Chapter no 1 Introduction of logic Logic: Logic is the branch of philosophy its mean reason and reasonable judgment is called

logic (2) Logic helps us to distinguished correct from in correct reasoning

Why we study logic? (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) To Sharpe our reasoning ability To Sharpe our innate ability Logic helps us distinguished correct from incorrect Logic us to tell if a statement is correct why is correct If statement is wrong why it is wrong

Logic base concepts (1) Logic (2) Proposition (3) Arguments (4) Premises (5) inference (6) validity (7) reliability (8) inductive reasoning (9) Deductive reasoning (10) Conclusion indicator (11) Premises indicator Explanation Logic: Reason and reasonable judgment is called logic 2 Logic helps to distinguished correct from in correct

Proposition: Proposition assert that something is the case

proposition may be wrong proposition are building blocks of arguments Questions are not a proposition (e.g) Life on another plant Arguments: Cluster of proposition is called arguments (e.g) Conclusion: Sparrow has wings Promises: The proposition which helps to draw conclusion Inference: Conclusion Validity: It measure what it clam to measure Reliability: Consistency of the result is called Inductive reasoning: This moves from specific to general Deductive reasoning: This moves general to specific Conclusion indicator: Which we use to indicator conclusion e.g Therefore, so Premises indicator: The words that are use to indicate premises (e.g) as, for etc proposition: All birds have wings/sparrow is bird

Categorical proposition
When proposition are categorial into forms is called categorical proposition.

Characteristics
When whole class include into other class. When whole class exclude from other class. When some member of one class include into other class. When some member of one class exclude into other class.

Class
Group of members having same characteristic.

Standard form of categorical proposition

It has four types 1: Universal affirmative proposition (A) 2: Universal negative proposition (E) 3: Particular affirmative proposition (I) 4: Particular negative proposition (O) Affirm is a Latin word its means acceptance. Nego is a Latin word its mean rejection. 1) A proposition: When whole class include into other class e.g. All politician are liars. 2) E proposition: When whole class exclude into other class e.g. No politician are liars . 3) I proposition: When some member of one class include into other class e.g. Some politicians are liars. 4) O proposition: When some member of one class exclude into other class e.g. Some politician are not liars. All S is p .

No S is P . Some S is P. Some S is not P.

QUALITY , QAUNTITY &DISTRIBUTION

QUALITY: (A&I) When standard from of categorical proposition fully or practically accepted an its quality affirmative (E&O) When standard from of categorical proposition fully or practically rejected its quality is negative Quantity: (A&E) When standard from of categorical proposition wholly included excluded into other class its quantity is universal (I&O) When standard from of categorical proposition practically included into excluded other class its particular

Distribution : (a) Distribution in term included into other class in a proposition (all s is p) only s distribution (e.g) All actor are citizen (E) In e proposition both s&p distributed (e.g)

No actor are vegetarian (i) in I proposition no distributer (e.g) some soilders are cowerd (o) In a o proposition only p term distribution (e.g) Some polition are not liers

Contraries

Contradictories
When two proposition having same subject term and same predicate term quality and quantity e.g. All politicians are liars. Some politicians are not liars. Both cannot be true both cannot be false . but differ in

Contraries
When two proposition having same subject term and same predicate term but differ in quality not in quantity e.g. All girls are naughty. No girls are naughty. Both cannot be true but can be false.

Sub Contraries
When two proposition having same subject term and same predicate term but differ in quantity not in quality e.g. All villagers are poor. Some villagers are poor.

Language
Language is tool or way by which we convey our message to others.

Function of language Informative: The language in which we convey our messages or give information to other.

 Directive: The language by which we direct the behavior of the others. Emotive: The language by which we express feelings.

Types of language
Neutral: The language which has universal word e.g. traffic signals Emotive: The language which is colored by emotion. Disputes: The language in which messages are not complete and clear it create dispute.

Characteristics of emotive language

Emotive language is useful in some context not other context. In survey we cannot use emotive language. To sale some product we can use emotive language.

syllogisms
Syllogisms are todays most commonly accepted form of logical reasoning, however they are closer related to mathematical reasoning. Within the syllogisms three different types can be distinguished:

Conditional syllogisms
Conditional syllogisms are better known as hypothetical syllogisms, because the arguments used here are not always valid. The basic of this syllogism type is: if A is true then B is true as well. An example will follow to elucidate the former. Major premise: If Johnny is eating sweets every day, he is placing himself at risk for diabetes. Johnny does not eat sweats everyday Therefore Johnny is not placing himself at risk for diabetes

Minor premise: Conclusion:

This conclusion is invalid because it is possible that Johnny does not eat sweats every day but does eats cake every day what also puts him at risk for diabetes.

Disjunctive syllogisms
These syllogism types do not actually state that a certain premise (major or minor) is correct, but is does states that one of the premises is correct. The basic type for this
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syllogism is: Either A or B is true, but they cant be true at the same time. Example: Major premise: Either the meeting is at school or at home. Minor premise: The meeting is not at home. Conclusion: Therefore the meeting is at school. The conclusion of the syllogism type may be given, however most of the times the conclusion can be drawn based up on own conclusions.

What is fallacy? Error in reasoning is called fallacy Types of fallacy (1)FORMAL (2)IN FORMAL

Formal It is relevant to deductive reasoning IN formal It is relevant to daily language mistakes CLASSIFICATION OF FALLACY (1)FALLACY OF RELEVENCE (2)FALLACY OF PRESUMPTION (3)FALLACY OF DEFECTIVE INDUCTION (4)FALLACY OF AMBUGITY

(1)FALLACY OF RELEVENCE The argument that is not relevant to the conclusion is called fallacy of relevance TYPES OF RELEVENCE

(1)THE APPEAL TO EMOTION An informal fallacy committed in which argument simply cleared with emotion. E.G, SIMPTHY PITY (2)RED HERRING An informal fallacy committed when destruction is used and it leads to create confusion or mislead E.G ,jealous (3)ATTACK ON PERSON An informal fallacy committed when we attack on argument which advocate the point of some one. (4)MISSING THE POINT An informal fallacy committed when the argument are not clearly conveying the message. (5)STRAW MAN An informal fallacy committed when argument are generated against the opponent.

(2)FALLACY OF PRESUPTION

An informal fallacy committed when argument are too weak or too much is assumed from the premises.

TYPES OF PRESUMPTION. (1)ACCIDENT An informal fallacy committed when generalization is applied to individual cases. (2)BEGGING THE QUSTION An informal fallacy committed when conclusion is assumed from one of the premises

(3)COMLEX QUSITON The question is asked in such a way that answer is buried in the question . (3)FALLACY OF DEDUCTIVE INDUCTION An informal fallacy committed when premises of the argument are so weak that sallying on them is blunder. TYPES (1)THE ARGUMENT FROM IGNORANCE An informal fallacy committed when we generate argument from ignorance, we have lack of knowledge about the premises. (2)FALUSE CAUSE An informal fallacy committed when we accepted an event that is not relevant to the argument. (3)HASTY GENERALIZATION An informal fallacy committed in which a principle is applied to all the cases. (4)FALLACY OF AMBIGUITY When thing is not clear or cover meaning is called ambiguity. TYPES OF AMBIGUITY (1)EQUIVOCATION When two or more meaning of the same words of phrase have been confused that is called equivocation. e.g, The messenger replied nobody is there king yes young lady also saw him there the word him indicate that nobody is a name of person . (2)AMPHIBALY An in formal fallacy committed when a word have different meaning in different context or a word have two meanings.The word amphiboly is a greek word which means two in a lamp . (3)ACCENT

An informal fallacy committed when a word is not speak correctly by a person or face on some words change the meaning of the sentence. e.g,Do not speak ill to your friends . (4)COMPOSITION An informal fallacy committed when we draw conclusion from the parts of a thing as whole. (5)DIVISION An informal fallacy committed when we draw conclusion from a whole things to its parts.

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