Have u ever been lost and wished there was an easy way to find out which way u needed

to go? How about finding yourself out hiking and then not knowing how to get back to your camp or car? Ever been flying and wanted to know the nearest airport? Our ancestors had to go to pretty extreme measures to keep from getting lost. They erected monumental landmarks, laboriously drafted detailed maps and learned to read the stars in the night sky. GPS is a satellite based radio navigation system which provides continuous, all weather, worldwide navigation capability for sea, land and air applications. So things are much, much easier today. For less than $100, you can get a pocketsized gadget that will tell you exactly where you are on Earth at any moment. As long as you have a GPS receiver and a clear view of the sky, you'll never be lost again. Navigation in three dimensions is the primary function of GPS. Navigation receivers are made for aircraft, ships, ground vehicles, and for hand carrying by individuals. Precise positioning is possible using GPS receivers at reference locations providing corrections and relative positioning data for remote receivers. Surveying, geodetic control, and plate tectonic studies are examples. Time and frequency dissemination, based on the precise clocks on board the SVs and controlled by the monitor stations, is another use for GPS. Astronomical observatories, telecommunications facilities, and laboratory standards can be set to precise time signals or controlled to accurate frequencies by special purpose GPS receivers. 2. THE GPS EVOLUTION GPS, which

3. WHAT IS GPS?
The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a satellite-based navigation system made up of a network of 24 satellites placed into orbit by the U.S. Department of Defense that continuously transmit coded information, which makes it possible to precisely identify locations on earth by measuring the distance from the satellites. The satellites transmit very low power specially coded radio signals that Global Positioning System can be processed in a GPS receiver, enabling the receiver to compute position, velocity and time thus allowing anyone one with a GPS receiver to determine their location on earth. Four GPS satellite signals are used to compute positions in three dimensions and the time offset in the receiver clock. The system was designed so that receivers did not require atomic clocks, and so could be made small and inexpensively. The gps system consists of three pieces. There are the satellites that transmit the position information, there are the ground stations that are used to control the

satellites and update the information, and finally there is the receiver that you purchased. It is the receiver that collects data from the satellites and computes its location anywhere in the world based on information it gets from the satellites. There is a popular misconception that a gps receiver somehow sends information to the satellites but this is not true, it only receives data.

The principle behind GPS is the measurement of distance (or "range") between the receiver and the satellites. The satellites also tell us exactly where they are in their orbits above the Earth. It works something like this-If we know our exact distance from a satellite in space, we know we are somewhere on the surface of an imaginary sphere with radius equal to the distance to the satellite radius. By measuring its distance from a second satellite, the receiver knows it is also somewhere on the surface of a second sphere with radius equal to its distance from the second satellite. Therefore, the receiver must be somewhere along a circle which is formed from the intersection of the two spheres. Measurement from a third satellite introduces a third sphere. Now there are only two points which are consistent with being at the intersection of all three spheres. One of these is usually impossible, and the GPS receivers have mathematical methods of eliminating the impossible location. Measurement from a fourth satellite now resolves the ambiguity as to which of the two points is the location of the receiver. The fourth satellite point also helps eliminate certain errors in the measured distance due to uncertainties in the GPS receiver's timing as well.

Control Segment It consists of a system of tracking stations located around the world. The control Global Positioning System segment is composed of all the ground-based facilities that are used to monitor and control the satellites. This segment is usually unseen by the user, but is a vital part of the system. The NAVSTAR control segment, called the operational control system (OCS) consists of 5 monitor stations, a master control station (MCS) and 3 uplink antennas. The satellites send down subsets of the orbital ephemeris data. The monitor stations track GPS satellites in view, collect and send information from the satellites back to the master control station that computes the precise orbits. The master station uploads the data which is necessary for proper operation of the satellite, like ephemeris and clock data to the satellites. Then the information is formatted into updated navigation messages that are transmitted through ground antennas. The MCS is located at Schriever Air Force Base (formerly Falcon AFB) in Colorado. and is managed by the U.S. Air Force's 2nd Space Operations Squadron (2nd SOPS). The MCS receives data from the monitor stations in real time 24 hours a day and uses that information to determine if the satellites are experiencing clock or ephemeris changes, and to detect equipment malfunctions. New navigation and ephemeris information is calculated from the monitored signals and uploaded to the satellites once or twice per day. There are several remote monitor stations, which send their information to the

master control station. These stations are able to track and monitor each satellite for 21 hours a day, resulting in 2 periods of 1.5 hours when the satellite is on the other side of the earth out of reach for that ground station. These passive monitor stations are nothing more than GPS receivers that track all satellites in view and thus accumulate ranging data from the satellite signals. There are five passive monitor stations, located at Colorado Springs, Hawaii, Ascencion Island, Diego Garcia and Kwajalein. The monitor stations send the raw data back to the MCS for processing. The information calculated by the MCS, along with routine maintenance commands are transmitted to the satellites by ground-based uplink antennas. The ground antennas are located at Ascencion Island, Diego Garcia and Kwajalein. The antenna facilities transmit to the satellites via an S-band radio link. In addition to its main function, the MCS maintains a 24 hour computer bulletin board system with the latest system news and status. The civilian contact for this is the United States Coast Guards (USCG) Navigation Center (NAVCEN).

User segment The user segment is composed of GPS receivers composed of processors and antennas that allow for sea, land and airborne operators to receive the broadcast. The receivers convert space vehicle signals into position, velocity and time. A total of 4 satellites are required to compute these calculations. In order to make this simple calculation, then, the GPS receiver has to know two things: The location of at least three satellites above you The distance between you and each of those satellites. The GPS receiver figures both of these things out by analyzing high-frequency, low-power radio signals from the GPS satellites. Better units have multiple receivers, so they can pick up signals from several satellites simultaneously. Most modern receivers are parallel multi-channel design. Parallel receivers typically have five to twelve receiver circuits, each devoted to one particular satellite at all times. Parallel channels are quick to lock onto satellites when first turned on and they are able to receive the satellite signals even in difficult conditions such as dense foliage or urban settings. If you want to have continuous real-time position measurements, then the receiver has to have at least four channels. If it does, then it can devote one channel to each of the four satellites at the same time. Most of the time, this kind of accuracy is not needed, so some receivers have only one channel. Older single-channel designs were once popular, but were limited in their ability to continuously receive signals in the toughest environments. One of the problems with this type of receiver is that it doesn't always do a good job of monitoring velocity. Also, if there is any movement of the receiver while it is collecting the four measurements, the accuracy of those measurements will be affected. A compromise that is used quite often is the three channel receiver. One channel can be collecting the data from one satellite while the other two channels are locking in on the satellites where the next measurements are going to come from. This type of receiver doesn't waste time between measurements, because they can instantly switch to the next satellite's data. Another benefit to this type GPS 72 handheld rxr

Global Positioning System of receiver is that it can track up to eight satellites, so if one satellite is blocked, it can switch to another one. Thus, the three channel receiver is more economical than a four channel receiver, and it is more accurate than a one channel receiver. Position, velocity and time are needed for marine, terrestrial & aeronautic applications. A standard GPS receiver will not only place you on a map at any particular location, but will also trace your path across a map as you move. If you leave your receiver on, it can stay in constant communication with GPS satellites to see how your location is changing. With this information and its built-in clock, the receiver can give you several pieces of valuable information: How far you've traveled (odometer) How long you've been traveling Your current speed (speedometer) Your average speed A "bread crumb" trail showing you exactly where you have traveled on the map The estimated time of arrival at your destination if you maintain your current speed 10. GPS SERVICES GPS provides two services SPS-

Global Positioning System And Ranging) constellation composed of 24 satellites in space, the space segment of the GPS system. There are often more than 24 operational satellites as new ones are launched to replace older satellites. The satellite orbits repeat almost the same ground track (as the earth turns beneath them) once each day. These 24 satellites (21 navigational satellites and 3 active spares) are in 6 circular orbits (with nominally four SVs in each), equally spaced (60 degrees apart), at an inclination angle of 55 degrees. These satellites weigh 1900 lbs in orbit, travel at speeds of about 14,000 kilometres per hour or 8700 miles per hour with a 12hr period (precisely 11hr 58 min). It is at roughly 25,000 kilometers from the earth's centre or 20,000 kms above the earth's surface. The satellites are high enough to bypass the problems encountered by land-based systems they send wireless radio signals from space Their configuration provides the user with between 5 and 8 space vehicles anywhere on the earth. The spacing of satellites in orbit is arranged so that under Global Positioning System normal conditions a minimum of five satellites will be in view to users worldwide, with a position dilution of precision (PDOP) of six or less. In practice there are usually many more than this, sometimes as many as 12. The satellites are generally allowed to "float" in their orbits and aren't rigidly

held in position. The orbital paths of these satellites take them between roughly 60 degrees North and 60 degrees South latitudes. What this means is you can receive satellite signals anywhere in the world, at any time. As you move closer to the poles, you will still pick up the GPS satellites. The NAVSTAR satellites can see from the northernmost and southern most parts of their orbits. These satellites provide 24-hour-a-day coverage for both two-and three- dimensional positioning anywhere on Earth. They also continuously broadcast position and time throughout the world. Currently there are 27 total satellites in the sky and it is possible that there could be as many as 31 or 32. Each satellite contains a supply of fuel and small servo engines so that it can be moved in orbit to correct for positioning errors. With update control from the ground units it can maintain an essentially circular orbit around the earth. It also contains a receiver to get update information, a transmitter to send information to the gps receiver, an antenna array to magnify the weak transmitter signal, several atomic clocks to accurately know the time, control hardware, and photoelectric cells to power everything. They are powered by solar energy and each satellite is expected to last approximately 10 years. If solar energy fails (eclipse, etc.) they have backup batteries on board to keep them running. SATELLITE SIGNAL: Each satellite transmits on two L band frequencies, L1 (1575.42 MHz) and L2 (1227.6 MHz). Each satellite transmits on exactly the same frequency; however, each satellites signal is doppler-shifted by the time it reaches the user. L1 carries a precise (P) code and a coarse/acquisition (C/A) code. L2 carries only the P code. A navigation data message is superimposed on these codes. The same navigation data message is carried on both frequencies. The P code is normally encrypted so that only the C/A code is available to civilian users; however, some information can be derived from the P code. When encrypted, the P code is known as Y code. The current series of GPS satellites broadcast data using two distinct signals of accuracy. The first is for the standard positioning system (SPS). The second one

7. HOW GPS WORKS? The satellites transmit very low power signals (20- 50 watts) allowing anyone with a GPS receiver to determine their location on earth. GPS receivers passively receive satellite signals; they do not transmit. The signals travel line of sight, meaning it will pass through clouds, smoke, glass and plastic but not through solid objects like buildings and mountains. So GPS receivers require an unobstructed view of the sky, they are used only outdoors and they often do not perform well within forested areas or near tall buildings. GPS operations depend on a very accurate time reference, which is provided by atomic clocks at the U.S. Naval Observatory. Each GPS satellite has atomic clocks on board. Each satellite transmits a message which essentially says, "I'm satellite #X, my position is currently Y, and this message Global Positioning System was sent at time Z." All GPS satellites synchronize operations so that these repeating signals are transmitted at the same instant. The signals, moving at the

speed of light, arrive at a GPS receiver at slightly different times because some satellites are farther away than others. Your GPS receiver reads the message and saves the ephemeris and almanac data for continual use. The distance to the GPS satellites can be determined by estimating the amount of time it takes for their signals to reach the receiver. When the satellite is generating the pseudo random code, the receiver is generating the same code and tries to match it up with the satellites code. The receiver then compares the two codes to determine how much it needs to delay (or shift) its code to match the satellites code. This gives the travel time. To determine your position the GPS receiver compares the time a signal was transmitted by a satellite with the time it was received by the GPS receiver. The time difference tells the GPS receiver how far away that particular satellite is (Range=travel time*velocity of light). Now that we have both satellite location and distance, the receiver can determine a position. If we add distance measurements from a few more satellites, we can triangulate our position. This is exactly what a GPS receiver does. Lets say we are 11000 miles from one satellite, our location is some where on an imaginary sphere that has the satellite at the center with radius 11000 miles. Then lets say we are 12000 miles from another satellite; the second sphere would intersect the first sphere to create a common circle. If we add a third satellite, at a distance of 13000 miles, we now have two common points where the three spheres intersect. With a minimum of three or more satellites, your GPS receiver can determine a latitude/longitude position - what's called a 2D position fix. With four or more satellites, a GPS receiver can determine a 3D position, which includes latitude, longitude, and altitude. With this calculated position the exact location of the receiver can be pinpointed on a digitized map with the use of the proper GIS software tools. By continuously updating your position, a GPS receiver can also accurately provide speed and direction of travel (referred to as 'ground speed' and 'ground track'). The satellites, operated by the U.S. Air Force, orbit with a period of 12 hours. Ground stations are used to precisely track each satellite's orbit. 8. GPS

ERRORS IN GPS With simultaneous data received from four satellites, ones position (e.g. latitude, longitude, altitude and time) can be calculated. More the number of satellites visible, better the accuracy. Under ideal conditions, the location is precisely and accurately determined. However, under real conditions, there is always some degree of error. Despite the opportunity for error, positioning can Global Positioning System be calculated to within a few hundred feet or less in most cases. Errors can be caused by Selective Availability or SA The degradation applied by the US DOD to the satellite signal. The SA process induces an error; however, using data from more than four satellites can mitigate that error. Nevertheless, the SA-induced error is presently a fact of life in each position calculation. Fortunately, SA will hamper very precise positioning accuracy, but not to a point where it undermines the requirements for personal navigation.

 Ionosphere and troposphere delays The GPS assumes that signals will be traveling between satellite and receiver is in a straight line. The signal will actually be delayed upon going through the ionosphere and troposphere. Receiver clock errors Since it is not practical to have atomic clocks in the receiver, the receiver timing references will have some small error. Multipath error Multipath error can produce very large deviations. Multipath is caused by satellite signals that arrive at the receiver after having bounced off some nearby structure (e.g. a tall building), or the ground. Because the path is not straight, the time delay will be longer, and the distance from the satellite will also seem to be longer (see figure 2). This can produce location errors that are unacceptable, particularly in urban automobile navigation applications. Signal attenuation Non-restricted GPS signals are transmitted at 1.575 GHz, a microwave Global Positioning System frequency. Such signals are blocked by steel and concrete structures (e.g. buildings and tunnels), and attenuated by passing through trees and leaves. The GPS specification for minimum detectable signals renders reception marginal when the signal is attenuated by foliage. Denser the foliage, more marginal the signal. As such, receivers that just meet this specification are not reliable for use in forests or even tree-lined streets. To ensure being able to detect signals in a forest, the receiver must provide sensitivity that exceeds the current standard. For example, the receiver must be able to detect signals whose power has been attenuated to a level of about 5 percent of the initial level. Orbital errors Also known as ephemeris errors, these are inaccuracies in the satellites reported position. 16. DGPS

18.GPS APPLICATIONS GPS in the air GPS offers an inexpensive and reliable supplement to existing navigation techniques for aircraft. Civil aircraft typically fly from one ground beacon, or waypoint, to another. Pilots on long distance flights without GPS rely on navigational beacons located across the country. With GPS, an aircraft's computers can be programmed to fly a direct route to a destination. The savings in fuel and time can be significant. A GPS-based navigation system will increase the number of airports that are able to help a well-equipped plane to land in lowvisibility conditions. In the near future in the USA it will even be allowed to use GPS as the primary form of navigation. GPS on land

Everyone who has the proper equipment can use it. The user of the GPSsystem uses the satellite system to locate where he/she is, and with the help of a Global Positioning System CD-rom or another large database that contains the GIS-map the car's computer is able to calculate the exact position of the car. Delivery trucks can receive GPS signals and instantly transmit their position to a central dispatcher. Police and fire departments can use GPS to dispatch their vehicles efficiently, reducing response time. GPS helps motorists find their way by showing their position and intended route on dashboard displays. Railroads are using GPS technology to replace older, maintenance-intensive mechanical signals. GPS in sea GPS is a powerful tool that can save a ship's navigator hours of celestial observation and calculation. GPS has improved efficient routing of vessels and enhanced safety at sea by making it possible to report a precise position to rescuers when disaster strikes. Military Uses for GPS With GPS, the soldiers are able to go places and maneuver in sandstorms or at night when even the troops who lived there couldnt. It is used also for troop deployment, artillery fire etc. GPS has become important for nearly all military operations and weapons systems. It is used on satellites to obtain highly accurate orbit data and to control spacecraft orientation. Picture the desert, with its wide, featureless expanses of sand. GPS receivers were carried by foot soldiers and attached to vehicles, helicopters, and aircraft instrument panels. GPS in scientific research GPS has made scientific field studies throughout the world more accurate and has allowed scientists to perform new types of geographic analyses. Geologists use GPS to measure expansion of volcanoes and movement along fault lines. Ecologists can use GPS to map differences in a forest canopy. Biologists can track animals using radio collars that transmit GPS data. Geographers use GPS to define spatial relationships between features of the Earth's surface. Scientists use GPS for a wide range of applications. Scientific analysis that formerly had to be conducted in a laboratory can now be done quicker and easier in the field. Applications for your business By use of GPS an insurance company will be able to track down a stolen vehicle in every situation. A transport company which has GPS installed enables her drivers to take the shortest route, avoiding traffic jams, to the delivery point using GPS and GIS, thus offering better and faster service. For a transport Global Positioning System company using boats for transport, GPS can be of excellent use to locate a ship with a specific cargo. The captain of a ship can use GPS to directly locate his ship, and also the use of a beacon to locate a drowning person is a good option for use of GPS. Monitor Nuclear Explosions Nuclear explosions emit an X-ray flash lasting less than 1 microsecond. This flash can be seen by the X-ray flash detectors on several satellites. By measuring the time delay of arrival of the flash at several satellites, the location of the explosion can be determined. Several of the GPS satellites carry background Xray radiation detectors to provide an accurate record of the X-ray environment

around the earth. Every Day Life During construction of the tunnel under the English Channel, British and French crews started digging from opposite ends: one from Dover, England, one from Calais, France. They relied on GPS receivers outside the tunnel to check their positions along the way and to make sure they met exactly in the middle. Otherwise, the tunnel might have been crooked. With GPS we would be able to help ships avoid icebergs by zeroing in on their position and notifying the ship of the location and possibly bypass a disaster. Surveying and map making with GPS Surveying that previously required hours or even days using conventional methods can be done in minutes with GPS. GPS for Horticulture In orchards, GPS is used mainly for orchard mapping or electrical mapping. The GPS system allows orchardist's to accurately keep records of chemical applications, which is extremely important where the government is concerned. It can keep track of orchard costs, record and track yields. GPS also allows for the fine-tuning of orchard management techniques for the grower. Set Your Watch! Because GPS includes a very accurate time reference, the system is also widely used for timekeeping. GPS receivers can display time accurate to within 150 billionths of a second.

20. CONCLUSION Imagine being an archaeologist on an expedition to the Yucatan Peninsula in Mexico. After preparing for your trip for months, you are certain that somewhere close by are the ruins of villages once populated by Mayan Indians. The forest is dense, the sun is hot, and the air is humid. The only way you can record where you have been, or find your way back to civilization, is by using the almost magic power of your GPS receiver. Or let's suppose you are an oceanographer for the International Ice Patrol. You may be responsible for finding icebergs that form in the cold waters of the North Atlantic Ocean. Some of these icebergs are 50 miles long. They are a major threat to the ships that travel those waters, and more than 300 of them form every winter. Using a GPS receiver, you are able to help ships avoid disaster by zeroing in on the position of the icebergs and notifying ship captains of their locations, perhaps averting disaster. There will probably be a time soon when every car on the road can be equipped with a GPS receiver, including a video screen installed in the dashboard. The indash monitor will be a full-color display showing your location and a map of the roads around you. It will probably monitor your car's performance and your car phone as well. Systems as amazing as this one are already being tested on highways in the United States. GPS is rapidly changing the way people are finding their way around the earth. Whether it is for fun, saving lives, getting there faster or whatever use you can dream of, GPS navigation is becoming more common everyday. GPS will figure in history alongside the development of the sea-going chronometer. This device

enabled seafarers to plot their course to an accuracy that greatly encouraged maritime activity, and led to the migration explosion of the nineteenth century. GPS will affect mankind in the same way. There are myriad applications that will benefit us individually and collectively.