TELEPHONY

USLS
College of Engineering
Outline
ntroduction
The Telephone Set
Network Hierarchy
Switching S Signaling
Traffic Engineering
Cellular Terminology
Basic Theory S Operation
CSN Network
Part 1. !ntroduction
Nature of SOUND
A. As a mechanical wave, sound requires a
medium
- Cannot propagate through a vacuum
B. As a longitudinal wave, sound is a rapid
variation in pressure that propagates:
- Compressions - regions of above normal
pressure on a sound wave
- Rarefactions - regions below normal
pressure
!ntro..cont.
The amplitude of a sound wave corresponds
to its intensity or loudness :
- Power Density - measure of intensity of
sound
- Loudness of sound is its intensity as
perceived by the human ear
The frequency of a sound wave corresponds
to its pitch:
!ntro. cont.
Human frequencies: 100 - 1000 Hz
Peak sensitivity of hearing: 4000 Hz
Upper freq. limit: 18 - 20 Khz
Lower freq. limit: 18 - 20 Hz
Ultrasonic - freqs. above the range of human
hearing
!nfrasonic - freqs below the range of human
hearing
!ntro.. cont.
Nature of SPEECH
- Sound pressure wave freqs: 10010,000 Hz
- Speech power: 10 - 1,000 uW (speaker)
- Nax. voice freq. intelligibility: 1 - 3 Khz
- Nax. voice energy: 2S0 - S00 Hz
Speech volume
Telephone System - multi channel system on w/c
more than 1 subscriber can speak at one time.
Amplitude of subscriber's speech varies, thus
speech volume characteristic is important.
Speech Neasurement
Equations relating human voice (speech) power
and volume units:
volume unit meter (v.u. meter) - device used to
measure speech volume. !t is designed to
follow speech levels in relation to human
hearing with a standard signal level of
+4 dBm on a 600 ohm line.
For typical single talker average power in dBm:
PdBm = vU reading - 1.4 (dB)
Neasurement . cont.
For more than 1 speaker over the channel:
PdBm = vU reading - 1.4 + 10 log N
where N = number of speakers
Note:
a. U = dBm for pure sine wave
b. U = 1 dBm for complex signal like
human speech (voice)
c. Typical talker power is about 18.6 dB higher than the
average power
d. Average power is taken for a period of time no longer
than 10 seconds
History of Telephone
1830 Workable telegraph was invented
18S4 Antonio Neucci designed the 1
st
txmitter S
receiver of a telephone set
1876 Alexander Craham Bell invented the
telephone, patent was granted
1877 1st tel. switchboard installed in Boston
1883 Rotary dial invented by Almon B. Strowger
1347 1st microwave relay was employed
1360 satellite used for intercontinental tel. signals
Telephone Set
- Electronic equipment that
converts sound into
electrical signals that can
be transmitted over
distances and then
converts received signals
back into sound
Components:
1. Transmitter or
mouthpiece
2. Receiver or earpiece
3. Switch hook
4. Dialer
S. Ringer
Operation of Telephone Set
- All telephone sets are connected to a central
switching office through a 2wire or
4wire line according to the ff. conventions:
1. Tip(green) - transmit signal (+ terminal )
2. Ring(red) - receive signal ( terminal )
3. Slave(yellow) - spare or special purpose
4. Cround( black or white)
Operation.cont.
Note:
Tel. set is powered by a - 42 to - S2 vdc (usually
48 vdc) supplied by the C.O. on ring side of tel.
Operating current: 24 to 60 mA ( usually 3S mA )
Tel. resistance: 600 ohms (early tel. usu. 1S0 ohms)
Tel. Transmitter
Converts acoustic energy into electric energy by
means of a carbon granule txmitter
Talk battery - dc potential of 3S v across its
electrodes
Current flows through the carbon grains when tel. is
lifted from its cradle (of hook")
As sound impinges on the diaphragm of the
txmitter, air pressure variations are transferred to
carbon and the resistance of the elec. path changes
in proportion to the pressure and dc is produced
Telephone Receiver
Consists of a diaphragm of magnetic material,
often soft iron alloy, placed in a steady magnetic
field supplied by a magnet, and a varying
magnetic field caused by voice currents flowing
through the coils
voice currents are ac and produced by the far
end txmitter
Currents cause the magnetic field to increase
and decrease making the diaphragm move
An acoustic pressure wave is generated,
reproducing the original sound wave from the
telephone txmitter
Switch hook / Plunger
- also called the cradle, has a lever spring
that is used to initiate / terminate a call
Two states:
1. ONHOOK - telephone is idle, switch is
open, thus no dc current flows
2. OFFHOOK - condition when tel. handset is
lifted, the switch is closed, alerting CO to
supply a dc current and dial tone
Dialer
Two methods:
1. Dial Pulsing or Pulse Dialing - momentary onhook
condition that causes loop making and breaking from
the tel. set dialer toward the CO. Used for rotary
telephone set.
State of pulse:
a. make - circuit closed / offhook
b. break - circuit open / onhook
Transmit time = 0.1 s per pulse + 0.S s delay time
Pulsing speed = no. of pulses per second (pps)
Pulsing period = make + break pps = 1 s / pulsing pd
Dialer..cont.
2. Nultifrequency dialing of
DTNF (Dual tone multi
frequency dialing)
Combining two of the
frequencies in the voice freq.
band ( 3003400 Hz) where
the combined freqs. represent
one digit recognized by the
CO.
Commonly used for touch
tone telephone set
Ringer / Bell
Device that converts electrical signals from the CO to
an audible signal alerting the subscriber that a call is
being initiated
Distinctive Ringing - system where different ringing
tone patterns can tell different things about the
incoming call (ie. PABX, DDD)
Ringer circuits:
1. Classical bell type - mechanical bell controlled by
an electronic coil
2. Electronic - coil controlled bell is replaced by
modern electronic ringing chip and small speaker
Central Office / Local Exchange
1. Provides battery (DC voltage) to a tel. The
voltage is used to operate the tel. and to
determine the subscriber's status.
2. Provide ringing (AC voltage) to a tel. Operates a
bell or buzzer in the unit to alert subscriber of
incoming call.
3. Provide dial tone when subscriber goes offhook.
4. Accept digits dialed by the subscriber.
S. Provide switching equipment used to connect a
subscriber to the number dialed.
Network Hierarchy
1. Local Exchange Carrier - a regulatory
term in telecomms. for local
telephone company (LEC)
2. Toll Switch - receive call info. about
long distance calls, route them to
appropriate facilities and local switch,
provides long distance services
3. !nternational Cateway Facility (!CF) -
consists of intl. transmission, switching
S network mgmt. facilities w/c serve
as point of entry S exit in the Phils. of
intl. traffic between the national
network and point/s outside the
country
Lines and Trunks
1. Subscriber line - the connection between
the subscriber and his own particular CO
2. !nteroffice Trunk - connection between two
CO's
3. Tandem trunk - trunks between a tandem
CO unit and any other CO
4. !nterconnection trunk - connection between
two different carriers
Types of calls
1. Local calls - within same CO's
2. Direct Distance Dialing (DDD) - calls to
other networks
a. NDD
b. !DD
3. Operator Assisted Call (OAC)
a. NOAC
b. !OAC
Numbering Concepts
A telephone number performs 2 impt. operations:
1. !t routes the call
2. !t activates the necessary apparatuses for proper
call charging
Numbering schemes as defined by !TUT (CC!TT):
1. Uniform Numbering - the subscriber's no. is
uniform inside a given numbering area (ie 7 digits)
First 3 digits identify the local exchange and the last
four identify the subscriber
Numbering concept.cont.
2. Nonuniform numbering - the subscriber's number
varies within a given numbering area
Elements of a Tel. Number:
a. !nternational access code
b. Country code
c. Area code
d. Tel. No.
63 3 SS66
C CC C TN
Numbering Plan
1. Service Number LEC assigned numbers
2. Premium Rate Service ( PRS )
3. Home Country Direct ( HCD )
4. Special Access Number ( SAN )
Call Progress Tones
1. Dial Tone - advisory tone that exchange is ready
to receive calls and inviting user to start sending
call information
2. Ring Tone - returned by receiving unit that tells a
caller that the phone at the other end is ringing
3. Ringback Tone - intermittent audio tone that a
caller in a tel. system hears after dialing a
number, when the distant end of the ckt is
receiving a ringing signal
4. Busy Tone - audible or visual signal that indicates
that the called number is occupied or unavailable
Call tones.. cont.
S. Congestion Tone - advisory tone w/c tells the
user that lines or switching equipments for setting
up the call are temporarily engaged
6. Call waiting Tone - advisory tone w/c tells the
user waiting supplementary service engaged on a
call that someone is attempting to call his no.
7. Receiver offhook signal - creates a very loud
tone at the receiver used to alert the user that the
telephone's handset has accidentally gone off
hook and must be placed back onto the cradle
Switching and Signaling
Switching - method of connecting one telephone
set to another by bringing one pair of wires from
each telephone to a central location where a
connection can be made for a certain period of
time between any two subscribers
Formula: N = n (n1) / 2
where N = no. of connections
n = no. of subscribers
Types of Switching
1. Nanual Switching - uses a
switchboard where the pair of
wires from the subscriber's side
are terminated using a jack and
manually patched together by
an operator
the operator would take a wire
from your socket on the
switchboard and plug you into
the other person's socket
Types. cont.
Types. cont.
2. Stepbystep switching /
Automatic switching system -
also called direct control
switch. The first
electromechanical switch
Strowger switch that is
capable of moving in two
directions (either vertically
or horizontally) with a
maximum total capacity of
10,000 calls
Types . cont.
A. Line Equipment - when tel. set is lifted, a request
for dial tone is identified by the line finder at the CO.
The first selector then responds to the request by
sending a dial tone.
B. Switch train - consists of selectors arranged to
operate in a sequence connecting the calling line to
the connector group of the called line
C. Connectors - switches that complete the connection
to the called subscriber
Types . cont.
3. Crossbar or Common
control switching - a
method of switching
when directed by a
common control unit, will
select a closed path
through
electromechanical
switching
4 areas of crossbar switching
1. Line equipment - recognizes a request for service
from the customer end and starts the request for
dial tone
2. Switching network - provides path for dial tone
and call completion
3. Common Control equipment - performs the vital
coordinating function of the whole system
4. Trunk equipment - interface between the facility
and the switching office maintaining the
connection
Types . cont.
4. Electronic Switching System ( ESS )
- digital computer based system
capable of controlling matrices
that connect analog signals as well
as digital ones
S Parts:
a. Central Control Section -
coordinates the system operation
b. Permanent Nemory - store
programs such as restrictions,
features, etc.
Types . cont.
c. Temporary Nemory - serves as type of
electronic scratch pad
d. Line Sensor - senses each line a few times
per second to determine whether line is
busy or idle
e. Switching Network - consists mostly of
relays and drivers
Signaling
Provides the means for operating and supervising a
telephone communication system.
Nain Functions:
a. Help the switching equipment provide connection
(through address signals)
b. Announce incoming calls ( through ringing signals )
c. Supply dial tones ( through supervisory signals )
d. Send busy signals ( through supervisory signals )
Signaling Techniques
1. R1 and R2 Signaling - used to transmit supervisory
and address signaling information between voice
network switches.
single freq. - supervisory information
multi freq. - addressing information
R1 - physical connection layer is a T1 (1.S44Npbs)
interface. Uses the 133
rd
bit of the frame for
synchronization
R2 - physical connection layer is an E1 (2.048 Nbps)
interface. Uses time slot 0 for framing and
synchronization.
Signaling . cont.
2. Loop Start Signaling - used primarily when
connecting from the telephone set to a switch
3. Cround Start Signaling - used primarily in switch
toswitch connections. Requires ground detection
to occur in both ends of a connection before the tip
and ring loop can be closed
4. E S N Signaling - commonly referred to as ear and
mouth or receive and transmit
Signaling . cont.
S. Common Channel Signaling System - are High
level Data Link Control (HDLC) based message
oriented signaling systems.
A. Signaling System No. 7 ( SS7 ) - characterized by
highspeed circuit switching and outofband
signaling.
Out of band signaling - signaling that does not
take place over the same path as the data transfer
or conversation, a separate digital channel is
created, called a signaling link having speeds of S6
- 64 kbps
Traffic Engineering
!mportant Terms:
1. Traffic - aggregate of all user requests being
serviced by the network
2. Erlang - unit of measurement
3. Traffic !ntensity - ratio of the traffic volume and
the length of time during w/c it is measured, the
average traffic density during a 1hr period
4. Traffic Density - represents the number of
simultaneous calls at a given moment
Traffic . cont.
S. Traffic volume - sum of all holding times carried
during a particular time interval
6. Holding Time - duration of occupancy of one or
more paths by calls
7. Traffic Path - channel time slot, frequency band,
line, trunk, switch or circuit over which individual
communications pass in sequence
8. Carried traffic is the volume of traffic actually
carried by a switch
3. Offered traffic is the volume of traffic offered to a
switch
Traffic . cont.
10. Busy Hour - traffic volume or number of call
attempts at a continuous 1hr period for which this
quantity is greatest
11. Peak Busy Hour - busy hour each day, it is
usually not the same over a number of days
12. Time Consistent Busy Hour 1 hr period starting at
the same time each day for w/c the average traffic
volume or call attempt count of the exchange or
resource group concerned is greatest over the days
under consideration
Neasurement of Telephone Traffic
= C x T
where:
A = traffic intensity in Erlang(s)
C = no. of calls originated during a period of
1hr ( calls/hr or calls/min )
T = average holding time, usually in hours
( hr/call or min/call )
Neasurement . cont.
Also, = S / t
where:
S = sum of all the holding times (min.)
t = observation period ( 1 hr or 60 mins )
Note:
Erlang is the international dimensionless unit of
traffic intensity.
1 Erlang = 36 CCS ( Century Call Seconds or
Hundred Call Seconds )
Blockage, Lost calls and
Crade of Service
The traditional traffic measurements on trunks
during a measurement interval are:
- Peg count - calls offered
- Usage - traffic (CCS or Erlangs ) carried
- Overflow - call encountering all trunks busy
Lost calls (blocked calls) refer to calls that fail at
first trial
Crade of service . cont.
Crade of service expresses the probability of
meeting blockage during the busy hour.
Typical grade of service is = 0.01. An average of 1
call in 100 will be blocked or lost" during the BH.
Crade of service = Number of lost calls
Total number of offered calls
Cellular Terminology
Cellular Communications
is a form of wireless
communication that
enables several key
concepts to be employed.
A. Frequency Reuse
B. Nobility of the subscriber
C. Handoff
Cellular . cont.
Cells - is the basic geographic unit of a cellular system. The
term cellular comes from the honeycombed shape of the
areas into which a coverage region is divided
Fictitious !deal Real
Cellular . cont
Cells are base stations
transmitting over small geographic
areas that are represented as
hexagons. Each cell size varies
depending on the landscape
Due to constraints imposed by
natural terrain and manmade
structures, the true shape of cells
is not a perfect hexagon
Clusters
A cluster is a group of cells.
No channels are reused
within a cluster.
Cell splitting
a technique employed by system operators to
overcome the concept of creating full systems with
many small areas for economic reasons
as a service area becomes congested, this technique
is used to split a single area into smaller ones.
Urban areas - split into smaller sections as
necessary to provide acceptable service levels in
heavy traffic regions
Rural regions - uses larger less expensive cells
Cell splitting . cont.
Basic Building Blocks
Nobile
Station
Base
Station
Nobile
Switching
Center
Nobile Station (mobile telephone / radio ):
used to access the network
A. Subscriber !dentity Nodule (S!N) - smart card
with information about the subscription
B. Nobile Equipment (NE) - actual telephone unit
Blocks . cont.
Different types of Nobile Stations:
a. vehicle Nounted - antenna is
physically mounted in a vehicle
b. Portable - maybe handcarried but
antenna is not attached to unit.
Usually consists of portable plug in
unit and vehicle mounted adapter
C. Handheld - antenna attached to the
handset, handcarried, portable and
pocketsize
Blocks . cont.
Base Station (BS ) :
responsible for communications, over the air, both
to and from the mobile station. Nade up of
antennas, transmitters, receivers and control units.
Cell sites - link between NS and cellular NSC.
Consists of a BS, transmission tower and antenna
assembly. The base station is the radio portion of
the cell site that converts radio signals to electrical
signals for transfer to and from a switching center
Blocks . cont.
Nobile Switching Center ( NSC ):
responsible for all switching functions related to call
processing
the control center of the cellular system. !t monitors
the location and call quality of NS, switches calls
between mobile telephone and the public switched
telephone network (PSTN)
sometimes called as mobile telephone switching
office ( NTSO ) or mobile telephone exchange
( NTX )
Basic Theory and Operation
When a mobile station is turned on, the mobile
switch selects the cells to serve you by measuring
signal strength, and matching your mobile to the
cell that has picked up the strongest signal. To
process a call, the switch will assign a vacant
radio channel for voice conversation. The BS
sends a handoff request after your signal drops
below a threshold.
Handoff
occurs when the mobile telephone network automatically
transfers a call from radio channel to radio channel as a
mobile crosses adjacent cells ( hard and soft handoff )
Freqeuncy Reuse
concept is based on assigning to
each cell a group of radio
channels used within a small
geographic area
cells are assigned a group of
channels that is completely
different from neighboring cells
coverage area of cells is called
the footprint. The footprint is
limited by a boundary so that
the same group of channels can
be used in different clusters.
Types of Cellular Systems
1. Advanced Nobile Phone Systems (ANPS) - cellular
standard developed in North America and operates in
800 Nhz
2. Code Division Nultiple Access (CDNA) - alternative
digital cellular standard developed in US and coexists
with the current analog system. Utilizes !S3S standard
3. Digital Advanced Nobile Phone System (DANPS) -
coexists with current cellular systems and relies on both
the !SS4 and !S136 standards
Types . cont.
4. Clobal System for Nobile Communications (CSN)
European standard for digital cellular systems
operating in the 300 Nhz band
S. Nordic Nobile Telephone (NNT) - designed to
operate in the 4S0 and 300 Nhz frequency bands]
6. Total Access Communications System (TACS) -
cellular standard derived from the ANPS technology
and operates in both 800 and 300 Nhz
Types . cont.
7. !ntegrated Dispatch Enhanced Network (iDEN) -
operates in the specialized mobile radio (SNR)
band just adjacent to the cellular freq. band
8. Enhanced Data Rate for Clobal Evolution (EDCE)
- an evolved version of CSN that uses new
phase modulation and packet transmission to
provide for advance high speed data services
Ceneration of Nobile Technologies
1. First Ceneration ( 1C ) - hybrid of analog voice
channels (FN) and digital control channels (FSK).
With processing capability of about S00,000
instructions per second.
ie. NNT, ANPS, TACS, NTT
2. Second Ceneration ( 2C ) - use digital radio
channels for both voice and digital control
channels. Processing from 10 - 40 million
instructions per second.
ie. !S136 (TDNA), !S3S (CDNA), CSN, iDEN
Ceneration . cont.
3. Enhanced 2
nd
Cen. ( 2.S C ) - use improved digital
radio technology to increase the system efficiency
for data users
ie. CPRS ( Ceneral Packet Radio Service )
4. Third Ceneration ( 3 C ) - integrates mobile
wireless communications with traditional wired
telecomm. systems like multimedia, etc. Also called
Universal Nobile Telecommunication Systems
(UNTS)
ie. EDCE, UNTS, CDNA2000
CSN Basics
3 major systems:
a. Switching System (SS) - perform call processing
and subscriber related functions
1. Nobile Switching Center (NSC)
2. Home Location Register (HLR)
3. visitor Location Register (vLR)
4. Authentication Center (AuC)
S. Equipment !dentity Register (E!R)
CSN Basics . cont.
b. Base Station System (BSS) - all radio related
functions
Base Station Controller ( BSC )
Base Transceiver Station ( BTS )
c. Operation and Naintenance Center (ONC) -
handles error messages originating from the
network and has access to both SS (via NSC) and
BSS (via BSC )
CSN Basics . cont.
CSN Basics . cont.
Nobile Fading Characteristics
%ayleigh fading - also called multipath fading in
the mobile radio environment. When these multi
path waves bounces back and forth due to building
and houses, they form many standingwave pairs
in space
a mobile radio signal can be artificially separated in
two parts:
a. terrain configuration
b. manmade structures
Fading . cont.
!mpt. Formulas:
Frequency Reuse Factor, K:
The factor q can be related to a finite set of
cells in a frequency reuse pattern. K is a
frequency reuse factor calculated in a
hexagonalshaped cellular system by,
K = q2 / 3
Cell Splitting Formulas:
The number of cells required for a given
area (N):
N = A / a
where
N = no. of cells
a = area of one cell
Formulas:
For hexagonal cells,
a = 3.464 r2
Where
A = area of hexagon
r = radius of circle inscribed in the
hexagon
The End !
Thank you ...