000307-052

An Investigation on the Characteristics of LC Circuits in Relation to their Functions in Transferring Energy Wirelessly

Nicha Ruchirawat 000307-052 Exam Session: May 2011 School Name: International School Bangkok Subject Area: Physics Word Count: 3,883

000307-052
Abstract

This essay investigates the functions of LC circuits in the generation of wireless electricity, focusing on: the effect of increasing capacitance on the resonant frequency of an LC circuit; the effect of changing the driving AC frequency on the ratio of voltage transfer; the effect of increasing distance of separation between two coils on the ratio of voltage transfer at resonant and non-resonant frequencies. The research is conducted with two coils made of copper wire wrapped around two circular cardboard tubes with a capacitor attached in parallel on both coils, an oscilloscope in parallel with one of the coils, and a function generator in parallel with another coil. Firstly, while the two coils are fixed at a certain separation distance, the driving frequency was changed to all possible values the generator can produce until the frequency which causes peak voltage across the second coil is maximum is found this is the resonant frequency for the particular capacitance value. Secondly, the frequency of the function generator was changed to a spectrum of values and the peak voltage reading is taken for each frequency value from the oscilloscope, and the voltage transfer ratio is calculated. Lastly, while the capacitance is kept fixed, the efficiency of energy transfer is calculated using the peak voltage reading from the oscilloscope for different separation distances between the two coils. The investigation showed that resonant frequency is inversely proportional to the resonant frequency squared for LC circuits. The ratio of voltage transfer as a function of driving frequency follows the theoretical amplitude vs. frequency graph with amplitude at maximum for resonant frequency but decreasing rapidly when moving away from resonant frequency. There is also an inverse exponential relationship between the voltage transfer ratio and the separation distance. Overall, the data obtained supported the theoretical hypothesis quite well. Word Count: 300

000307-052 1. Introduction Developments in wireless technology have been flourishing in the technology industries during the past decade. In a world that is becoming increasingly wireless, an ability to transmit electricity without wires can bring technological advancements to a whole new level. It could eliminate the use of wasteful disposable batteries, messy power cords, or even power lines if the technology successfully develops. In 2007, MIT professor Martin Soljai, along with a team of MIT scientists, discovered a method to transfer energy wirelessly. They were able to transfer 60 watts of power over a distance of seven feet to light up a light bulb. Subsequently, they established WiTricity Corp. as a center for further development of wireless electric power technologies (Hadley). Wireless electricity works through the principle of magnetically coupled resonance, or inductive resonant coupling. Through the usual method of electromagnetic induction, energy from one coil generated from alternating current can be transferred to another coil efficiently only when the two coils are placed in extreme proximity to one another. The main issue on the practicality of wireless electricity for commercial use largely involves its ability to transfer energy in an efficient manner over large distances. Therefore, the method of inductive resonant coupling employs the principle of resonance, which allows maximum efficiency of energy transfer at longer separation distances, thus making wireless electricity more viable to every-day usage. Two coils of conducting wires forming LC circuits can be used to achieve this effect. Therefore, the following investigation examines the characteristics of LC circuits in relation to their functions in transferring energy wirelessly. 2. Research Question 1) The effect of increasing capacitance on the resonant frequency of an LC circuit. 2) The effect of increasing the difference between the driving AC frequency and the resonant frequency of the coils on the ratio of induced voltage to input voltage when the coils are fixed at a certain separation distance. 3) The effect of increasing distance of separation between two coils on the ratio of induced voltage to input voltage at resonant and non-resonant frequencies. 3. Theoretical Explanation According to Faradays Law of Electromagnetic Induction, when alternating current is generated a coil, which will be called primary coil, an oscillating magnetic field is created. Another coil, called the secondary coil, can be placed within the oscillating magnetic field, gaining voltage induced by the oscillating field created by the primary coil. The electromotive force that is induced is proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux linkage: (Eq. 1) Through this method, called induction, the efficiency of energy transfer is usually very low, with voltage on the second coil almost completely diminished even when separation distance is small. However, if the primary coil and secondary resonate at a common frequency, the ratio of energy transfer can be maximized.

000307-052 Resonance is the tendency of a system to oscillate at larger amplitude at some frequencies resonant frequencies than at others. When a system is subjected to a driving force whose frequency matches with the systems resonant frequency, even small periodic driving forces can produce large amplitude vibrations because the system stores vibrational energy, while the amplitude decreases as the driving force moves away from the natural frequency (Resonance). As Figure 1 - graph showing how amplitude of oscillation varies with shown in Figure 1, where Fb is driving frequency, with maximum amplitude at the resonant frequency. the resonant frequency, amplitude is much larger for Fb than it is for Fa or Fc. Two resonant objects of the same resonant frequency tend to exchange energy efficiently, allowing the energy generated in the primary coil to be maximally captured by another coil with the same resonant frequency and not be wasted on the off-resonant objects. An LC circuit can be used to give a coil its resonant frequency. An LC circuit consists of an inductor (e.g. magnet wire) and a capacitor. The capacitor stores energy in the electric field between its plates and an inductor stores energy in its magnetic field, created by the current passing through it. When the charge from the capacitor flows through the inductor, magnetic field is created around the inductor, and voltage across the capacitor dissipates until no energy is left. However, energy is extracted from the magnetic field to keep Figure 2 - An LC circuit the current flowing, recharging the capacitor again until the magnetic field dissipates. Then, the charge from the capacitor will form a magnetic field around the inductor once again. As the cycle repeats, the magnetic field around the inductor oscillates at the coils resonant frequency. This will induce large amplitude voltages into the secondary coil that has the same resonant frequency, when placed within the field. The resonant frequency of an LC circuit is inversely proportional to the square root of the product of inductance and capacitance: or (Resonant) (Eq. 2)

This form of energy transfer allows for transmission of electricity through materials such as wood, plastic, textiles, glass, brick, and concrete without affecting the ratio of energy transfer. However, the coefficient of mutual induction, which is the measure of the coupling between two inductors, depends on the geometry of the two coils, the distance between the two coils, and the orientation of the two coils, will affect the induced voltage. As shown in the equation 3, induced EMF is directly proportional to the mutual inductance between the two coils.

000307-052

(Lehpamer) The mutual inductance between the two coils can be approximated as: (Mazlouman)
0 = permeability of free space N = number of turns in coil R = coil radius r = distance of separation between coils (from its centers)

(Eq. 3)

(Eq. 4)

Thus, induced voltage can be related by: (Eq. 5) This means that the induced voltage is directly proportional to the number of turns of the two coils, the square of the radii of the two coils the increase in the value of these variables results in an increase in induced voltage. Moreover, induced voltage is inversely proportional to the cube of distance of separation between the two coils, which means that the increase in the separation distance will cause induced voltage to be reduced significantly at the rate of 1/r3. 4. Hypothesis For question 1, resonant frequency is expected to be inversely proportional to the square root of the value of capacitance, as given by Equation 2. For question 2, the ratio of induced voltage to input voltage when the coils are fixed at a certain separation distance is expected to be at maximum when the driving frequency matches the resonant frequency of the two coils, while reducing significantly, in the same way as illustrated in Figure 1, as the driving AC frequency moves away from the resonant frequency of the coils. For question 3, as induced voltage is inversely proportional to r3 as given by Equation 5, the ratio of induced voltage to input voltage will also reduce in the same way, decaying as a rate of 1/r3 at both resonant and at non-resonant frequency. 5. Experimental Design and Procedure 5.1 List of Apparatus

Single-layered copper coil Capacitors of 10 different values Hard cardboard tubes Banana wires Function generator Oscilloscope Masking tape Ruler Cardboard 5

000307-052 5.2 Experimental Set-up The coils are made by wrapping the copper coil around a firm cardboard tube as tightly as possible, making sure to create minimal space between each coil loop. Two coils are created with equal number of turns (N), coil radius (R), and consisting of capacitors of equal values attached in parallel to the ends. In this investigation, the coil is wrapped for 60 turns, the coil diameter is measured to be 5.5 cm, coil size is AWG 17, and coil length is 10.7 cm. On the primary coil, the AC function generator is attached to the ends of the coil. On the secondary coil, the oscilloscope is attached in parallel. The two coils are each taped onto rectangular cardboard pieces, with its sides parallel to the sides of the cardboard pieces. The apparatus is set-up as illustrated below in Figure 3.

Figure 3 schematics of the experimental set-up.

5.3 Experimental Procedure - Research Questions 1 and 2 Question 1: The independent variable is the capacitance value of the coil, while the dependent variable is the resonant frequency of the LC circuit. Question 2: The independent variable is the driving AC frequency in the primary coil, while the dependent variable is the ratio of induced voltage to input voltage from the primary to the secondary coil. Masking tape is used to outline a straight column the size of the cardboard pieces width. The coils are then placed in the column, with the cardboard sides aligned to it to assure the orientation between the two coils remains constant throughout. The two coils are also taped at a fixed point to assure that the distance of separation between the two coils also remains constant. To examine the effect of capacitance on the resonant frequency of the coil, the frequency of the function generator was changed to all the possible values the generator can produce, while output voltage is kept constant, until peak voltage of the secondary coil is at a maximum value. As explained by the theory, induced voltage should be at maximum when the driving force matches the resonant frequency of both the coils. Therefore, the frequency that causes

000307-052 peak voltage of the secondary coil to be at maximum is recorded to be that particular coils resonant frequency. This is repeated for ten capacitor values. To examine the effect of changing AC frequency on ratio of induced voltage to input voltage, the frequency of the function generator was changed to a spectrum of values and the peak voltage reading is taken for each frequency value from the oscilloscope. The ratio is calculated from the equation: (peak voltage across the secondary coil peak output voltage from the function generator). 5.4 Experimental Procedure Research Question 3 Question 3: The independent variable is the distance of separation between the two coils, while the dependent variable is the ratio of induced voltage to input voltage. On one side of the masking tape, marks are made each 1cm interval. The primary coil is fixed in place. In this case, the frequency of the alternating current in the primary coil, and the capacitance value on the capacitor are kept constant. The effect of the separation distance between two coils on the ratio of induced voltage was tested for 30 different separation distances. The separation distance is defined as the distance between the centers of the two coils, illustrated as r in Figure 3. The peak voltage across the secondary coil is then measured using an oscilloscope. As the secondary coil is moved away from the primary coil, reading is taken at every 1 cm intervals from 11.7 cm to 29.7 cm. As the secondary coil is moved away, it is important to keep the sides of the cardboard aligned with the masking tape column to assure fixed alignment between coils. This is repeated for when the circuits are driven by alternating current at its resonant frequency and at constant non-resonant frequencies. Other controlled variables include the properties of the two coils, which must be kept constant and as identical to each other as possible, in order for the two coils to resonate at a common frequency. The two copper coils are both single-layered AWG-17 copper coils cut to the same length and wrapped around hard cardboard tubes of a common radius for 60 turns, with a capacitor of the same type, brand, and value attached in parallel with the circuit. Also the environment where the experiment is conducted needs to be isolated from conducting materials. Magnetic fields do not penetrate conducting materials. If conducting materials surrounds a magnetic field, the field characteristics will be affected. The oscilloscope model being used requires calibration in order to measure voltage signal Figure 4 - actual experimental set-up. accurately. The oscilloscope is calibrated by measuring output voltage from the function generator first using the Vernier Voltage Probe on Logger Pro, then by adjusting the value shown on the oscilloscope to match with the reading on Logger Pro.

000307-052 6. Initial Qualitative Observations Before data was collected, a 6V LED was attached in parallel to the secondary coil.

Figure 5 LED illumination for driving frequency 116.3 kHz, 160.0 kHz and 70.4 kHz from left to right respectively.

The first picture shows the LED illuminated when the driving frequency of the AC from the function generator is at 116.3 kHz, at resonant frequency. The second and third picture show the LED not illuminated when the driving frequency is higher than the resonant frequency at 160.0 kHz and below the resonant frequency at 70.4 kHz. The separation between the coils is fixed at a distance of 11.7 cm. This supports the theory that energy transfer is at maximum when the driving current matches the coils resonant frequency.

Figure 6 LED illumination for distance of separation 11.7, 12.7, 13.7, 14.7 cm from left to right respectively.

Figure 6 shows how LED illumination, and thus energy transfer efficiency, is significantly reduced as the coil moves away from each other.
Wave 2 Wave 1

Figure 7 variation of voltage with time in primary coil (wave 1) and secondary coil (wave 2).

As mentioned in the theory, the EMF induced from the primary coil to the secondary coil is given by the equation 1. Wave 1 shows how voltage output from the function generator varies with time. As voltage is proportional to current, and thus proportional to magnetic flux, the wave also shows the variation of magnetic flux generated by the primary coil over time. Wave 2 shows the EMF induced in the secondary coil over time. As it can clearly be seen that wave 2 is the derivative, or the instantaneous slope of wave 1, the two coils are, in fact, following Faradays Law of Electromagnetic induction and wave 2 is inducing EMF which is proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux generated by the primary coil.

000307-052 7. Results and Analysis 7.1 Results and Analysis for Research Question 1 The data obtained were graphed using Logger Pro for further investigation. The relationship between capacitance and the two coils resonant frequencies can be expressed by the function: f = 20c0.5 (Eq. 6)

As Equation 2 suggests that y is proportional to x0.5, the data supports the theory very well. The line of best fit goes through all of the uncertainty bars, showing how data collected is very precise. Because Equation 2 also suggest
Graph 1 shows the effect of increasing capacitance on the resonant frequency of LC circuits in the experiment.

that capacitance is directly proportional to the value of 1/(2f)2, where f is the resonant frequency, the two values are graphed against each other. The slope is expected to be the value of L, or inductance of the two coils. The line of best fit can be expressed as: f = 8.12E-5c + 1.68E-15 (Eq. 7) Slope = 81.2 0.8 H

Therefore, the data suggests that inductance of the two coils is equal Graph 2 shows the relationship between the capacitance and the value of (2f)-2, to 81.2 0.8 H. The existence of where the slope is expected to equal to the value of inductance of the two coils. an extremely small y-intercept, 1.68E-15 indicates a very minimal systematic error. The line of best fit also goes through all of the uncertainty bars, indicating high precision of data.The inductance value is verified by calculating it from Wheelers formula: L = [(N x R)2 x 4 x 10-6]/(R+l) (Thomson) L = [(60 x 5.5)2 x 4 x 10-6]/(5.5+10.7) = 81.4 H The percent error between the calculated value of inductance, and the value that is indicated by the data is only 0.2%, which suggests that inductance value from data is very accurate. (Eq. 8)

000307-052 7.2 Results and Analysis for Research Question 2

Graph 3 variation of driving frequency with the efficiency of energy transfer at a fixed separation distance between coils with 0.02 F capacitance.

The ratio of induced voltage to input voltage at a fixed distance of separation is also graphed against the frequency of the driving current in the coil. The relationship appears to be symmetrical for both when driving frequency is greater and lower than the resonant frequency. The maximum voltage transfer is at the resonant frequency, and the shape of Graph 3 agrees with Figure 1, which shows the variation of amplitude of oscillation with driving frequency. 7.3 Results and Analysis for Research Question 3 The relationship between the ratio of voltage transfer and the distance of separation between the two coils is illustrated in Graph 4 and can be modeled through curve fit by the expression: E = 5753r-3.4 (Eq. 9)

Graph 4 the relationship between ratio of voltage transfer and distance between the two coils when the driving frequency matches the resonant frequency at 116.3 kHz.

When taking log values on both sides of the expression E = ArB, the result is log E = B log r + log A. Therefore, the log values of voltage ratios can be graphed against the log values of

10

000307-052 the separation distance in order to obtain a straight line, with the slope as the value for the exponent B and y-intercept as the log value of the coefficient. This is illustrated in Graph 5, modeled through linear fit by the expression: log E = -3.3 log r + 3.7 (Eq. 10)
Graph 5 the relationship between log value of voltage transfer ratios and log value of separation distance between the two coils for driving frequency at 116.3 kHz (resonant frequency).

Therefore, the exponent value obtained from this is -3.3 0.4, with maximum slope of -2.9 and minimum slope of -3.7. According to the hypothesis formed from Equation 5, the ratio of voltage transfer was expected to be proportional to r-3. This fits within the range of the experimental value of the exponent, which supports the hypothesis. The line of best fit passes through all of the error bars, which indicates minimal random error and high precision of data. The ratio of induced voltage to input voltage exceeds 1 when coils are brought together within range 11.7 -12.7 cm. This could be due to the differences in the resistances of the two coils. If the secondary coil has a higher resistance, the current through it decreases (V=IR), and voltage value may increase while efficiency of power transfer still does not exceed one.

The experiment was repeated for when the driving current is at 100 kHz to test whether the same relationship applies when coils are not driven by its resonant frequency. The relationship is illustrated in Graph 6 and can be modeled through curve fit by the expression: E = 2328r-3.7
Graph 6 the relationship between ratio of voltage transfer and distance between the two coils when driving frequency is at 100 kHz.

(Eq. 11)

Again, the log values of voltage ratios and distance were graphed against each other as illustrated in Graph 7, modeled through linear fit by the expression: log E = -3.7 log r + 3.3 (Eq. 12)

11

000307-052 The exponent value obtained from the slope of this graph is -3.7, with maximum slope of -3.5 and minimum slope of -4.2. The range of the experimental value does not include the hypothesized value of 3. Ratio of voltage transfer seems to reduce more rapidly as the driving frequency moves away from resonant frequency. However, it may possibly be due to variables that were not perfectly controlled, Graph 7 the relationship between log value of voltage transfer ratios and log such as the orientation of the coil value of separation distance between the two coils for driving frequency at 100 relative to each other, or lack of kHz. precision in measurements of separation distance or the voltage reading on the oscilloscope. The line of best fit does not pass through the error bar of all points and the root mean square error is greater than in Graph 7, which suggests random errors due to these uncontrolled variables. Thus, the relationship is investigated for two coils with driving frequency at 50 kHz. The relationship is illustrated in Graph 5 and can be modeled through curve fit by the expression: E = 284.9r-3.4 (Eq. 11)

The log-log graph, shown in Graph 9 has can be modeled by the equation: logE = -3.5 logr + 2.4 (Eq. 12) which has a slope of -3.5, with maximum value of -2.9 and minimum value of -3.7. The range of the experimental exponent values does contain 3. The line of best fit goes through all of the uncertainty bars and the root mean square error is smaller, indicating high precision of data collected. This suggests that the relationship may possibly remain the same when variables are more controlled, even when the driving frequency is even further away from resonance. Further investigations may be conducted to verify this.
Graph 9 the relationship between log value of voltage transfer ratios and log value of separation distance between the two coils for driving frequency at 50 kHz.

Graph 8 the relationship between ratio of voltage transfer and distance between the two coils when driving frequency is at 50 kHz.

12

000307-052 8. Conclusion and Findings In addressing Question 1, the relationship found from the experiment is y = 18.05x0.48 as shown in Graph 1. This supports the hypothesis based on the theoretical relationship between the capacitance and the resonance frequency of an LC circuit given by Equation 2. Theoretically, the constant value that relates capacitance with the value (2f)-2 should equal to the value of inductance of the two coils, which is calculated to be 81.2 0.8 H. The percent error between the experimental value and the value calculated by Wheelers equation 8 is only 0.2%, falling within the uncertainty range, which suggests that the coils do act in accordance with the theoretical characteristics of LC circuits. In addressing Question 2, resonance seems to also help with maximizing energy transfer significantly as shown in Graph 6, which agrees with the graph shown in Figure 1. In addressing Question 3, the relationship found from the experiment is: Resonant Frequency 116.3 kHz Curve Fit: E = 5753r-3.4 Slope from log-log graph: -3.3, maximum -2.9, minimum -3.7 100 kHz Curve Fit: E = 2328r-3.7 Slope from log-log graph: -3.7, maximum -3.5 and minimum -4.2 50 kHz Curve Fit: E = 284.9r-3.4 Slope from log-log graph: -3.5, maximum -2.9 and minimum -3.7 The data is very precise as shown by very the minimal amount of random errors. The relationship shown in the experiment does support the hypothesis to a certain extent that ratio of voltage transfer is proportional to r-3, given the uncertainty range and the nature of Equation 6, which assumes that lengths of coils are negligible for large separation distances. However, length is significant in this experiment as it was conducted within very short-range separation distances, which may account for these higher experimental values. The ratio of voltage transfer is related to the efficiency of energy transfer. Efficiency was not calculated, as current was not monitored and is most likely different in the two coils due to differences in resistances. When the primary and the secondary coils are switched, the resonant frequency actually changes from 116 kHz to 96 kHz. This is indicative that two coils are not exactly identical, explaining why voltage ratio exceeds one at short separation distances. However, given that P=IV and that current in each coil remains the same throughout according each coils resistance value, the voltage ratio falling as a factor of r-3 is also indicative of efficiency of power transfer decaying at approximately the same rate. The method of resonant magnetic coupling through tuning coils to have a matching natural frequency, as shown by the investigation, does have the effect of maximizing efficiency of energy transfer over the simple induction method. This method allows energy transfer to be efficient at longer distances, but far-range distance between the two coils will still remain as the major limitation of wireless electricity as efficiency decays quickly.

13

000307-052 8. Evaluation and Recommendations The relationship between efficiency of energy transfer and distance is not exactly confirmed, as the investigation was only undertaken for three manipulations of the driving frequency values. More trials for each manipulation, as well as a greater number of manipulations for a greater range of values for both driving frequency values greater and smaller than the resonant frequency needs to be further investigated to test whether decay rate of induced voltage remains the same for both resonant and non-resonant frequencies, and whether increasing the difference between the driving frequency affects the decay rate of induced voltage. In order to test the relationships involving efficiency of power transfer and further test the feasibility of wireless electricity, current should be monitored so that power values can be calculated. The precision of the oscilloscope in measuring the voltage value across the coils was a major limitation in the experiment. The uncertainties for some voltage readings were very high as uncertainty becomes higher when the voltage per division is greater. Data would be more precise if the voltage per division is always made the smallest possible while the voltage graph still fits. However, in the experiment, the higher voltage per division value was used until the scale becomes too big for the reading, resulting in more significant rounding of data values, which may explain the random errors. If possible, digital oscilloscopes not requiring calibration would also yield more accurate and precise results. To improve the method of transferring power wirelessly, coils with higher quality factors should be used, made of wire materials with lower skin effect, bigger wire size, and bigger coil radius to maximize energy transfer capacities (Technology). Yet, in order to maximize wireless energy transfer to a value that can be used for real-life applications, other factors may have to be enhanced, such as controlling magnetic flux leakage through the use of magnetic materials similar to iron cores in transformers or through wave-guides.

14

000307-052 Works Cited Hadley, Franklin . "Goodbye wires!." MITnews. N.p., 7 June 2007. Web. 9 June 2010. <web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2007/wireless-0607.html>. Lehpamer, Harvey. "RFID Design Principles." RFID Design Principles. Boston: Artech House, 2008. 133-52. Artech House. Web. 28 Nov. 2010. <www.artechhouse.com/GetBlob.aspx?strName=Lehpamer_194>. Mazlouman, Shahrzad J., Alireza Mahanfar, and Bozena Kaminska. Mid-range Wireless Energy Transfer Using Inductive Resonance for Wireless Sensors. Rep. Lake Tahoe, CA: Simon Fraser University, 2009. IEEEXplore. Web. 28 Nov. 2010. <http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/Xplore/ >. "Resonance." Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. Web. 26 Jan. 2011. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resonance>. "Resonant energy transfer - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia." Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. N.p., 1 May 2010. Web. 9 June 2010. <http://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/Resonant_energy_transfer>. "Technology - Wireless Power Consortium." Wireless Power Consortium. N.p., n.d. Web. 9 June 2010. <http://www.wirelesspowerconsortium.com/technology/ index.html>. Thomson, David. "Inductance Formula." Tesla Coil Builder Home Page. Web. 27 Jan. 2011. <http://www.tesla-coil-builder.com/inductance.htm>.

15