or by internal agents
within the concrete. Causes can be categorized as i) Physical ii) Mechanical and iii) Chemical.
Physical causes arise from the action of frost and from differences between the thermal properties of
aggregate and of the cement paste, while mechanical causes are associated mainly with abrasion.
Chemical causes are attack by sulphates, acids, sea water and also by chlorides, which induce
chemical corrosion of steel reinforcement.
Permeability:
Permeability is the ease with which liquids or gases can travel through concrete. This peoperty is of
interest in relation to the water tightness of liquid-retaining structures and to chemical attack.
If concrete is permeable it causes the penetration of water and other destructive agents and
disintegration of concrete then takes place. Permeability of concrete could be minimized through proper
selection of concrete mix parameters, as: low w/c ratio; adequate cement content; control of aggregate size
and grading, and use of mineral admixture.
The permeability of concrete can be measured by means of a simple liboratory test but the results are mainly
comparative. In such a test the side of a concrete specimen are sealed and water under pressure is applied to
the top surface only. When steady state condition have been reached (thus may take about 10 days) the
quantity of water flowing through the given thickness of concrete in a given time is measured. The water
permeability is expressed as a coefficient of permeability k, given by Darcys equation.
1
A
Jq
Jt
= k
b
I

Where
dq
dt
is the rate of flow of water
A is the cross-sectional area of sample,
h is the drop in hydraulic head through the sample, and
L is the thickness of sample.
Permeability of steam cured concrete is generally higher than that of moist-cured concreteand, axcept
concrete subjected to a long curing temperature cycle, supplemental fog curing may be required to achieve an
acceptably low permeability.
Efflorescence:
Leaching of lime compounds may under some circumstances leads to the formation of salt deposites
on the surface of concrete, known as efflorescence.
OR
A white crystalline deposite sometimes found on the surface of concrete soon after it is finished.
Causes:
Sometimes mineral salts are dissolved in water. If water with dissolved mineral salts collect on the
concrete surface as water evaporates salts deposites are left on the surface.
Excess bleeding can also result in efflorescence.
Efflorescence can also be caused by use of unwashed seashore aggregates. The salt coating on the
surface of aggregate particle may, in due coarse, lead to a white deposite on the surface of concrete
Prevention:
Use clean, salt-free water and washed sands. Avoid excessive bleeding.
Repair:
Remove efflorescence by dry brushing and washing with clear water. Do not use a wire brush. Wash
with a dilute solution of hydrochloric acid.
Absorption:
The volume of pore space in concrete, as distinct from the ease with which a fluid can penetrate it, is
measured by absorption; Absorption is usually measured by drying a specimen to a constant mass, immersing
it in water, and measuring the increase in mass as a percentage of dry mass.
For practical purpose. It is the absorption characteristics of the outer zone of concrete (which offers
protection to reinforcement) that are of great interest. For that reason, tests measuring the surface absorption
have been developed.
Acid attack on Concrete:
Concrete is generally well resistant to chemical attack, provided an appropriate mix is used and the
concrete is properly compacted. There are however some expactations.
First of all, concrete containing Portland cement, being highly alkaline, is not resistant to attack by
strong acids or compounds which may convert to acids. Consequently, unless protected, concrete should not
be used when this form of attack may occure
Acid rain, which consists mainly of sulphuric acid and nitric acid and has pH value between 4.0 and
4.5 may cause surface weathering of exposed concrete.
Use of blended cements which include ground granulated blastfurnace slag, pozzolanas, and especially
silica fume, is beneficial in reducing the ingress of aggressive substance.
Sulphate Attack:
Concrete attacked by sulphates has a characteristic whitish appearance, damage usually starting at the
edges and corner and followed by cracking and spalling of the concrete.
High pressure steam curing improves the resistance of concrete to sulphate attack. This applies to
concrete made both with sulphate-resisting and ordinary Portland cement.