WHAT IS MATTER

(And why does it matter?)

Throughout mankind, we have tried to explain the things we see around us. This is probably what sets us apart from the apes more than anything else. While other animals are simply content with the fact that a rock is a rock and a tree is a tree, we as humans must investigate and find out WHY a tree grows, and HOW was this rock formed? At first, man broke things down into various groups. Along the way someone found they could be broken down into 3 groups: Animal, Vegetable, and Mineral. This worked fine for monkeys, which were animal, and trees which were vegetable. Rocks of course must be mineral. But what is coal? It used to be a vegetable until it was compressed over time. Now it is a mineral? Another way of classifying things was found: Solids, Liquids and Gases. This was clearly easy to define. All substances could be simply looked at, and determined whether it was a solid or not. Ice is a solid. Water is a liquid. Steam would be considered a gas. So what then is sunlight? What is magnetism? What is electricity? Benjamin Franklin concluded from his many experiments, that electricity had certain properties, such as pressure, current. He further concluded that its movement was predictable, like the pouring of water from one glass to another. From his conclusions, it was conventionally assumed that while we might not be able to SEE electricity at work, we could see its effects. And electricity, like unto water, acted like a fluid in every sense of the word.

So again we pose the question, "What is MATTER?" And we answer the question as follows: Matter is the stuff around us.

Scientifically we define matter as all the "material" things about us. Matter includes all natural and manmade structures, liquids, metals, gases, etc.; in other words, everything that has weight and occupies space.

All matter then takes up space. And anything that takes up space can be broken down into smaller pieces. A solid block of wood may be cut into smaller pieces until it is toothpicks, splinters, even sawdust. A gallon of water can be broken down into quarts, cups, even drops. But there comes a point where it can be broken down no longer and still retain its basic properties. In other words,

there is a point where water can get no smaller, and still be water. That point is called theMOLECULE.

Atoms and the Definition of Electricity

We know that molecules exist, as some can be seen through an electron microscope. They look like clusters of yet smaller particles.But if the molecule is the smallest point that we can break our (example) water down to, and it still retain its basic properties (remain water), how can it have smaller particles? If we take water, and break it down through electrolysis, we find that water is made up of 2 chemicals or ELEMENTS : hydrogen and oxygen. Elements are arranged by their basic properties, as being metals, etc. on a chart known as the periodic table of the elements. When I went to school, all matter, regardless of size or state, could be broken down into approximately 105 different elements. Since then, more elements have been discovered, and will continue to be discovered. Some of the more common elements are carbon, copper, oxygen and aluminum. Elements may existalone, or they may exist in clusters, or molecules, along with other elements. For example, a piece ofcopper wire is solely made up of the element copper. By comparison, water is a combination of two different elements: oxygen and hydrogen. An element can be broken down into even smaller particles, called atoms. An atom is the smallest unit into which an element can be broken down and still retain its original characteristics. An atom resembles a little solar system. The center of this solar system, called the NUCLEUS , is made up of parts known as PROTONS and NEUTRONS . Around the NUCLEUS, tiny little particles are constantly rotating in an orbit. We call these particles ELECTRONS

Fig. 1-1 illustrates and atom of helium. Note that it contains 2 electrons, 2 protons and 2 neutrons. The atom is far too small to be seen, even with the aid of the most powerful microscope. However, we do have a vast amount of knowledge about the atom and its inner parts. The proton differs both electrically and physically. Electrically, the proton is POSITIVELY CHARGED , and is about 1850 times heavier than the electron. The orbiting electron, on the other hand, is much lighter, and is said to be NEGATIVELY CHARGED . Note the fact that the larger mass / heavier particle is in the center, and the lighter / smaller mass particle is orbiting it. This is a common feature in nature. Think of a planet, and its moons. The smaller, lighter moons orbit the larger, heavier planet. For the sake of simplicity, the neutron can "effectively" be thought of as consisting of both a proton and an electron. It has the same approximate weight as the proton, however, it is neutral in charge. This is because the positive charge of the proton cancels out the negative charge of theelectron.

- - - - - ADVANCED CONCEPT - - - - Interestingly, this particle was elusive in its discovery. In 1920, Rutheford proved that the math worked out that there needed to be one proton per electron, but the math also worked out that the atoms weighed more than they should (double the weight) according to the atomic number. It wasn't until in 1930 that Bothe and Becker noticed that bombardment of beryllium with alpha particles from a radioactive source produced neutral radiation which was penetrating but non-ionizing. Curie and Joliot proved that when you bombarded a paraffin target with this radiation, it ejected protons. Finally 1932, Eames Chadwick was able to prove that the neutral particle could not be a photon by bombarding targets other than hydrogen, including nitrogen, oxygen, helium and argon, and thus surmised that there was an unknown, neutrally polarized particle, with about the same size and mass of a proton. Hence - a neutron. - - - - -END OF ADVANCED CONCEPT - - - - -

Now atoms are not always so simple as the Helium atom discussed above. They always have the same parts, but not always in the same amounts or configurations. Atoms with more protons and electrons, of course, must be larger and heavier. Under normal circumstances, Atoms seek to be neutral in charge, and so will have an equal amount of electrons and protons. So if an atom like copper, has 29 protons in its center, it will also have 29 electrons. Because these electrons are rotating in an orbit, having too many electrons in a given orbit could cause them to crash into each other. So mother nature placed them in different orbits on different levels. We call them layers or rings. Depending on which ring we are discussing, each ring has a maximum amount of electrons which it can hold, without having to form another ring. For instance, the first ring can only hold 2 electrons. So if we have an atom with 3 protons, (As in the case of Lithium) it must also have 3 electrons. Since it can only hold 2 electrons in the number 1 ring, it is forced to create a second ring, with only 1 electron in it. In the case of Lithium, this 1electron is said to exist in the outer ring, or the VALENCE RING

In Electronics, we are mainly concerned with this VALENCE RING, because it is here that the magic of Electronics takes place. If a given ring is shy of being full, it wants to 'borrow' an electronfrom somewhere else. If an atom has one too many electrons, it pushes the 'extra' electron way out on a ring of it's own, and tries to 'loan' it to another atom. Electronics, in its purest form, is the study of the movement of electrons from one atom to another. Usually, this takes place by borrowing and loaning (temporarily) of electrons. While we can not actually see this going on, we can monitor it's effects, which can be amazing!

The Law of Electromagnetic charges:

Most objects, such as a piece of cork normally have a neutral or zero charge; that is, they contain as many electrons as they do protons. If a piece of cork could be made to have an excess of electrons, it would become negatively charged. On the other hand, if the cork were to be made to have a deficiency of electrons, then we would have an excess of protons, and it would then be positively charged. If we take any positively charged body, and bring it near a negatively charged body, the two bodies will be drawn together. If on the other hand, the two objects have like charges, then they will repel each other. These two reactions form the basis of the first law of electricity, known as The Law of Electromagnetic Charges.

The law states: Like charges repel, and unlike charges attract.

Differences of Potential:
If we connect a copper wire between two oppositely charged bodies, an electron flow would result. Electrons will flow from the negatively charged body to the positively charged body. This is because it is a basic law of nature that CHARGED BODIES SEEK TO BECOME NEUTRAL . What happens here, is that the positively charged body,which has a deficiency of electrons, attracts the excess of electrons from the negatively charged body. This action continues until the deficiency and excess of electrons disappeared and the two bodies become neutral.

Conductors, Insulators, and Resistors.

Conductors and Insulators

Because of the distribution of electrons in the VALENCE RING of an atom, some elements will allow electrical current to flow easier than others. Materials which easily allow the flow of electric current are called CONDUCTORS . CONDUCTORS do not hold tightly to the electrons in theirVALENCE RING, and are said to have a large number of FREE ELECTRONS . Some examples of good conductors are Gold, Silver, Copper, Aluminum, Zinc, and Carbon. Other elements do not allow electrical current to flow easily, and these are called INSULATORS . INSULATORS tend to hold tightly to the electrons in their VALENCE RING, and do not want to share with other atoms. Some examples of good insulators are Quartz, Mica, Teflon, Polystyrene, and Water. (Yes, water is an insulator.... not a conductor. This will be explained later in more detail).

Resistors and Resistance:

If water is moving through a hose, we say that it has FLOW . If we restrict the flow, by pinching the hose, we are causing friction at the point of restriction. This friction can be said, is resistance to the flow of the water. Electricity, according to Benjamin Franklin, acts like a fluid. It flows and has a measurable CURRENT . We can restrict its flow by adding electrical friction. We say that the restriction of electrical flow is called RESISTANCE and that a device which causes such RESISTANCE is called a RESISTOR . All materials, even the very best CONDUCTORS demonstrate a certain amount of RESISTANCE to electron flow. In order to compare the resistance of various materials, we need to have some standard unit of measurement. The unit of measurement for resistance is called the Ohm , and is indicated by the Greek letter Omega ( ). One is defined as the amount of resistance that a 1000 foot piece of #10 copper wire has. A 3000 foot piece of #10 copper wire would have 3 Ohms of resistance. A 500 foot piece of #10 copper wirewould exhibit 1/2 an Ohm, etc. Although Ohm is the basic unit, KiloOhm and MegOhm are frequently used. 1 KiloOhm (K ) is equal to 1 thousand . 1 MegOhm (M &Omega) is equal to 1 million . There are 4 factors that determine the resistance of a material: (1) Type of Material The resistance of various types of materials are different. For instance, copper is a betterconductor of electricity than gold, and therefore has less resistance.

(2) Length The resistance of a material is directly proportional to its length. The longer the material is, the more resistance it has. This is because the electrons must flow through more material, and therefore meets more friction over the entire distance. (3) Cross Sectional Area The resistance of a material is inversely proportional to the cross sectional area of the material. This means that the thicker the substance is across, the lower the resistance. This is because the larger the cross sectional area is, the less friction there is over a given length. (Picture in your mind, if you will, that a fire hose will pass more water than a garden hose, because the wider the pipe, the less resistance it has). (4) Temperature In various types of materials, resistance can vary inversely or directly with the temperature. This is because of the chemical properties of the material. In Carbon, for instance, the resistance decreases as the temperature rises. So we say it varies inversely. In copper, however, the opposite is true, with the rise in temperature, we have a rise in the resistance. Resistance then, is basically a form of friction which restricts the flow of an electrical current. In basic science class, you learned that by putting your hands together, and rubbing them quickly, your hands get warm. This is because friction generates heat. Electrical friction - RESISTANCE - also generates heat. So not only can resistance change with heat, but causes heat as well. An important point to remember when working with resistors, especially in high power circuits.

Voltage and Current

Already we have touched on the two terms VOLTAGE and CURRENT . Now it is time to discuss them further. VOLTAGE is the term used to describe the electrical "pressure" or difference of potential that we spoke of earlier. Just as water pressure is the force in physics that pushes water through a pipe, VOLTAGE is the physical force which pushes electrons through a wire.

Examine illustration 4.1. You see a large tank with a hose attached to the bottom of the tank. When the tank is full of water, gravity causes that water to exert pressure, which pushes down toward the bottom of the tank. With the hose at the bottom, it allows a place for the water to escape. Water Pressure, therefore causes water current to flow through the hose.

In the same sense, electrical pressure - just as water pressure pushes water through a pipe. Voltage , causes CURRENT to flow through a wire. VOLTAGE has several other names. It is sometimes called ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE (E.M.F. for short), IR DROP (this will be explained a little later), and POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE . The unit of measurement for VOLTAGE is the VOLT , and it is measured by a VOLTMETER . You may run into KiloVolt s (Thousand Volts), MilliVolt s (1 Thousandth of a Volt), or even MicroVolt s (1 Millionth of a Volt). The problem with discussing VOLTAGE is that it is difficult to talk about it, without discussingCURRENT and RESISTANCE in the same breath. The three are almost inseparable, as you will soon come to see. CURRENT is the term used to describe the FLOW or movement of electrons. The principle shouldn't be foreign to you by now. Water has current. Electricity has current. Water has current only when the river flows. If it is standing water, such as in a pond, it does not flow, and therefore has no current. Electricity only has current when it is on the move. Current is measured in AMPERE s, using an AMMETER , typically discussed as MilliAmpere ( 1 thousandth of an Ampere ) s or MicroAmpere ( 1 millionth of an Ampere ) s. Quite often, for the sake of quick speech and quicker typing, it is shortened to just 'Amps or MilliAmps.

Sources of Electricity
Although electricity is a naturally occurring phenomena, in its natural forms, (Lightening, Static Electricity, etc) it has bee of little use to mankind. We have, however, invented ways to generate electricity. Electricity can be generated by Chemical, Magnetic, or Transducer methods. Chemical :I learned 40 some years ago, that the earliest records of Electronics finds the early Egyptians around the time of Moses, having discovered how to make a crude battery using lemons (which have citric acid) and two dissimilar metals. Interesting story, albeit not provable. In fact, the earliest "feasable" battery might have been a battery-like artifact was unearthed at Khuyut Rabbou'a near Baghdad dubbed the "Baghdad Battery". However, it likely was not a battery at all, but rather a storage container for important documents. In truth, the first true battery, the "Voltaic Pile" was not created until around the year 1800 by Alessandro Volta - the man we name the unit of measurement of electrical pressure (the Volt) after. In any case, all batteries produced using twodissimilar conductive materials into an acid ELECTROLYTE .

Modern batteries are a little more complex than a couple of lemons though: Perhaps the most common battery in use today is the dry cell, which can be found in nearly every flashlight! The dry cell contains a carbon rod, which acts as the positive terminal, surrounded by a core consisting of manganese dioxide, zinc chloride, glycerin, carbon particles, and sawdust. Around this core is a chemical paste made up of an ammonium chloride solution in starch. A zinc can is then used as the container for the cell and also acts as the negativeterminal. The carbon rod reacts with the zinc casing via the pasty electrolyte. This creates a 1.5 Volt potential difference between the positive and negative terminals of the cell. It is not the electrolyte, but the electrodes themselves (the zinc and carbon) which determine the voltage of the cell. Therefore, no matter which electrolyte is chosen to be placed between the zinc and the carbon, the cell will still produce 1.5 Volts. So how do we come up with a 9 Volt battery? Simple. By placing cells in series, we can add the Voltages together. Two 1.5 Volt cells in series would produce a 3 Volt output. 3 would product 4.5 Volts. 6 would produce 9 Volts. When we place cells in series, we say that it is a BATTERY of cells. A close cousin to the lemon batteries is the modern LEAD-ACID type battery. Commonly used as automotive type batteries, the negative electrode is made up of pure lead and the positive electrode is a lead-peroxide combination. The electrolyte nominally used is a diluted sulfuric acid. A single lead-acid cell produces 2.1 Volts, but these batteries are commonly produced in either 6.3 or 12.6 Volts.

Direct Current Theory

If we take a light bulb and connect it to a battery, the bulb willlight up. The lamp lights up because current flows through it. The current leaves the battery at the negative terminal, flows through the bulb, and returns to the positive terminal of the battery. The electrons flow in one direction. This is known in electronics as DIRECT CURRENT flow because the electrons flow only in one direction. The arrows in the figure show the direction that the current would flow in this circuit. As long as we can follow the current from the negative terminal of the battery throughout the entire circuit, and back to the positive terminal, we have a COMPLETE CIRCUIT PATH . It is very important to remember that current will ONLY flow if the circuit path is complete. If we were to remove the light bulb from the circuit, the circuit path would not be complete, and while voltage would still exist on the battery, no current would flow through the circuit. In order to have any complete circuit, you are required to have at least 3 parts: (1) The SOURCE or SUPPLY of Voltage. (2) The LOAD which uses the source Voltage. (3) A complete path of connecting wires.

Schematic Symbols
Sometime over the years, some bright soul determined that it would be difficult to draw a picture of every component that you decided to put into a circuit. However, they needed a way to tell their colleagues about discoveries and accomplishments. So a system was developed that was a sort of "electrical shorthand". They call it a SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM and the individual component representations are called SCHEMATIC SYMBOLS . Throughout the course, I will be introducing you to the various SCHEMATIC SYMBOLS one by one. This lesson

will take you through the first two symbols, and describe how they are used in a circuit. The first three SCHEMATIC SYMBOLS you will be introduced to are the lamp, battery andresistor. Remember that a resistor is any device which causes electrical friction. In electronics, the resistor can be substituted for any current load. Theschematic symbol for a battery can likewise be substituted for any direct current supply voltage. So, in essence, we could theoretically use our battery and resistor to represent our light bulbcircuit. You will notice that the picture on the left is the same one we just looked at. The one on the right actually has two schematic diagrams. The schematic on the left is an exact representation of the picture on the left. The schematic on the right we say is an ELECTRICAL EQUIVILANT circuit for the one on the left. Any circuit, no matter how complex, can be broken down to being a source and a load. The resistor represents the light bulb, which is the load of the circuit. Anytime you are having a problem figuring out how a circuit works, it can be helpful to break it down to an ELECTRICAL EQUIVILANT circuit.

The SCHEMATIC SYMBOL for the light bulb is pretty self explanatory. The Schematic for theresistor looks like a series of sharp turns. Just remember that on a road, you have to slow down at sharp turns, and electrical flow (current) has to slow down at a resistor. The battery needs a little explanation. The lines represent the electrodes of a battery. Note that the SHORT line is always the NEGATIVE terminal, and the longer line is always the POSITIVE terminal. Also along the way, I will try to give you an idea of what certain types of electronic components look like, although there are so many shapes out there, I can not possibly cover them all. I am fairly certain you already know what a battery and a light bulb look like, but you may never have seen a resistor. There are many types of resistors, but some of the most common types are shown in the picture to the left. The top one is a ceramic coated " wirewound ", which, as its name implies, consists of a winding of wire, cut to a certain length to create a certain amount of resistance. The second is a carbon composite, and the third is a metal film or metal oxide, which has very tight resistance tolerances. Note that on wirewound resistors, the values are printed on the side, whereas the carbon and metal types have their

values painted on as color coded bands around the resistor. EXTRA CREDIT Not a required part of the course, but if you wish to pursue electronics, you should probably memorize the resistor color code. It will be used throughout your career.

THE RESISTOR COLOR CODE

Many resistors that are produced are very small. In addition, resistors can get extremely hot with use. So hot, in fact, that they will often burn off any small lettering that may be printed on them. For this reason, resistors have been made with colored bands painted onto them. These bands conform to a universal color code, which identifies the value and tolerance of the resistor. Each of the colors below, correspond to a particular number. For the purpose of memorization, I was taught a MNEMONIC to remember the colors and their related numbers. However, for reasons of political correctness, I can not teach you the same mnemonic. The mnemonic procedure, though, is still valid, so I will present you with a new - more politically correct one. If you memorize this phrase, you will never forget the resistor color code:

Black Bunnies Run Over Your Greens But People Get Wise - Ripe Golden Squash Now

If you remember this mnemonic, you will not only know the values of resistors on sight, but also their tolerances. Here's how it works: Using the above phrase, it will indicate the following numbers:
BLAC K 0 BROW N 1 RE D 2 ORANG E 3 YELLO W 4 GREE N 5 BLU PURPL E E 6 7 GRE Y 8 WHIT E 9

Resistors may have anywhere from 3 to 6 colored bands on them. As a rule, the first two bands are the "value bands", so the color directly corresponds to the value. In the example, we are using a 27,000 Ohm ( or 27K Ohm ) resistor. The first two colors are RED and PURPLE, indicating thenumbers 2 and 7. This is where things get tricky. On the 3 an 4 band resistors, the third band, called the "MULTIPLIER" - in this case being Orange, indicates that the 27 is followed by THREE zeros ( 000 ). So in this case, we have 27 followed by 000 or a 27,000 Ohm resistor. If there are only 3 bands, then we are done. 2 Questions arise though: 1. Why did we memorize the "Ripe Golden Squash Now" portion of the mnemonic? We already have all 10 numbers! 2. What about the 4th band?

Very good questions. They are both answered at the same time. The "Ripe Golden Squash Now" portion of the mnemonic refers to the 4th band, which is known as the "TOLERANCE" band. It has a very important job. (Note that the LAST band is ALWAYS the Tolerance Band. It usually has a wider separation than the other bands have from each other ( it is farther away ). We as people, are not perfect. Because of this, we make imperfect products. No resister is perfect. They are, however, all close to the value listed on them, plus or minus a certain amount. The amount of difference

between their actual value, and the value listed on them should always fall within a certain tolerance. That tolerance is listed on the resistor, and is also designated by a colored band. Ripe Golden Squash Now (RGSN) corresponds with Red, Gold, Silver, None - the order of resistor tolerances in ascending order. Red = 2%, Gold=5%, Silver=10%, and No Band (None) = 20%. Let's assume that you have a 1000 Ohm resistor. If it has a 10% tolerance, it can be off by 100 Ohms, and still be good (1000 +/- 100). So it will be allowed to be anywhere from 1100 to 900 Ohms, and still be considered good. If a 1000 Ohm resistor has a SILVER tolerance band, and is only 920 Ohms, it is considered to be within tolerance, and is a good resistor. However, if a 1000 Ohm resistor has a GOLD or RED tolerance band, and is only 920 Ohms, it is OUT of acceptable tolerance, and is considered to be a bad resistor. Now in the second example, we also have a 27,000 Ohm resistor, but the color code scheme is a little different. We still have a RED and a PURPLE as our first two colors, indicating the number27, but the third band, instead of being orange, is BLACK, indicating Zero. The FOURTH band is the multiplier, and being RED indicates 2 zeros. Here is how this resistor is read: 27 0 00, or 27,000.

Ohm's Law
Thus far, we have discussed current, resistance, and voltage. Now we shall discuss the important relationship that exists between the three. Around 1840, German physicist Georg Ohm noted that there was a distinct mathematical relationship between Voltage, current and resistance. He

then wrote the basis for what we now call OHMS LAW . Ohm's Law states that Voltage (in Volts) is equal to the product of the current flowing through a resistance within a circuit. In other words... Voltage = Current times Resistance. Now comes the bone in the throat of the student. While we measure Voltage in Volts, we often use the letter E to represent Voltage. This is because another word for Voltage is ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE, which is shortened to EMF or simply E. Also, we use the letter I to represent current. So that our formula becomes:

So what does this mean? Simply put, if we have a resistance of 10 Ohms (R=10), and a current of 10 Amps(I=10), we will have a Voltage of 100 Volts, because 10*10=100 (E=100). Ohms law can also be stated two other ways. By using basic algebra, we can turn the formulaaround to make it say:

and

EXTRA CREDIT: Learning about Ohm's Law is fine and dandy, but if you are going to USE Ohm's law on a regularbasis, you really ought to memorize it. Memorizing Ohm's law may sound like a time consuming and daunting task, but if you

do it the Electronics Theory.Com way - you'll have it committed to memory for life within a few minutes! You just have to imprint a picture in your mind. Years ago, Native American Indians used to roam the plains of the United States. These Indians would look across the plains, and see all kinds of animals. They would see rabbits running across the field, and eagles soaring in the sky. Now, picture things from the Indian's stand point - he sees the Eagle flying over the Rabbit: Say to yourself Indian equals Eagle over Rabbit. Now just use the first letter of each word: I = E over R, which is this formula:

However, from the Rabbit's point of view, he sees things a little differently. The Rabbit looks out and sees the Eagle flying over the Indian. Say to yourself Rabbit equals Eagle over Indian. Now just use the first letter of each word: R = E over I, which is this formula:

Finally, the Eagle up in the sky sees both the Indian and the Rabbit standing on the ground together. Say to yourself Eagle equals Indian and Rabbit together. Now just use the first letter of each word: E = IR, which is this formula:

Now if you simply remember the story of the Indian, Eagle and Rabbit, you will have memorized all three formulae.

Ohm's Law Continued

So now we have 3 different ways that we can algebraically express Ohm's Law.

or

or

But of what significance is it? Here is the gist of it. If we know 2 out of the 3 factors of the equation, we can figure out the third. Let's say we know we have a 3 Volt battery. We also know we are going to put a 100 Ohm resistor in circuit with it. How much current can we expect will flow through the circuit? Without Ohm's Law, we would be at a loss. But because we have Ohm's Law, we can calculate the

unknown current, based upon the Voltage and Resistance.

Let's try another problem. Say we have the circuit below. We know the Voltage and the Current, because we have meters to indicate such in the circuit. When we plug in the unknown loadresistance, the Voltmeter reads 45V and the Ammeter reads 2 Amperes. What is the resistance of the load? Well now, if'n I done my math a'right, I should be using this formula:

Series Resistance
Ohm's Law teaches us that Voltage is equal to the product of resistance and current. This is fine if we have a circuit as simple as a single light run by a battery. But how often do we truly encounter a circuit which has only one resistance? It is actually quite seldom. Most circuits have many resistances in various combinations. So we must learn how to mathematically deal with all these resistances. Fortunately, combined resistances can only be configured in two ways: Resistances Combined in Series Resistances Combined in Parallel

We will discuss each of these separately. This class is dedicated to the study of Resistances in Series, which you will find, are as simple as 2+2. First, let us describe the difference between a SERIES circuit and a PARALLEL circuit. A SERIES circuit is hooked together like a chain, with each link connected to the link before it. If any given link in the chain is broken, the whole chain is broken, and doesn't work. If we think of our circuit as a water pipe, a resistorcould be a valve in the pipe. A series circuit would have several valves in the same pipe. If we shut the water off at any one valve, the water flow through the entire pipe would be restricted. Let's say this again another way. The flow, or current, is restricted by all the valves, but the valve with the most resistance is the one that decreases the flow the most. Now if we draw a schematic of resistors in series, it would look like the diagram at the left. This first diagram would be an exact representation of our waterflow circuit. The tank provides a source of water, just as a battery supplies a source of electricity. The valves, which restrict the flow of water, represent the resistors, which restrict the flow of electric current.

The diagram on the right shows the equivalent circuit, with only one resistor(Rt) taking the place of all 3 resistors in the left diagram. Recall that using an electrical equivalent circuit, that ANY circuit, no matter how complex, can be represented with a single voltage source, and a single load. The question is, how do we determine the value of the TOTAL resistance when we have multiple resistors? This is the scope of this lesson. How do we mathematically combine resistances that are connected in series?

As I said before... it is as easy as 2+2. If two or more resistors are connected end to end, as in a chain, we say that they are in series. To find out the TOTAL RESISTANCE of resistors in series, all we have to do is add up their individual values. It is that simple. If we have 3 resistors, (R1, R2, and R3) each with a value of 2 , the total resistance (RT) of the series circuit would be 2+2+2, or a total of 6 . Hence, RT=R1+R2+R3+... is the formula for resistors combined in series.

Series Resistance and Ohm's Law

So far, we have learned that if two or more resistors are connected end to end, they are in a SERIES circuit. We learned that the total resistance in a series circuit is equal to the sum of the individual resistances. What we didn't discuss, so far, was the relationship between Voltage, Current, and Resistance in a circuit with multiple resistances. If we examine our waterflow circuit, we find that any water which flows past the 3rd valve, must first flow past the 2nd and

1st valves. By this we can deduce that the current, or flow of water, is the same past all three valves. At no time can more water flow past one valve than past another. The same is true in electronics. In a SERIES circuit, the current is the same at every point.

Using our previous example of 2 resistors, if we then have a 12 Volt source, what would be our current through the circuit? Let us examine this. We know that because the circuit is series, no matter where in the circuit we are, the current will remain the same. So the problem is, what would be the given current for the complete circuits given voltage and resistance totals? Adding up our 3 resistors, we come to 6 , and we know our Voltage is 12. So using Ohms Law, we derive this formula:

Parallel Circuits

We mentioned prior, that there were 2 types of circuits, SERIES and PARALLEL. So far, all we have talked about is series. Now we are going to discuss the difference between a series and a PARALLEL circuit. In the series circuit, all the electricity followed the same path. In our waterflow representation, this meant that all the water flowed through 1 pipe. In PARALLEL circuit, however, there are multiple paths that current can flow through. Notice that in the picture to the left, that there are 3 different paths which the water can take. All 3 paths have the same incoming pressure, but the flow of some paths can be more restricted than in others. Parallel circuits in electronics work on the same principle. While there may be multiple paths for the electricity to flow through, the electrical pressure (Voltage) remains the same through all paths. As you can see from the diagram on the right, there are 4 meters placed in this circuit to measure the current. The first 3, (A 1 , A 2 , and A 3 ) measure only the current flowing through that individual leg of the circuit. The 4th, A T measures the Total current of the circuit. If you take the three individual currents, and add them all together, they will equal the total current, measured on the 4th meter. From this we can see that the current in a parallel circuit is additive.

Resistance in a parallel circuit can be quite a bit trickier than in a series circuit. It is found by "Reciprocating the Sum of the Reciprocals ". (huh?)Simple. Taking the reciprocal of a number means dividing "1" by that number. The reciprocal of 2 would be 1 divided by 2 or . Most modern calculators have a [1/X] button just for this purpose. So if you take the reciprocals of the values of all of the resistors, which would, of course, give

you a bunch of fractions, and add them all up, then reciprocate their sum, you would have the answer. The formula would look something like this:

Parallel Circuits - the Plague!

Now that I have you thoroughly confused, let me make things as clear as mud for you. Let's begin with a very simple circuit: 2 resistors and 1 battery. You are given the following information about the circuit: R 1 = 50 R 2 = 200 A 1 reads .2 Amps in current ( I=.2 ) Find: Total Voltage Total Circuit Resistance Total Current And Finally, the Current through A 2 Now this isn't as tuff as it first looks. Let's break the problem down. We know according to Ohm's law, that if we know the resistance and current, we can find the voltage. E R1 = I R1 x R 1 . E = .2 x 50 = 10 E = 10 Volts. Now that we know that the voltage for the entire circuit is 10 volts, let's find the total Resistance. First, we find the reciprocals of the individual resistances: R 1 = 50 ohms. 1/50 = .02 R 2 = 200 ohms. 1/200 = .005

Now we add the two reciprocals together: .02 + .005 = .025 Finally we take the reciprocal of the sum: 1 / .025 = 40 So if the Total Voltage of the circuit is 10 Volts, and the Total Resistance = 40 then by using Ohms Law again we can find the total current. I Total = E Total / R Total I = 10/40 = Ampere. Almost finished now. So far we know: R 1 = 50 R 2 = 200 A 1 reads .2 Amps in current ( I=.2 ) V Total = 10 R Total = 40 and I Total = Now we have at least 2 methods by which we can find the current through A2 . We know that the Total current is the sum of all the individual leg currents, so if we subtract the current of A 1 from the Total current we get this: I Total - I 1 = I 2 .25 - .2 = I 2 = .05 Amperes. The other method would be by using Ohms Law. We know the resistance of R 2 = 200 . We also know that the voltage across R 2 = 10 Volts. Hence: 10 Volts / 200 = .05 Amperes. Either way, our final result is A 2 = .05 Amps

Electromagnets
We defined POWER as the RATE of doing work. The actual work or capacity to do work is calledENERGY . Energy can be Kinetic (dynamic), Potential (static), or Radiant (electromagnetic) in nature. Energy, according physical law of "Conservation of Energy", is never lost nor gained. It may be changed

from one form to another, but it never just "disappears". Just like in our resistor, we had energy being used which was dissipated as heat. The electrical energy was transformed into heat energy. It didn't disappear, it merely changed form. There are many other forms of energy. Some other forms of energy are light, sound, momentum, and MAGNETISM . We are all familiar with magnets, and their peculiar properties which make them seem almost magical. A magnet can be used to hold a screw onto a screwdriver, to lift a car, or find your way in the forest. But what is it that makes a magnet do what it does? If we take a magnet, and mark one end of it, we can identify one end from the other. If we then suspend the magnet from a string, so that it is free to rotate, we will notice that one end will ALWAYS point toward the north, and that it will ALWAYS be the same end of the magnet that points north. From this, we have concluded that there is a NORTH POLEand a SOUTH POLE on every magnet. Typically the north pole is marked with an N, and south pole is marked with an S. Now if we take two magnets with known, marked poles, and bring the North Pole of one magnet close to the South Pole of the second magnet, the two magnets will PULL TOWARD one another until they are connected. If we reverse the experiment, and bring the North Pole of one magnet, near the North Pole of the second magnet, they will PUSH AWAY from each other. This effect is called the LAW OF POLES which states: OPPOSITE POLES ATTRACT each other, whereas LIKE POLES REPEL each other.

Why is it that magnets act this way? And why do magnets have poles? These are questions which science has found difficult to answer. It is believed, though, that according to the Molecular Theory of Magnetism inside of all magnets, the tiny molecules that the magnet are made of, are all little tiny magnets in themselves, and that they are all lined up in a row.

In a normal piece of steel, for instance, the molecules are arranged in random order, with positive and negative poles scattered about in all directions. But when magnetized, the tiny magnetic molecules line up, allowing the whole piece of steel to act like one big magnet.

If we place a magnet beneath a piece of paper, and place iron filings on top of the piece of paper, the result would look something like the example to the right. The iron filings will arrange themselves to LOOK like the invisible magnetic force which surrounds the magnet. This invisible magnetic force which exists in the air or space around the magnet, is known as a MAGNETIC FIELD , and the lines are called MAGNETIC LINES OF FORCE . Now if we take a non-magnetic object, such as a glass rod, and place it within the path of a magnetic field, the lines of force produced by the field would pass right through the object.

If, however, we wrap a magnetically conductive layer around the object, such as a soft iron, the iron will cause the lines of force to bend, and go around the object instead of through it. This is called a SHIELDING effect.

Electromagnets
There are actually 2 types of magnetism: 1.) Temporary 2.) Permanent

Soft iron can be easily magnetized by placing it inside a magnetic field. However, as soon as the iron is removed from the field, most of its magnetism fades away. A negligible amount of magnetism is, however, retained. This type of magnet is called a TEMPORARY MAGNET . The small amount of magnetism that does remain is called RESIDUAL MAGNETISM . Steel or hard iron, which is difficult to magnetize, retains the majority of its magnetism long after it has been removed from the magnetic field. This type of magnet is called a PERMANENT MAGNET. Permanent magnets are generally made in the shape of a bar or a horseshoe. Of the two shapes, the horseshoe type has the stronger magnetic field because the magnetic poles are closer to each other. Horseshoe magnets are used in the construction of headphones. Loudspeakers, on the other hand, generally use a type of Bar magnet. It has been found that when a compass is placed in close proximity to a wire, and an electrical current flows through the wire, the compass needle will turn until it is at a right angle to the conductor. Since a compass needle lines up in the direction of a magnetic field, there must be a magnetic field around the wire, which is at right angles with the conductor! Science has discovered then, that wires which carry current have the same type of magnetic field that exists around a magnet! We say that an electric current INDUCES a magnetic field. If you closely examine the picture on the right, you will find that there are "rings" circling about the wire. These rings represent the magnetic lines of force which exist around a wire which carries an electric current. They are strongest directly around the wire, and extend outward from the wire, gradually decreasing in intensity. You will also note that the compass needle is steady, and not spinning. This indicates that the magnetic field goes in a ring around the wire. It also travels in a specific direction.

The direction of the magnetic field can be predicted by use of what we call the LEFT HAND RULE . According to the left hand rule, if you wrap your left hand around the wire that is carrying the current, with your thumb following the direction of current flow (thumb points positive), your fingers will show you what direction the magnetic field will turn. Note that when the current flows from negative to positive, it induces a magnetic field in a specific direction, such that the north pole is ALWAYS at right angles with the electrical current flow.

No matter which way we turn or twist the wire, the left hand rule applies. But what happens if we put a loop in the wire? When the wire is looped, as you will see from the picture on the right, the little magnetic fields that wrap around the wire cross through each other's path. If you use the left hand rule, and follow arou nd the coils of the wire, you will find that the magnetic field acts as if it is running through the hole inside of the loop. (If the loop were a donut, the magnetic field would go through the hole in the donut). Thinking along these lines... if we put a dozen donuts side to side, with a stick going through the holes, the magnetic field would follow the stick. Through experimentation, it was found that if a wire is wound in the form of a coil (coiled up), the total strength of the magnetic field around the coil will be magnified. This is because the magnetic fields of each turn add up to make one large resulting magnetic field. Furthermore, it was found that the direction of the magnetic field could be predicted. The POSITIVE end of the battery is ALWAYS connected to the NORTH POLE of the coil, regardless of whether the coil is wound clockwise or counterclockwise. The coil of wire, because of their properties and capabilities, makes up one of the main components in electronics. For this reason, it has taken on many names, to include: ELECTROMAGNET INDUCTOR SOLENOID COIL Coils have been given their own schematic symbol. So far we have discussed the schematic symbol for the resistor, lamp and battery. The schematic symbol for the coil is on the left. Note that there can be many variations of this, which will be discussed in more detail later. There are several factors which determine the strength of a given electromagnet. They are: 1). The amount of current - the greater the current, the greater the field. 2). The number of turns - the greater the number of turns in a coil, the

greater the field. 3). The PERMEABILITY of the core. The core of a coil is the material that the coil is wrapped around. It can be glass, wood, metal, air, or even a vacuum. If the coil is wound upon an iron core, the strength of the electromagnet is increased several hundred times over what it would be with an air core. We say that iron is more permeable than air. Permeability is the ability of a given substance to conduct magnetic lines of force. It is similar to the effect of conductance with respect to electrical current flow. The standard for permeability is air, which is given a permeability of one. All other substances are compared to air. Some examples of substances with high permeability are permalloy and iron. To the right is a picture of a " variable " air core coil. This particular coil is adjustable in value, based on a moving " tap " in the coil, which rolls along the outside of the coil as the spindle is turned. Sometimes this is called a " roller inductor ". As the spindle is turned, the coil itself rotates, and the tap moves along the length of the coil, changing its " electrical length ". Of course this is just one example of the many types and shapes of coils that exist. The key thing to remember is that any length of wire that is wrapped up into a coil, has the same electrical properties as a coil. Just as conductance has an opposite - resistance; permeability also has an opposite - reluctance.RELUCTANCE is mathematically the reciprocal of PERMEABILITY. The unit of measurement for reluctance is the REL or OERSTED , and its symbol is . Voltage is the measurement for Amplitude of an electrical circuit. Magnetism also has a counterpart for this, which is called MAGNETOMOTIVE FORCE . Magnetomotive force is the force which produces the magnetic lines of force or FLUX . The unit of magnetomotive force is the GILBERT , and its symbol is G . The formula for finding the value of G is as follows: G = N x I x 1.26 Where: N = the number of turns in the coil I = the current flowing through the coil in Amperes There is a catch phrase for N x I which is AMPERE-TURNS

The Relay Races

Knowing that magnetism and electronics are related is a very important lesson. Just how important will become evident in the next few lessons, as we will be discussing the interaction of electricity and magnetism in greater detail. Let's review some of the things we have learned:

We know that when two magnets are brought close enough to each other, they will have one of two reactions. If their poles are the same polarity, they repel, or push away from each other. If, on the other hand, their poles are opposite, they attract, or pull toward each other. This is called theLAW OF POLES and it applies (to an extent) to electronics as well as with magnetics. Note that the electrons from the negative side of a battery will attract toward the positive side, if the two are brought electrically close enough to be allowed to do so. This typically happens by connecting a wire, lamp, or some other electrical device between the two electrical poles. If we think of electronics from this standpoint, the questions soon arises: Does electricity move from positive to negative, or from negative to positive? This is a good time to discuss the fact that because we can not truly see the electrons in motion, but can only study their effects, there are 3 differing schools of thought on this subject, all of which have some merit. 1).According to the CONVENTIONAL THEORY of electron flow, also known as the FRANKLIN THEORY, or the POSITIVE CURRENT FLOW theory, electricity flows FROM POSITIVE TO NEGATIVE. 2).According to the EDISON THEORY , or the NEGATIVE CURRENT FLOW theory, electricity flows FROM NEGATIVE TO POSITIVE 3). According to the ELECTROMAGNETIC CURRENT FLOW theory, electricity, like magnetic lines of force, are free floating in space, and PUSH OR PULL WITH EQUAL FORCE IN BOTH DIRECTIONS . This theory, depending on the amounts of negative and positive energy, and the electrical proximity of the components between them, gives merit to either of the two above theories. Which of the 3 theories you choose to believe is totally up to you, but it would behoove you to remember the fact that there are 3 differing theories. Some

writers write books based upon positive flow. Most modern authors choose to assume negative. But there are times when it is convenient to switch sides of the fence, in order to figure out exactly what is going on inside a circuit. The third theory is rare to find in books, however it does have its merits as well. The important point here is to make sure you know which theory your author is using, and try not to get too utterly confused.

Another fact we know is that we can control the polarity of an electromagnet, by controlling the polarity of the voltage being fed into it. The North pole of the electromagnet is ALWAYS on the positive side of the battery. With this thought in mind, we can control the physical movement of a permanent magnet, by controlling the voltage going through a given electromagnet. If we attach a battery to an electromagnet in such a way that it has the opposite polarity of a nearby permanent magnet, it will pull the permanent magnet closer to it. If we then swap the wires going to the battery, the electromagnet will change its polarity, and the permanent magnet will be pushed away from it. If we physically attach the permanent magnet to a plunger, we can control the movement of the plunger in and out using electrical current. In this way, we use electric current to push a button, pull a lever, open or close a valve, or any number of other tasks. Because magnets attract ferrite based metals, we can also use electricity to control the physical movement of iron. In the examples given to the right, we are using electric current to move a type of reed switch. These are handy for allowing us to use a small amount of current to, for example, turn on a motor which needs a very large amount of current. In the case of the break contact relay, the reed switch inside the relay is constantly CLOSED(meaning connected), allowing current to flow through it. The motor is on all the time. When we connect the battery to our circuit via the switch, it will cause the magnet to pull at the iron reed, opening the switch, and turning the motor off.

In the case of the make contact relay, the reed switch inside the relay is constantly OPEN (meaning disconnected), so no current is allowed to flow through it. The motor is normally turned off. When we connect the battery to our circuit via the switch, it will cause the magnet to push at the iron reed, closing the switch, and turning the motor on. Now would be a good time to show a schematic diagram and picture of a relay. The diagram to the left is an exact duplicate of the make contact relay circuit represented by the above picture. The break contact relay schematic symbol would be similar, except the contacts would be connected. Keep in mind, that not all schematic symbols are standard. You may see variations of schematic symbols over the years, but they will all be understandable and descriptive of the function of the component. Below is a picture of a relay

The Meter Made

If we allow a current to flow through a coil of wire, it will generate a magnetic field. That magnetic field can be used to move nearby permanent magnets or ferrite metal components. We say that

there is an induced magnetic field radiating from the coil of wire. When the induced magnetic field cuts, or passes through, the magnetic field of the permanent magnet, it has the same effect of two magnets cutting each other's fields. In other words, it attracts or repels according to polarity. We have seen how this can be used to our advantage in the case of the relay, but it has much more potential than that. If, for instance, we drill a hole in a magnet, and put an axle through it. If we mount the axle on a stand, we can spin the magnet upon its axle by hand. Now if we place a coil near the magnet, we can make the magnet turn by controlling the polarity of the current through the wire. If we polarize the coil, such that the north side of the electromagnet is facing the permanent magnet, it will cause the north pole of the magnet to rotate away from the coil, while attracting the south side of the magnet toward the coil. The magnet spins 180 degrees. If we then change the polarity of the battery, so that the south side of the coil faces the permanent magnet, it causes the magnet to turn another 180 degrees, for a total of 360 degrees. We have caused the magnet to spin 360 degrees, and in effect, created a crude form of electric motor. The important point here is that we can use electromagnetic energy to make something turn, which brings us to one of the greatest leaps in electronic advancement - the D'ARSONVAL MOVEMENT. The D'Arsonval movement is the basis for all early metering devices, and is still in common use today. There are 5 basic parts to a D'Arsonval movement.
Permanent Magnet Coil Hair Spring Pointer Scale

In the D'Arsonval movement, the permanent magnet is fixed. It is the coil which does the turning. The coil is mounted on a needle fine axle, which would allow the coil to spin 360 degrees. The hair spring is used to return the needle to its original position, as well as to regulate the movement of the meter. The pointer, which is attached to the turning coil, is used for an indicator of how far the coil has turned. Finally, the scale is used as a numerical standard to compare readings. The D'Arsonval movement can be used by itself as a standalone instrument called aGALVANOMETER. The galvanometer is a device which indicates the presents of electrical current. It is not calibrated for Ohms, Volts, or Amps. By adding a high resistance in series with the D'Arsonval movement, we create a VOLTMETER. A Voltmeter is a device used to measure electrical potential in Volts. The series resistor is called aMULTIPLIER, and its purpose is to limit the flow of current through the fragile meter movement. Given a known resistance, the Voltage read at the leads of a Voltmeter can be exactly calculated to cause a certain amount of current to flow through the coil of the meter. Armed with Ohms Law, and knowing the value of the resistor we use, we can calibrate the meter's scale to measure an exact amount of Voltage. We know that:
E R = --I Where: R = Multiplier Resistance E = Full Scale Voltage I = Full Scale Reading of Meter

So it follows that given a meter movement that deflects full scale when 1 milliampere flows through it, We can find the value of the multiplier resistor that is necessary by using the following formula:
1000 x E R = --------I

If we measure the Voltage across the circuit in the diagram above, we find that E = 400 Volts. (NOTE THAT VOLTAGE IS ALWAYS MEASURED IN PARALLEL),

1000 x 400 R = ----------I

400K = --------1.0 Amps

Knowing, then, that we have a 400K Resistor, and it requires a 400 Volt potential to cause full deflection we divide the meter resistance by the full scale voltage and come up with the sensitivity of the meter.
meter resistance R = ----------full scale voltage 400K Ohms = --------- = 1000 Ohms per Volt sensitivity. 400 Volts

Other Types of Meters

The Voltmeter is very handy in electronics work. But there are times when other meters are needed to do the job. And many of these meters are also built upon the D'Arsonval movement. For instance, how would you measure the resistance of a resistor that is not in a circuit? This would require the use of an Ohmmeter. Or what if you wanted to know the amount of current flowing through a circuit, so that you knew what size of fuse to put in the circuit? You would need an Ammeter to measure the current in Amps. Recall that the Voltmeter had a resistor in series with it. This resistor, called the "Multiplier Resistor" was used to calibrate the meter to work within a given range. A Voltmeter is also placed in parallel with the circuit in test. An Ammeter, on the other hand, is built with a resistor in PARALLEL or in SHUNT with the D'Arsonval movement's coil. In the case of the Ammeter, the SHUNT resistor is of a very low resistance. Much lower resistance, in fact, than the coil in the meter movement. Remember finding resistance in a parallel circuit? The two resistors in parallel carry more current than either of the resistors by themselves. This is because the combined resistance is lower than the lowest resistor in the parallel network. Also, the resistor with the lowest resistance always carries the greatest current. This is of

utmost importance here. If too much current were to go through our sensitive meter coil, it would burn up and destroy the coil, hence making the meter useless. The answer, of course, is to make sure that no matter HOW high the current, the majority of the current will always flow through the shunt resistor. It is for this reason that the shunt resistor has a lower resistance value than the coil winding of the meter itself. The formula we use for finding the value of the shunt resistor is as follows:

Where: R s = shunt resistance R m = meter movement resistance I m = full scale meter movement current I s = shunt current The Ammeter, unlike the Voltmeter, is not used in parallel with the circuit in test. Rather, the ammeter is placed in series with the circuit - essentially becoming an integral part of the circuit in test. If a Voltmeter were to be removed from a circuit in test, the circuit would continue to run. If an Ammeter were to be removed while the circuit were running, the circuit would shut down, because there would no longer be continuity or flow of electricity. Finally, the Ohmmeter is one of the most used tools on the electronics workbench. It is used not only to measure the resistance value of a given resistor or circuit component, but also to check continuity of wire, to test for opens and shorts in a circuit, and many other things. But an ohmmeter is not self sufficient.

The Ohmmeter is made up of an Ammeter, a battery, and aCURRENT LIMITING RESISTOR . As shown in the picture to the side, the battery causes a current to flow through the meter. We know the value of the current limiting resistor, so if we short the meter leads together, we know how much current the meter should indicate. If the meter indicates a lower current value than we expected, then there must be some added resistance. Therefore, we can use this device to detect, and to measure the value, of an outside resistance.

Magnetic Induction - The Flip Side

previously, we discussed the fact that a wire conducting an electric current, generates a magnetic field around it. Along the same lines, when a magnetic field, radiating from a permanent magnet, passes through a wire or coil of wire, it induces an electrical current on the wire. To state this another way, just as a current in a wire generates a magnetic field - a magnetic field passing through a wire generates a current. We can monitor this action by placing a meter across the wire. When we approach a wire with a magnet, the wire cuts the magnetic field and we see the meter needle move. In this way, we can "generate" electricity by moving a magnet in close proximity to a wire. The stronger the magnetic field, the more current flows through the wire. There is a catch though. If we stop the movement of the wire, right in the middle of the field, one would think that electrical current would continue to be generated. Actually, this is not the case. The magnetic field must be moving in relation to the wire in order for a current to be generated in the wire. In other words, either the magnet, or the wire must be moving. And the faster the wire passes through the field, the more current is generated. Now we know that according to the physical law of CONSERVATION OF ENERGY that no energy is ever lost or gained. So the energy generated in the wire can't just come out of the blue. It must be transformed from some other sort of energy. The question being, does it come from the magnetic field, or from the motion? The answer is that the energy is transformed from mechanical momentum into electrical current. This is the principle behind an electric generator. If we take a wire coil, and place it on a rotating shaft, then we can spin the coil. If the shaft runs midway between

two permanent magnets, we can control the movement of a coil of wire between two magnetic poles. Thus, it is possible to generate electricity by spinning the coil upon the shaft, because the wire is in constant motion within the magnetic field. The motion is transformed into electricity via the magnets. The electricity goes out to the world from the terminals, by way of the brushes and slip rings. This will be explained in more detail in a later lesson. The important point to remember is that we can generate magnetism with a wire conducting electricity, and we can generate electricity with magnets.

A C Theory
Earlier we discussed that there are various ways to produce electricity. We can produce electricity chemically with a battery. We just learned that electricity can be produced mechanically by a generator. What we did not discuss in detail, though, was the difference between electricity produced by a battery, and electricity produced by a generator. In the case of a battery, electricity flows in one direction, from positive to negative. Everything is straightforward. In the case of a generator, however, things get a bit more complicated. It is possible to generate electricity by spinning a coil within a magnetic field. The coil is in constant motion within the magnetic field, and thus is transformed into electricity via the magnets. The electricity exits by way of the brushes and slip rings, but it is not exactly like the electricity which is produced by a battery. If we look at the current leaving the battery, it is constantly moving in the same direction. We call this DIRECT CURRENT . But if we attach a generator instead of a battery in the same circuit, we notice a major change. The meter would swing back and forth from negative to positive. This seems strange until we examine what is going on inside the generator. As the wire coil rotates, it first passes the north pole of the magnet, producing an electric current flowing in a given direction. As the coil

continues in its circular path, it passes the north pole, moving toward the south. As it approaches the south pole, the electric current begins to flow in the OPPOSITE direction from which it was originally moving. It continues to move in this direction until, once again, it approaches the north pole. We say, then that the electrical current isALTERNATING between positive and negative. We call this type of current ALTERNATING CURRENT . If we were to plot this swing from positive to negative on a graph, and compare it to the time it takes the motor to turn, we would come up with something like the chart to the left. Notice, that if we begin with the coil positioned directly in the center, between the permanent magnets, the current output is 0. However as the coil begins to turn, one side of the coil moves toward the north pole. This end of the wire would become positive. At the same time, the other side of the coil moves toward the south pole. This side of the coil becomes negative. At this time, current begins to flow from the positive to the negative. Current continues to flow in this direction and reaches a peak in its cycle. This Maximum amount of current flow is reached when the coil is pointing exactly north and south. We call this the 90 opoint, and say that the signal has reached its positive peak. After it passes this point, the voltage begins to drop, but doesn't reach 0 until once again the coil is positioned directly between the permanent magnets. This is the 180 o point. Now comes the switch up. As the coil continues to turn, the end that was positive now moves toward the south pole of the magnet. Because it is passing by the south pole, this end of the coil swings negative. At the same time, the side of the coil that was negative, is now swinging positive. Thus, the direction of current flow within the wire is switched. The current flow continues in this direction until it again reaches a (this time negative) peak at 270 o . Finally, as the coil approaches its original position, it swings positive until current flow again reaches 0. By graphing the current vs. time, we end up with a pattern known as a SINUSOIDAL WAVE , or SINE WAVE for short. We say that the sine wave has positive and negative peeks at 90 o and 270 o respectively.

Characteristics of a Sine Wave

As stated before, by graphing the current vs. time, we end up with a pattern known as a SINUSOIDAL WAVE, or SINE WAVE for short. We say that the sine wave has positive and negative peaks at 90o and 270o respectively. A sine wave has several important characteristics. 1. One complete revolution of a generator, from 0o to 360o, is known as a CYCLE. 2. The DISTANCE between the beginning of one cycle, and the beginning of the next cycle is called oneWAVELENGTH. The symbol for WAVELENGTH in electronics is the Greek letter lambda (). 3. The TIME in which it takes to complete one cycle is known as a PERIOD. 4. The number of complete sine wave cycles generated in one second, is called FREQUENCY, and is measured in CYCLES PER SECOND (cps), PERIOD S PER SECOND (pps) or more oftenHERTZ(Hz). 5. The height of the sine wave is called theAMPLITUDE, and is measured in Voltage. The highest point of any wave is called the PEAK AMPLITUDE or PEAK VOLTAGE. 6. The difference in amplitude between the highest positive voltage, and the highest negative voltage is called the PEAK TO PEAK VOLTAGE, which is equal to twice the peak Voltage.

Now without going into a whole bunch of math and physics...(yea, RIGHT!)... you learned sometime in your life that there is a relationship between distance, time, and speed. If you are driving down a road at 50 miles per hour, for exactly one hour, you

know from basic math that you will have traveled exactly 50 miles. Why? Distance = Speed x Time This is a basic law of physics. It also applies to electricity and waves. If a Wavelength is a length (read: Distance) then we can use time to compare the speed at which it travels through space. Now electricity travels at the speed of light, but what exactly is that? Well, it differs slightly from one medium to another, but for our purposes, we will assume the speed of light in a vacuum. Wavelength = Speed x Time We know that 1. Speed of light = 299,792,458 meters/second (In a perfect vacuum)

2. Time = (299,792,458) Speed / Distance ( ) If we assume a signal with a 2 meter long wavelength, we can use the following formula to find the time that it takes to complete one cycle:

Using this formula we can plug in the numbers

Now by simple division, we get the following answer:

Now if a 2 meter long signal is equal to 6.67 nanoseconds, we can find the frequency of the signal as follows:

Let's plug in the numbers...

Since we know that 149MHz = 2 meters in length, we can deduce that frequency and wavelength have a relationship such that: Wavelength (in meters) = 298 / Frequency (in MHZ) or if you prefer: Wavelength (in feet) = 936 / Frequency (in MHZ)

Let us test this theory. The 11 meter band, otherwise known as the CB Radio, or Citizen's Band, resides at (approx.) 27 MHZ. Does the math work out?

The formulas you can look up in the future, should you need them. The basic knowledge we have tried to stress here is, that WAVELENGTH is a DISTANCE, a PERIOD is an amount of TIME, and that FREQUENCY is the number of wavelengths in a second. Furthermore, we stressed that all of these terms are related, but not quite interchangeable.

It Won't Even Phase You

So far, we have discussed that Sine waves have FREQUENCY, WAVELENGTH, PERIOD, andAMPLITUDE.

They also have one more important characteristic: PHASE

Phase is the timing relationship between two different sine waves. If two generators are connected across a given load in series, and if their armatures begin rotating together at exactly the same time and speed, two different alternating voltages will be produced. In the example to the left, one is a 4 Volt sine wave, and the second is a 3 Volt sine wave. If we examine the picture closely, we find that both sine waves meet up at the 0o and 180o points. Furthermore, they both peak out at 90o and 270o respectively. We say, then, that both of the two waves produced by the two different generators are IN PHASE with each other. Whenever two waves are in phase, like these are, the voltage resulting from the two waves will not be the same as either of the two voltages. The resulting voltage will be the SUM of the two voltages. In this case, we have 3 and 4 volts being produced by the generators, and the resulting output voltage would be 3+4 or 7 Volts. This is because the energy in the two voltages work together, and combine to add up to 7 Volts. But what happens if the generators are NOT in phase? Whenever two waves are combined out of phase, the resultant waveform is not so simple to figure out. Look at the picture on the right. The 3 Volt generator was started later than the 4 Volt generator. We say that the 3 Volt wave LAGS behind the 4 volt wave. In this case, the 3 Volt wave LAGS by 90o. Voltages that are out of phase can not be added simply by adding them together, as we do with in phase waves. We must resort to a sort of "high math" called VECTOR ADDITION. To make it simpler to understand, Vector math simply means that we break out a piece of graph paper, and plot the 3 volt wave horizontally (left and right), while we plot the 4 volt wave vertically (up and down). Examine the chart to the left to see how this works. Using our 3 and 4 volt waves, we draw the two lines on the graph paper. Then we draw a "mirror image" of the same two lines. When we are finished drawing the mirror image, it should form a parallelogram. Now we draw a diagonal line from the "0" point in the middle of the graph, to its opposite corner of the parallelogram. The distance from the 0 point to

its opposite corner will be the vectorial sum of the two voltages. This method works, no matter what the Phase difference is between the two voltages, but does require a little modification if it is different from 90o. Let us assume now, that instead of the two waves being 90 degrees out of phase, that the 4 Volt wave is lagging the 3 volt wave by 45 othis time. The method of finding their vectorial sum is basically the same. First we plot the 3 Volt wave horizontally on the chart. Next we measure 45o to draw the second line. We draw the 4 Volt line 45ofrom the 3 Volt wave. Now again we draw a parallelogram, reflecting the original two plotted voltages. We draw a line bisecting the parallelogram from the 0 point to its opposite corner. The length of the resultant line indicates the vectorial sum of the two original voltages.

Mutual Inductance and Inductive Reactance

I promised no more math in the last session, and it was difficult. We could have covered the number of turns to inductance:

but we didn't. We could have covered the math behind inductors in parallel:

but we didn't. But we will cover just a little math in this lesson. When AC is applied to a coil, a varying magnetic field will be produced around it. When another coil is placed within that magnetic field, it will induce a current flowing in that coil. This principle is calledMUTUAL INDUCTANCE The amount of mutual inductance between the two coils depends on the distance between the two coils, and the angle between the two coils. When two coils are linked together via mutual inductance in this manner, we say that the coils are inductively COUPLED. When the mutually inductive coils are close to each other, we say that they are closely, or tightly coupled. When they are far apart, we say that they are loosely coupled. The greatest amount of coupling occurs when the coils are wound

one directly over the other and on a closed iron core. The quantity of coupling between two coils is sometimes referred to as the Coefficient of Coupling. The formula for Coefficient of Coupling is:

Whew! Now that we've got the math out of the way, let's move on to the magic of electronics. We have already discussed that inductance is an opposition to the flow of current in an AC circuit by a coil. This is caused by the expanding and collapsing of the magnetic field. More important though, as the field expands and collapses, it generates a counter- electromotive force, by way of mutual inductance within the same coil. We call this SELF INDUCTANCE. Simply put, self inductance is when a coils magnetic field, produces an electric current within the same coil. This self inductance causes a resistance to AC current. But this resistance is not measured in Ohms, as normal resistance is. This resistance isn't even called resistance, it's called REACTANCE, because of the way it reacts with AC. In the case of a coil, it is specifically called INDUCTIVE REACTANCE, and its symbol is XL. XL is a very special number in electronics. Let me say this another way:

XL is a very special number!

get the idea? Now that I have your attention. XL is the variable number that we use while expressing the AC resistance of a coil. You will see this number in your sleep. You will eat with this number, you will go out on dates with this number and you will MEMORIZE THIS FORMULA:

XL = 2fL
Where:

f = the FREQUENCY in Hz L= the inductance of the coil in henries

and

= 3.1415926536..... (or 3.14 for sho

Capacitor - a new component

So far, we have studied the effects of electricity flowing through wires, and have discussed resistors, coils, and metering devices. Both resistors and coils, as we have found, have a restricting effect on the flow of current. We also discussed how a coil has more resistance to AC than it does to DC. You will learn later just how important these effects are, but first we must discuss a few more electrical components. Another component which has a restricting effect on current flow, but in a different way. This component is called the CAPACITOR.

Once again, we will resort to our water examples to describe the function of a capacitor, as it is easier to see fluid in motion, when it is water, than when it is electricity. Examine the example on the left. Here we have 2 tanks of water, equally full. The two tanks are connected in the middle by a pipe or piece of tubing. Let us say now that we have, in the middle of the tubing, a thin rubber membrane. The membrane would keep the liquid in the two tanks from ever coming into contact with each other. We could further illustrate this by adding food coloring to one of the tanks of water. If we now take a plunger, and apply pressure to the tank on the left, it will push the water downward, and try to push it out the tube and into the other tank. However, the membrane will not allow the water to actually exit the tank, and enter the second tank. While the two systems are sealed off from one another, the rubber membrane would flex, and allow the EFFECT of movement, in that it would push the water level of the second tank higher, in direct proportion to the movement in the first tank. For instance, assuming both tanks are of equal diameter, if the first tank went down 2 inches, the second tank would rise 2 inches. Now, if we should reverse

the action, and push the plunger down in the second tank, it would move the membrane in the opposite direction, also moving the water within the tanks in the opposite direction, but AT NO TIME would the water flow from one tank into the other tank. It would have the effect of movement from one tank to the other, without actually having done so. This is basically the same operating principle behind another of electronics most important components - the capacitor. The capacitor appears to have the effect of passing alternating current, while actually not passing anything. At the same time, it blocks the flow of direct current. Just as in the water circuit, the water flow in either given direction is blocked by the membrane, if we should push the water pressure, and hence the membrane back and forth, it would appear as if the membrane weren't there at all, except that the food coloring would not pass from one container to the other.

In its most basic form, a capacitor is made up of 2 plates of conducting material (for instance copper, aluminium, iron), divided by a piece of insulative material (for instance mica, air, or plastic). When we apply an electric potential to the two plates, electricity will want to attract and flow from one plate to the other, but the insulator will act as the membrane, and block the flow of electricity. For this reason, a capacitor blocks the flow of DC. As power is applied, a certain number of electrons on one plate will be attracted to the positive side of the battery. These electrons, leaving the plate will leave it with a deficiency of electrons, and the plate will be positively charged. At the same time, electrons from the negative side of the battery will see the positive charge on the plate, and want to move toward it. As these electrons leave the negative side of the battery, they will pass through our light bulb, and light it. We will notice, however that it only lights for a moment.... just a split second! Why? Because between the two plates of the capacitor is an insulator, and while the electrons on the negative side may be attracted to the plate on the positive side, the electric

current can't pass through the insulator. So our light flashes for just a second, and then goes out.

now

Now if we reverse the polarity of the battery, we see that the same thing happens again, only in reverse. As power is applied, the electrons on the negativly charged plate of the capacitor will be attracted to the positive side of the battery. As these electrons now leave the plate, it will

leav ea defi ciency of electrons, and the formerly negative plate will become positively charged. At the same time, the electrons from the negative side of the battery will move toward the positively charged plate until the positive plate swings negative.

Note that in the examples, the schematic symbol for the capacitor is very similar to that of the battery. There is good reason for this. In a battery, we have 2 (or more) conductive plates divided by some kind of dialectric material (usually an acid). In a capacitor, we have 2 (or more) plates divided by some kind of dialectric material - an insulator. A battery has the ability to generate electricity chemically, and can store energy for long periods of time. While a capacitor does not "generate" electricity, it does have some amazing "storage" capabilities, as we will discuss now. Recall that when we applied power to the capacitor/lamp circuit, electric current flowed for an instant from one side of the battery and lit the lamp for a moment, but then the light went out? What took place, was while the electric current was flowing, a potential was being built up on the surface of the plates of the capacitor. As long as the potential kept building, current continued to flow, and the light remained lit. At some point, however, the capacitor reaches its maximum CAPACITY to hold an electric potential. In other words, it reaches its peak voltage limit, and we say the capacitor is fully charged. If at this time, we were to remove the battery from the circuit, the capacitor, in theory, would remain at full charge indefinately.

If at this time, we shorted the wires between the capacitor and lamp, such that it formed a complete circuit, the lamp would light for just a second..... WITHOUT THE BATTERY. Where does the energy come from to light the lamp if the battery is not connected? The answer lies in one of the magical properties of the capacitor....it can STORE energy! When energy is stored in a capacitor, we say it is charged. When a capacitor releases its energy, we say it is discharging.

IMPORTANT SAFETY TIPS

Note that while batteries GENERATE a charge (chemically), capacators STORE them, and can release their stored charge VERY QUICKLY!!! Because capacitors STORE their charge, they can bite you even when equipment is turned off, unplugged, and the power cord cut in half. NEVER directly connect together the leads of a capacitor that you think might have a stored charge - it may possibly EXPLODE. Even if it doesn't, it may make a loud bang, which may startle a co-worker who may then touch or jump into a nearby live circuit, sharp object (or even a hard blunt one) and be injured or die. Even when sitting in an empty room with no electronics connected - some large capacitors can build a charge simply from static electricity it picks off out of the air. As such, large capacitors should be stored with the leads electrically connected so they can not build up a charge and possibly KILL the unsuspecting young intern that picks it up unawares. Not all capacitors LOOK like capacitors! Capacitors are simply 2 plates separated by a dialectric. I have personally been thrown across the room by an unsuspecting device (in my case it was a large tube) that was sitting dormant for over 2 years. Never throw a charged capacitor to a friend. He may beat the crap out of you after you get done laughing. In short - capacitors are not toys. They are down right deadly dangerous, and should ALWAYS be treated with respect END OF IMPORTANT SAFETY TIPS

Capacitors come in many shapes and sizes, and each type has its very own special characteristics. To the right is a small example of the variety. The most important values to keep in mind when replacing a capacitor are voltage and capacitance value. Depending on the circuit, it is usually acceptable to use a capacitor of a higher voltage rating that the one being replaced, but the capacitance value must remain the same. Also keep in mind that some capacitors, especially electrolytics, may be polarized positive and negative. If you accidentally reverse the polarity, severe circuit damage, as well as possible injury, may occur. Always pay attention to which way you remove a component from circuit.

The symbol for Capacitance is C. The unit of capacitance is the FARAD. The symbol for Farads is F. The Farad is an extremely large quantity, so we typically speak of microfarads ( f ), nanofarads ( nf ), and picofarads ( pf ). * Note: in some older texts, the term micromicrofarad ( mmf ) is used in lieu of pf. The Capacitance (the amount of energy a capacitor can store) of a capacitor depends on 3 factors: 1. The Area of the plates 2. The Distance between the Plates 3. The Type of Dialectric

The formula for capacitance is: Where C is the capacitance in picofarads, A is the area of one of the plates in square inches, K is the dilectric constant of the insulative material seperating the plates, and D is the distance between the plates.

ELI the ICE man

In a previous lesson, we covered the fact that two alternating currents can be either in phase, or out of phase with respect to each other. We also discussed the addition of two sine waves of differing phase by using VECTOR ADDITION. I am fairly certain that you were hoping you would never see this again. Sorry, but you were SO wrong. We are soon going to get into the practical applications of vector addition. You are about to learn that in electronics, the capacitor and the inductor are exact opposites. The reason for this is because they BOTH store electricity, but in different ways. In a purely resistive circuit, there is no change in the phase from one component to another. When we add an inductor or capacitor into the circuit, however, the game changes completely, and the rules to the game are written with vectoral math. Note that if we were to find the resistance of a series circuit with 2 resistors, one having 3 ohms, and the other having 4 ohms, we would simply add them, and come up with 7 ohms. If we were to graph this, we would have a single line along

the "X" coordinate which is 7 units long, with points at 0, 3, and 7. If, however, we were to plot the Combined Resistance of a coil ( remember XL ? ) and a resistor we would have to plot a graph like the one above and to the left. This combined resistance is calledIMPEDANCE, which is the TOTAL RESISTANCE TO THE FLOW of current. Note that Impedance is the TOTAL resistance to the flow, which includes "pure resistance" (from resistors), capacitive reactance, inductive reactance. The symbol for impedance is Z. If you have ever studied trigenometry, or even basic geometry, you may recall the formula for finding the hypotenuse of a right triangle ( A2+B2=C2). This will come in handy, as you compare it to the formula for impedance: R2+XL2=Z2 This can be re-written as Now let's assume that we have a series circuit like the one shown on the left. Using the formula for IMPEDANCE ( Z ), R2 would be 32 which equals 9. XL2 would be 42 which would be 16. 9+16=25. The square root of 25 = 5, so the impedance of the circuit would be Z=5. Sometimes we might say that the "complex representation" of Z = R+Xj. In this case it would be 3+4j. This comes in handy as we begin adding capacitors into the circuit. Capacitors are like the opposite of inductors in a circuit. Whereas inductors are added ( Z = R + Xj ).... capacitors are subtracted (Z = R - Xj ). I know this all sounds confusing, but it will become clear as mud shortly. Recall the formula for Inductive Reactance?

XL = 2fL

How could you forget? Well, CAPACITIVE REACTANCE is its opposite, and should also be memorized. Ready for this one?

1 XC = ---------------2fC

WOW! It's almost the same formula! The only difference is that we substituted the L's for C's, and we reciprocated the formula (divided 1 by the formula). In the great scheme of things, that makes this formula not too difficult to remember, assuming you did memorize the formula for inductive reactance when I told you to. If you didn't, take time now to memorize both formulas. Your survival in electronics depends on them. Notice that I have flashed lots of formulas by you, but I have only asked you to memorize 3 of them... Ohm's Law, and the formula's for inductive and capacitive reactance. That is because you will use them over, and over again. Now let us examine our capacitive circuit. Once again, it has a resistance of 3, and a reactance of 4, but this time, it is a capacitive reactance, and not an inductive reactance. We will again use the formula for IMPEDANCE ( Z ), R2 would be 32 which equals 9. XC2 would be 42 which would still be 16. 9+16=25. The square root of 25 = 5, so the impedance of the circuit would once again be Z=5. But there is a catch - this time, because the circuit is CAPACITIVE, we would have a complex representation of impedance being equal to 3 - 4j. What exactly does this mean? It means that instead of plotting our graph in the POSITIVE direction along the Y axis of our graph, we would plot it in the NEGATIVE direction. Instead of our plotted point being (3,4) it would be located at (3,-4). I

realize, of course, this is a lot of math to remember, but unless you are designing radio frequency, or other resonant circuits, you probably won't be using these formulas on a daily basis. You should be familiar with them though, and you SHOULD memorize the formulas I have pointed out thus far. One important point to keep in mind, is that when current flows through a purely resistive circuit, the voltage and current arrive at the same point at the same time. In other words, Voltage and Current are in phase in a purely resistive circuit. In a circuit which contains inductance or capacitance though this is not so. In an inductive circuit, the voltage leads the current by 90 degrees (assuming a purely inductive circuit). Likewise, in a capacitive circuit, the current leads the voltage by 90 degrees. Which leads which is easy to remember. Just think "Eli the Ice man". E=Voltage I=Current... L=Inductor......C=Capacitor

ELI Inductive circuit...... Voltage arrives before Current . ICE Capacitive circuit... Current arrives before Voltage.

RL and RC Time Constants.

Recall that in our lamp and cap circuit, the lamp lights up for a second, but then goes out. What determines how long the lamp stays light? The lamp is not a perfect device which generates light from electricity. It has losses, and shows electrical friction (read: resistance). Any time that you have a resistor and a capacitor in a circuit, we call it an RC circuit. Likewise, if there is a resistor and a coil in a circuit, we call it an RL circuit.

In this circuit, the moment the battery is applied, current starts to flow through the resistor, and a voltage begins to build up across the plates of the capacitor. The amount of time that it takes for the voltage across the capacitor plates to reach the voltage of the battery, is a result of the values of the capacitor and the resistor. The larger these two values are, the longer it will take for the entire voltage to appear across the cap. This relationship is expressed by a formula, and is called "Time Constant". The formula is:

T = RC
where T= Time in seconds, R=resistance in ohms, and C=capacitance in farads. A time constant also exists between coils and resistors, however, because of the nature of how a coil is made (it is essentially a piece of wire), time constants in RL circuits are much smaller. Recall that earlier in the course, we discussed that inductors and capacitors are almost exact opposites. Here is another formula which will seem re-hashed.

T=L/R
where T= Time in seconds, R=resistance in ohms, and L=inductance in henries. Remember this formula?

XL = 2fL
Well, you are going to have to start using XL and XC again. Because we are going to begin using capacitors and coils in the same circuit. Now the real fun of electronics begins.

Resonance / Black Magic 101.

In this circuit, we have a resistor, a capacitor, and a coil in series. Because the coil and the capacitor act in an opposite manner, they tend to cancel each other out. We say that the coil is additive, and the cap is subtractive in nature. If the inductive reactance, and the capacitive reactance were equal in value, they would effectively cancel each other completely out, and only the resistance would be seen. In this special case, we would say that we have a resonant circuit (we'll explain the term in more detail in a little bit).

Just as we must solve problems with resistance in series... we must also be able to add the various reactances together, and come up with a common ground. Resistance is pure resistance. Capacitive reactance is a resistance that is subtractive in nature. Inductive reactance is additive in nature. Combining the three, we come up with a new term called IMPEDANCE, which is symbolized by the letter Z. Just like resistance, the formula is different for impedance in series and in parallel. The formula for impedance in series is:

If we plug in the values in the example above, we can solve the formula like so:

Note that this method is not much different than what we did in lesson 25. There we added phase "vectorally". This is a function of trigenometry, where in a given triangle, A2+B2=C2. (The square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the square of the two sides). The same applies here. We can say that the A2 is the resistance, the B2 is the combined capacitive and inductive reactances, and the C2 is the Impedance ( Z ). We could plot out our capacitance and inductance vectorally, but this would use up lots of time and paper. We can simply solve the same problem using this formula, where the B2 is equal to the sum of the reactances of the coil and the cap. We always subtract the capacitive reactance from the inductive reactance, because capacitors are subtractive.

Resonance / Black Magic 101.

Let us assume a circuit with both a resistor, a capacitor and an inductor. We will use small numbers here for simplicity.

If the value of the resistor is 4 ohms, the value of the inductor is 3 ohms, and the value of the capacitor is -3 ohms. (Remember that capacitors are negative in nature). The 3 ohms of capacitive reactance (X C )will negate the 3 ohms of inductive reactance (X L ), and the overall resistance is figured as follows: R Total = R + X L - X C R Total = 4 + ( 3 - 3 ) Whenever a circuit has both inductors and capacitors, there is a given frequency at which X L is mathematically equal, but opposite to X C . In this case, X L is +3 and X C is - 3. When this happens, the Total Resistance is equal to the pure resistance of the

resistor, and the capacitor and inductor cancel each other out for all intents and purposes. We say then, that the circuit is inRESONANCE . When a circuit is resonant, it is at its lowest point in resistance. Any increase, or decrease in frequency will cause the circuit to have greater resistance.

But because a circuit has less resistance at it resonant frequency, it will allow more of a signal to pass through at resonance than at a higher or lower frequancy than the resonant frequency. The frequency at which the circuit becomes resonant is (for our purposes) completely dependant on the inductance and capacitance of the circuit. The "pure" resistance of the circuit does not affect the resonant frequency of the circuit. Circuits which are resonant at a given frequency are said to be TUNED to that frequency. These are sometimes called TUNED CIRCUITS . They may also be called FILTERS , because they are used to "filter" one set of frequencies apart from all the others within a given band of frequencies. In some circles, tuned or resonant circuits are referred to asTANK CIRCUITS , although I'm not exactly certain why. It has always been my belief that this referred to Tuned Cavities in waveguide, which resemble a tin can or tank in nature. But I have yet to substantiate this idea. Just keep in mind that if you hear someone refer to a tank circuit, they are talking about a tuned filter.

Passive vs. Active Components

As you have figured out by now, there are many different types of electronic components, and you must be familiar with all of these. They all act differently with reference to voltage, current, temperature, pressure, and other outside influences. In order to make learning electronic components easier, they have been divided into two categories:

PASSIVE COMPONENTS and ACTIVE COMPONENTS. While possibly not the best definition, the key difference between active and passive components, is that active components have the ability to produce gain, or amplify a signal, and passive components do not. Some would argue that a component's ability to switch a signal makes it an active component, but I don't see a toggle switch as being active. I may modify this definition later, but for now, this one is enough for you to grasp the concept. So far, all the components we have discussed are resistors, capacitors, and coils. These are passive components. Now we are going to begin learning about active components. Some examples of Active components include Vacuum Tubes, Transistors, Integrated Circuits, etc. We will first study Vacuum tubes, as they are a fundamental building block in the understanding of other active components.

Many "modern" schools today are skipping right over tubes. I plan on EMPHASIZING them, as I see them as still a very viable and cutting edge technology. There are new tubes being developed and used every day, because up 'till now, we simply haven't found a device which is more capable of linear amplification at high power and high frequency levels. Some examples would be the klystron, magnetron, Inductive Output Tube (IOT), Traveling Wave Tube (TWT) et al. There have also been leaps and bounds in nanotube technology, and lasers still use tubes as well. I'll be willing to bet that you have at LEAST 1 vacuum tube devices that you use on a regular basis in your home right now! You probably cook meals in a Microwave Oven, which uses a magnetron. In some cases, your TV or possibly your computer monitor may also have a Cathode Ray Tube (CRT). And should we, someday, find a way to replicate food or transport people as in "Star Trek", I believe it will be first developed using technology similar in nature to vacuum

tubes. Now some might say that these are the exception, not the rule - that the majority of electronics jobs will never require tube knowledge. I concur, but submit that if you want to make the big bucks - you have to be a specialist, and specialists deal in cutting edge technology - many of which require tube knowledge. Satellites going into orbit still typically use Traveling Wave Tubes, not transistors for their main power amplifier stages.

Lesson 45 - Semiconductors - Diodes and Transistors

But we've already discussed diodes. They are a simple form of vacuum tube aren't they? Well - yes and no. While diodes existed in tube form for many years vacuum tube diodes had their problems, and the electronics industry would try to find a way around those problems. Vacuum tube diodes did a fine job of rectifying (turning ac into dc), but they wasted a lot of electrical energy in the process, which made them inefficient and costly to operate. Quite a bit of power was lost just keeping the filament warm! They also had the problem of being physically fragile, and tended to be the main cause of an electrical equipment failure. As early as 1874, researchers noted that a metal-lead sulfide junction had rectifying properties. They found that it would conduct electrical current in one direction, but if they reversed the current, it would not flow in the opposite direction. This "junction" was "semi-conductive" in nature. They had, without knowing it, invented the semi-conductor. The problem was, they had no practical application for it, and to be honest, didn't understand how it worked. However, In 1926, P.H. Geiger and L.O. Grondahl discovered the rectifying properties in a semiconducting copper oxide-copper junction. Armed with W. Schottky's theoretical explanation of how it worked, this was the first practical diode that didn't involve a vacuum tube. Other materials that involved semi-conductive junctions included silicon, germanium, and selenium.

On Tuesday, December 16, 1947, Physicists John Bardeen and Walter Brattain, while working for William B. Shockley at Bell Laboratories, invented the semiconductor transistor. With the single statement "This thing's got gain!", Brattain announced the discovery of a SOLID-STATE device that could actually amplify electrical current!. By 1956 Bardeen, Shockley, and Brattain, shared the Nobel Prize for jointly inventing the transistor. It was a grand time for the electronics industry. The invention of the transistor would mean the disappearance of the tube... or would it? Still to this day, there are applications where the transistor isn't practical. Tubes tend to work better for high power or high frequency applications. It is a tube that you look at on your computer monitor (CRT = Cathode Ray Tube). Your TV set and microwave ovens employ tube technology. Most Television Transmitters use a tube as their final output stage. "Nanotubes" are the latest craze in electronic innovation. Audiophiles swear by the rich, full, warm, reproductive sound that can only tubes can make in audio circuits. It is my belief that we need to further understand both tube and transistor technologies, and use them in tandem. It is for this reason that I taught tubes first, and that I will emphasize them throughout the rest of the course.

Lesson 46 - The Basics of Semiconductive Materials

*Note: This course is NOT intended to teach chemistry or solid state physics, but to give just enough background for a 6th grade student to understand semiconductors. For a slightly more in depth look at how semiconductors work on a submolecular level, check out this web page: SEMICONDUCTORS - 46a
(*Note 2 - section 46a is one of the pages that got hacked - and I haven't gotten 'round to fully fixing it yet. The code that redirected you to a malicious site has been removed, but some of the original coursework is gone - sorry).

Without going into complete details of how a semiconductor works, there are certain things we must know about them in order to use them. Semiconductors are chemical elements, that when compounded with other elements, have certain electrical characteristics.

what? There are several types of semiconductive chemicals, to include but not limited to, Silicon, Germanium, Selenium, and Copper Oxide. Semiconductors do not normally conduct electrical current. But when they are combined with other chemicals, like Boron or Arsenic, can be made to partially conduct. When we combine the second chemical to the semiconductive chemical, we say that the semiconductor is "doped". Doping can either be negative doping, or positive doping. The real magic occurs, though, when we put the two types together. In the diagram to the right, we see a device with both a positively and negatively doped section joined. The point at which the two sections join, we will call the N - P junction ( or simply the junction ). Think of the junction as a hill, and the electrons flowing through it as a ball. As long as the ball is rolling down hill, it is easy to push along. But try pushing the ball uphill, and it is much harder to do. The same goes with the flow of electricity through a junction of P and N doped semiconductor material.

Consider, for a moment, what happens if we connect a negative DC voltage to the N doped side, and a positive DC voltage to the P doped side. According to the electron theory of current flow, electrons move from negative to positive. The electrons leave from the negative side of the battery, moving toward the positive. They come into contact with the diode, which acts like a "hill" to the electrons. The electrons flow "downhill", and current flows easily. But what happens if we reverse the direction of current flow by reversing the battery?

If the battery is reversed, the polarity applied to the diode also changes. Electrons still try to flow from negative to positive, however, going through the diode, is more like rolling a ball uphill. It takes much more effort to push the ball uphill. The hill is steepest at the point of the P - N Junction, where it is nearly impossible to push the ball up the hill. Because of this, a semiconductor diode acts much like a vacuum tube diode, as it conducts in one direction,

while having a high resistance to current flow in the opposite direction.

It is possible, however, to make a diode conduct electricity in reverse. If a high enough voltage is applied across the junction ( which is also sometimes called the "depletion region" ), it will conduct in the reverse direction. Just like if you kick the ball hard enough, it will eventually go over the top of the hill. However, when this happens, the diode is no longer acting quite like a normal diode. Some diodes are actually designed to be operated in this manner. These are called " ZENER DIODES ". When an exact given reverse bias voltage ( 12 Volts for instance ) is reached, the junction of the diode begins to " break down ", and act like a piece of wire. It does not conduct electricity only in one direction, but in both directions at this point.

The semiconductor diode ( usually just called a " diode " ), is one of the most important building blocks of modern electronics. To the right is a picture and the schematic symbol for the diode. Note that there is always a line, or band that circles around one end of the diode. This line indicates which end of the diode the cathode, or positive end is on. Sometimes instead of a line, there is a dot or some other kind of indicating marker, but the cathode is always indicated, as the proper polarity of a diode is crucial in a circuit. In addition to what you've already learned about semiconductor diodes, most semiconductor devices have other properties that we have not discussed. For instance, many semiconductor materials will radiate light when electricity is passing through it. This is the principle behind how a Light Emitting Diode, or LED (schematic to the right) works. The first case of this may be by H. J. Rounds, an employee of Marconi Labs, who in 1907 made note of a light coming from a Cat's Whisker connected to a crystal of silicon carbide. While knowledge of this wasn't kept a secret, and experimentation was done on it for years, it wouldn't be until 1962 when General Electric employee Nick Holonyak made a practical LED public, and from there it took off. Light Emitting Diodes generate more light than heat, so unlike a standard incandescent lamp, the LED used less electricity. This made it ideal for battery operated devices that needed some kind of light display. In addition, because it was so small, several of them could be put in an array, making a display for characters (numbers and letters) more readily available.

This gives rise to the infamous "Seven Segment Display". The seven segment display is used on all kinds of electronic equipment to display basic letters and numbers. It works by grounding one common leg of the display, while supplying voltage (typically 5 volts) to other various legs. For instance, in the display to the left, if we wanted to create the number 3, we would ground pins 4 & 12, while supplying power to pins 2,7,8,13, and 14, which would light up segments A, B, C, D, and G. Another interesting feature of semiconductors, although not un-related, is that it will conduct and/or generate electricity when light is applied to it. this is the basis for the photoelectric cell (photocell - you may relate to the Solar Cell). We will discuss this in more detail in the section on transistors.

Lesson 47 - Transistors

Recall that in a semiconductor diode, we have 2 regions of DOPED semiconductive material. One region is doped positive, and the other region is doped negative. There is also a junction, where the two regions are joined. When a diode is forward biased, it conducts electricity easily, like a ball rolling down a hill. When it is reverse biased, it is extremely resistive to current flow, as the ball is rolling uphill, and is much harder to get over the hump. Remember also, that we had diode tubes, which operated in a similar manner. They would conduct electricity in one direction easily, but would not conduct in the opposite direction. When we added another element to a tube, we created a triode, which would not only allow electricity to flow, but could also amplify the signal. Reason tells us that if we add another element to a semiconductor diode, that a similar effect should take place. In December of 1947, Scientists at Bell Laboratories would prove this theory correct. With the addition of a 3rd semiconductive layer, joined at a second P-N junction, W. H. Brattain made the world famous comment, " We've Got Gain! " implying that this 3 layer device could amplify! With proper bias applied, there is a small hill to overcome at the first P-N junction (approximately 0.7 Volts for Silicon, 0.3 Volts Germanium), which is the normal characteristic for any semiconductor diode. But then the electrons reach the peak of the hill at the second P-N junction, and have a fast run downward. There is an increase in flow downhill, and the electrons act like a waterfall, pouring into the collector. It may seem at first, that a transistor is like 2 diodes placed back to back, and in resistance checks will even resemble this. Actually though, 2 diodes back to back will not operate like a transistor in circuit. A diode only has 2 semiconductive regions, and therefore has 2 leads. A

transistor, on the other hand, has 3 regions, and must have 3 leads. To the left is a photo of a small signal transistor. Just as you must know which end is which on a diode, a transistor has markings which identify which lead is which. The three leads are called the Emitter, Base, and Collector. The Emitter is the lead that current enters into. It can be compared to the Cathode of a tube. The Collector is the lead that current exits from. It can be compared to the Plate of a tube. Finally, the Base is the controlling lead, and is comparable to the Control Grid of a tube. It might help to remember that electrons are emitted at the Emitter, collected at the Collector, and controlled by the Base.

Transistors come in many different packages, and while they are NOT always marked so that you will know which lead is which, they are by no means standard either! One transistor may have the emitter on the left, another may have it in the middle. Transistors often do, however have identifying marks, and can be referenced to find out which lead is which. In any case - it is ALWAYS best to check the specification sheet for any given transistor before using it. Doing so will save you a load of heartache. Of the many kinds of transistors there are, probably the most commonly used is the Small Signal, Bipolar transistor, as pictured above. Bipolar transistors come in two flavors: PNP and NPN. This is because the semiconductive material can be laid out in ( basically ) two different ways. If we look closely at how a bipolar transistor is made, we can understand more easily how this can be. The illustration to the left is a cutaway of a semiconductor transistor. Try to visualize this as being circular ( button shaped ) from the top view, with 3 layers, one upon another. Transistors are built in layers by very precise machines. Each layer is added to the layer below it. We begin with a single layer ( or substrate ), and add layers on top of it. If we begin with a layer of N type semiconductor ( on the bottom ), the second layer would be P type, followed by another N type. We say that transistors, and other semiconductive devices, are "grown" in this manner. The second layer ( in this case a P type ), is very thin, along the order of 800 micrometers ( M ) or less. As shown by the blue line, electric current

enters via the N type emitter substrate layer, passes through the ( red ) P type base substrate layer, until it reaches the N type collector substrate layer. The gold colored lines represent the leads that connect the transistor to outside circuitry. If we were to reverse the N and P layers, we would have a PNP transistor, with the base being N type, and the emitter and collector being P type material. The schematic diagram symbol for a bipolar transistor is shown to the right. Notice that the only difference between an NPN and PNP type transistor, is the direction of the arrow. To remember which is which, just keep in mind that the NPN is Not Pointing to the base. ( NP = Not Pointing ) Otherwise, the two symbols are identical. The EMITTER is ALWAYS the ARROW, the base is always the line ( think baseline ), and the collector is the one left over.

Rules for Bias Connections

This is important! Pay Attention!! The Emitter - Base connection is always FORWARD biased. This means more Positive voltage goes to P type & more Negative to N type. Also, for a Silicon transistor, there must be at least a 0.7 Volt DC bias across the emitter-base junction in order for the transistor to be active. Many times, when without a schematic, I have been able to repair a circuit simply by looking for 0.7 VDC across the E-B of every transistor in the circuit. If it doesn't have at least 0.7 V across it, it isn't turned on! Of course, the bias is 0.3 Volts DC for Germanium Transistors, so you must also know a little about the transistor itself. When in doubt - look up the number on the transistor, and read its specification sheet. The Collector - Base connection is always REVERSE biased. This means more Positive goes to N type & more Negative goes to P type. You must be wondering now, how the Collector-Base junction can be reverse biased while the Emitter - Base junction is forward biased? The answer lies in the words "More Positive" and "More Negative". You see, electronics is more of a relative science than an exact science. Is 5 Volts D.C. positive or negative? Well, it's more positive than 2 Volts D.C., but less positive than 9 Volts D.C. Did I lose you yet? It's simple. Let's try plotting it out on a number line: Assuming a Silicon NPN transistor: We know that the the Emitter-Base junction must be FORWARD biased (Positive to P type doping & Negative to N type doping). So the Emitter must be more Negative and the Base must be more Positive. We know then, that the Base must be 0.7 Volts ( minimum ) Higher than the emitter. So if, say, the Emitter is at 3 Volts, ( I just picked that number at random). We plot 3 Volts on the number line. If the Base has to be 0.7 volts Higher than the Emitter, then the base has to be at least 3.7 Volts. ( 3 + .7 = 3.7 ) So we plot that on the number line. So far so good! Now comes the tricky part. In a NPN transistor, the Base is P type doping, while the collector is N type. But we want it to

be REVERSE biased ( Positive to N & Negative to P ), so we want the N doped collector to be MORE POSITIVE than the P doped Base, which is at 3.7 Volts. So any voltage above 3.7 would work. Let's say, 5 Volts. ( We plot that on the number line ). So in order to turn on this NPN transistor, we would need the following voltages: Emitter = 3.0 Volts Base = 3.7 Volts Collector = 5.0 Volts. This is why, in the picture above, I have a minus sign ( - ) next to the base, a plus sign ( + ) next to the base, and TWO plus signs ( ++ ) next to the collector. It demonstrates the relative polarity of each terminal. We have a pattern then, that while it is an NPN transistor, it is biased N-P-PP, with the COLLECTOR being the MOST POSITIVE point. If we go through the same logic for the PNP transistor, we would find that it needs to be biased P-N-NN, with the COLLECTOR being the MOST NEGATIVE point.

Lesson 49 - Power Supplies

In lesson 48, we examined how power came into your house or plant. It is sent to you in AC form, because it is less expensive, as well as more stable, to send it in a high voltage, low current form, and transform it to lower voltages at higher currents at the point of use. This is a great way to get power into the homes of everyone on the planet. The big problem comes in that most electronic components don't normally work on AC - they work on DC. So we need some way to convert an Alternating Current power service, into Direct Current for your equipment and devices to run off. Fortunately, this has been taken care of in most of your equipment. Most modern electronics equipment has a power supply built in. That power supply takes the AC line voltage coming into your home, and converts it into the needed DC voltages that your equipment uses. You as an electronic technician or engineer are expected to be able to design and/or repair these power supplies. It would behoove you, therefore, to learn how the work, no? Basic power supplies can normally be divided into 4 parts: 1. The Transformer

2. The Rectifier 3. The Filter and in some circumstances 4. The Regulator The Transformer: The purpose of the transformer is twofold: First, it will ISOLATE the equipment after the transformer from the main power source coming into the transformer. Because the neutral wire of an electrical outlet is directly connected to ground, any grounded objects near your piece of equipment (lamp, toaster, DVD player, concrete floor, etc.) may be at a hazardous potential difference with respect to that piece of equipment. Because the transformer "isolates" the equipment electrically, the physical connection is eliminated, and the shock hazard between those two devices negated.

Second, it is used to step up or down the voltage ( or voltages ) to those required within your device. The Rectifier: As we've already discussed, a rectifier changes AC to DC. This can be accomplished with either tube or semiconductor diodes. There are different types of rectification circuits, most predominantly half and full wave, but they all perform the same basic function. Some are simply more efficient at the job. As discussed before, the DC voltage that they produce isn't exactly the same as the DC voltage provided from a battery. If we were to look at the output of the DC provided by a battery on an oscilloscope, it would simply look like

straight, flat, horizontal line. If on the other hand, we look at the DC output of a transformer, it looks more like a bunch of camel humps. That is because while ALL of the voltage coming out of the rectifier is of the same polarity, it is still ALTERNATING from 0 volts to whatever the peak voltage is, then back down to zero. We can certainly take that voltage and make it look more like the DC voltage coming out of a battery, but this is done using a FILTER circuit.

The Filter: The filter in a power supply takes the raw "alternating" DC humps that come out of the rectifier, and smooths them out. Almost always this is done by capacitive means, with the capacitor being placed in parallel with the rectifier and load, but quite often, a coil (or two) may also be placed in series with the power. The capacitor takes the alternating portion of the DC, and passes it to ground, neutralizing it. Note that it passes the effects of the AC, but BLOCKS the DC component of the power, allowing it to stay where it is. If a coil is used, it will pass the DC component of the power to other components in series with it, while blocking the effects of AC from getting to later components.

The Regulator: While not all equipment has a regulator, it is not a bad design feature, and if it can be economically added, it should be. The purpose of the regulator is to compensate for fluxuations in incoming voltage, and keep the outgoing voltage at a steady level. This protects other components from early failure, as well as providing better stability and operation of the circuit.

Now that you understand the basic parts of the power supply - let's build one either virtually, or actually - your choice! Here is a complete schematic of a working power supply. Note that if you build this power supply, it can be a useful tool in your arsenal of test equipment, and can be a building block and test lab for later projects you might choose to build. This particular design produces a well filtered, variable voltage from 1.2-30 Volts DC @ 5 amps. It is easy to build, and the parts are easy to find.

This power supply brings power in from the "hot" side of the power plug, through a series connected fuse, a power switch, into the input of a transformer, and finally back out the neutral side of the power plug. Because it is a series circuit, if the switch is open, no current flows, and the power is off. Also, should something go wrong, (assume you spill your soda on the power supply while it's running), the fuse will open and protect you from all harm, because the fuse is also in series, and will not allow current to flow at all in the circuit if it opens. The transformer (T1) is a step down transformer, with 120 Volts in, and 24 Volts @ 5 Amps output. This of course, will provide the voltages for the rest of the circuit, while also isolating you from the incoming line voltages. The higher the current rating the more projects you'll be able to work with in the future. I prefer something akin to a Triad F-260U, which is still available atMOUSER for about $40 American. You could just as easily salvage a good one from an old TV set at a junk yard - if you can find one with the right voltage output, or settle for a smaller transformer, but the current rating would be lower. Next comes a FULL WAVE BRIDGE rectifier (BR1). This is called a full wave, because it rectifies BOTH sides of the AC signal, utilizing 4 diodes. In this particular device, all 4 diodes are included in 1 package - a 10 Amp 50 Peak Inverse Voltage Bridge Rectifier package NTE53000 thru NTE53004 would work fine. The Filter, in this case, is a combination of 2 capacitors. The first (C1) is a 14000uF (microFarad) 40VDC Electrolytic Capacitor. The second (C2) is a 100uF/50V Electrolytic Capacitor. Finally, (Q1), is an LM338 Regulator. Basically, it is a 3 legged device, like a

transistor, that is used to regulate the voltage, and control the output voltage. R1 is a 240 Ohm, 1/4 Watt bias resistor, and R2 is a 5K Ohm Variable Resistor, for setting the output voltage level. For further stabilization and protection of Q1, two more capicitors (C3 - .1uF Disc Capacitor) and (C4 .02uF Disk Capacitor) are included. Note that Q1 comes in a "TO-3" case, and generates a lot of heat. It MUST be provided a large heatsink, and possibly a fan to keep it cool. The Volt and Ammeters included in the diagram are not necessary, but are a nice feature to add, should you want to make a very nice power supply. Parts List:
Part Number Quantity Description Part Number BR1 1 10 Amp 50 Peak Inverse Voltage Bridge Rectifier C1 1 14000uF 40VDC Electrolytic Capacitor C2 1 100uF 50VDC Electrolytic Capacitor C3 1 .1uF Disc Capacitor C4 1 .01uF Disc Capacitor R1 1 240 Ohm 1/4 Watt Carbon Composite Resistor R2 1 5K Ohm Variable Resistor Q1 1 LM388 5 Amp 1.2-30 Volt Regulator S1 1 SPST Toggle Switch

T1

24 Volt 5 Amp Transformer

Lesson 50 - Filter Circuits

So far, we have discussed the basic electronic components, and power supply circuits. We have touched on filters, but not discussed them in detail. No course on electronics would be complete without a thorough understanding of filters, how they work, and how to recognize them when you see them. Filters are used in almost every type of electronic device, but are possibly the least understood part of the device. We all have a basic understanding of what a filter is, but to study them in detail - now THAT is a study indeed! This course does not intend to make you an expert in designing microwave frequency filters, but does intend to give you enough overview to recognize one, and to repair one if you need to. To begin with, lets go back to our old friend - water. We all understand what a water filter is. It lets the stuff we want ( the water ) pass through it, but blocks the other flotsam and jetsam that we don't want to drink, swim in, etc.

Air filters and oil filters work in a similar manner. They pass the good stuff, and block out the bad stuff. Well - filters in electronics work in the same basic manner, albeit an understanding of the discrete components will go a long way to understanding how they work. You've already touched on the basic filter devices - the capacitor and the coil. You already have a simplistic understanding of how these devices work. Now lets look at each in more detail. The Capacitor: The capacitor, in simplistic terms, passes AC and blocks DC. In short - this is the definition of a filter, no? In reality - a capacitor is not quite so simplistic. Recall we talked about capacitors having a "TIME CONSTANT". If you change the capacitance, you change the time constant. Well, there is a specific relationship between time and frequency, where Frequency is the reciprocal of time ( T=1/F and F=1/T ). So if you change the value of the capacitor, you also change the FREQUENCY of the circuit the capacitor is in!

To put that in other words - "Capacitors pass AC" is sort of a blanket statement, albiet not completely true. A given capacitor will pass all frequencies ABOVE A CERTAIN FREQUENCY, and block all signals BELOW that frequency. So the capacitance value of a given circuit is chosen to allow a certain range of frequencies to pass through. Let's give a few examples: The time constant formula for capacitors is "T=RC" or Time = Resistance x Capacitance. If we take a circuit with a resistance of 10 Ohms, and a capacitance of 10uF, then the Time would be 0.0001 seconds. The Frequency would be 1/.0001, or 10,000 Cycles Per Second ( also called Hertz ). So a 10 Ohm resistor and a 10uF capacitor would yield a circuit passing 10 KHz. Let's try another one.

This time, we have a 100 Ohm resistor, and a 25 picoFarad (pF) capacitor. I understand that you may have forgotten what all the nano's pico's, and micro's stand for, so I've included this little table for a help:
Prefix p (pico) n (nano) (micro) m (milli) k (kilo) M (mega) G (Giga) Analog value 10-12 10-9 10-6 10-3 103 (1000) 106 (1,000,000) 109 (1,000,000,000)

So a 25 pF capacitor would be 25x10-12 power or 0.000000000025 Farads. Now we multiply that times 100 Ohms, and come up with a time constant of 0.0000000025 seconds. We now take the reciprocal ( 1 / 0.0000000025 ) comes to 400000000 Cycles per Second (CPS/Hertz) or 400 MegaHertz (MHz).

Now comes the tricky part - where does it pass those signals to? That depends entirely on the capacitor's placement in the circuit. If the capacitor is placed in SERIES with the signal flow - it will allow the 400 MHz signal to PASS to the next stage.

If, however it is placed in Parallel to the signal flow - it will pass the 400 MHz signal to ground - effectively BLOCKING the signal from passing to the next stage.

So the placement of the capacitor is KEY in whether the signal is passed, or blocked. Note that when the higher frequencies are passed to ground ( essentially blocked from the normal signal path ), the lower frequencies are allowed to go free, and hence are passed to the rest of the circuit.

I smell a memory aid here! If the capacitor is "High" on the schematic ( in series with the signal flow ), it is a High Pass Filter (passes high frequencies). If however, the capacitor is "Low" on the schematic ( in parallel with the signal flow ), it is a Low Pass Filter (passes low frequencies). High Cap = High Pass, Low Cap, Low Pass. Note also that the "cut off" frequency can be changed in either of two ways by changing the value of the capacitor, or by changing the value of the resistor.

All that being said and done - let's examine a different scenereo. We said earlier that filters can be made using capacitors OR COILS. What happens if we replace the capacitor with the coil? Well, the first thing we encounter is a slightly different formula. Remember that coils operate in almost a completely opposite manner than does a capacitor. It's like they are yin and yang or something. The formula for the capacitor's time constant is T=RC. The formula for the Coil's time constant is"T=R/L", and without going into all the

math ( we hate math don't we? ), we can simply assume ( and correctly so ) that the coil reacts almost opposite to the way the capacitor does. What exactly do I mean by that? When we put a coil in SERIES with the signal flow ( recall signal flow goes from left to right ), it passes low frequencies and blocks higher frequencies. When we put a coil in Parallel with the signal flow, it passes those same low frequencies to ground, and blocks the higher frequencies from ground ( in effect passing those high frequencies through the signal path, and sending the lows to the abyss. ) Do how does this work in the real world? Let's look at our Power Supply circuit as an example.

In this circuit, we have 2 capacitors following the rectifier. Those two capacitors are there to PASS the HIGH frequencies ( in this case ANY AC ) to ground - effectively eliminating it, while allowing the lower frequencies (DC) to pass on to the regulator unaffected. We could improve on this design by making the following change:

Note that we have removed C2, and replaced it with L1. The capacitor C1 will still take the higher frequencies, and pass them to ground, but now we have an added advantage - L1 will BLOCK any high frequencies that may have tried to get by C1. At the same time, C1 will keep our low frequencies from disappearing into ground, while L1 will happily pass our lower frequencies and let them go right into the regulator. The only question, then, is what values to use with our Capacitor and Inductor, to pass the right stuff, and block the bad stuff. First we have to decide what is the bad stuff. The bad stuff, that we don't want getting through, is the line frequence of the power lines. In the United States - that would be 60 Hertz. In other countries, it might be 50 Hertz. Either way, if we make the "CUT-OFF" frequency of our filter 20 Hertz - the line ripple will be forced into the dirt, and the DC component of our signal will pass through unaffected. You might ask why 20 Hertz and not 40? Well, you have 2 peaks within 60 Hertz. The first is at 30, and the second is at 60. We want to eliminate BOTH of them. ( This is a high dollar, well designed power supply ). Being given the cut-off frequency of 20 Hz, we have a good starting point. Recall that any time you use a coil and a capacitor together, you have both Inductive Reactance (resistance of the coil to AC), and Capacitive Reactance (resistance of the Capacitor to AC) to contend with. We also have a magic combination called "Resonance", wherein the Capacitive Reactance is EQUAL to the Inductive Reactance (XC = XL). We know from the previous page that the capacitor C1 is equal to 14000uF. We also know the formula for Capacitive Reactance ( What? You haven't memorized it by NOW??) is XC=1/(2fC). So we can solve for XC!

XC=1 / 2 * * frequency * C XC=1 / 2 * * 60 * C XC=1 / 6.28 * 60 * C XC=1 / 6.28 * 60 * C XC=1 / 376.8 * C XC=1 / 376.8 * 14000uF XC=1 / 376.8 * .014F XC=1 / 5.2752 XC=0.19 Ohms So at 60 Hz, this capacitor has less than .2 Ohms of resistance.... it's near a dead short! But what if this same capacitor were given, say 2 Hertz signal ( near DC )? XC=1 / 2 * * frequency * C XC=1 / 2 * * 2 * C XC=1 / 6.28 * 2 * C XC=1 / 6.28 * 2 * C XC=1 / 12.56 * C XC=1 / 12.56 * 14000uF XC=1 / 12.56 * .014F XC=1 / .176 XC=5.6 Ohms Boy do I hate math.... but sometimes it is necessary to prove a point - and that point being - that as the frequency decreases - the resistance increases. If then, the frequency were reduced to, say ZERO (Pure DC), then the resistance, in theory, would be increased to INFINITY. Of course, we'll never know, because you can't divide by ZERO, but you can divide by something close to zero, say .0000000000005, which yields a very big resistance! Now that we have the Capacitive Reactance of the capacitor at 60 Hertz, we need to find a coil with an equal inductive reactance at that same frequency!. The math is tedious, but not impossible. XL=XC XL=0.19 Ohms XL=2 * * frequency * L XL=6.28 * frequency * L XL=6.28 * 60 * L XL=376.8 * L and since we already know that XL=0.19 Ohms, we can say:

.19 Ohms = 376 * L !! So if we divide both sides of the equal sign by 376, we get L = 5 x 10-4 or
L = .0005 Henries ( 5mH )

Lesson 51 - Filter Circuits Part 2

Filters - Part II Now that you know basically what a filter is, what it does, and how the math is caclulated for building one - let's see some more complex forms of filters, and see if you can recognize what they are and what they do.

Of course the basic filter is easy to recognize. It can have coils, caps, and/or resistors in a combination that will pass certain frequencies while at the same time blocking others. But what happens if more caps and coils are added? Simple - they do more filtering. One of the more common filter networks is the one pictured below, the " Pi " filter network. It is called the Pi filter, for one simple

reason, it looks alot like the greek symbol Pi ( ). Certainly someone with a technical eye can see the indisputable resemblance!

Note that it does NOT in any way resemble a pie, although my wife makes some very good ones and here is an example of her artwork --------------------------->

The Pi filter does the same thing that any other filter does, although with the added components, it has the advantage of filtering at a sharper angle (meaning they do a better job of filtering). The steeper the angle of cut-off, the faster and better the filter

is. A second common filter configuration is called the " T " filter - again, because it is shaped like the letter T. Keep in mind, that in all these filters, the basic rule applies - Capacitor High in the circuit = High Pass, Capacitor Low in the circuit = Low Pass. These are basic passive filters. Some filters you may learn about in the future may include amplifying devices in their filtration, each giving them different properties of filtration, but in the end - the basics are still the same. So whether you are looking at a Bessel, Butterworth, Chebychev, Legrande, or Zolatarev filter (listed in alphabetical order - for no particular reason) simply looking at the placement of the caps and coils will indicate how the filter should react. But what happens if you put a high pass and low pass filter together? You get something called a Band Pass filter!

Looking at the picture, see if you can follow the line of thought: Let's say we have a wide band signal coming in, that includes all frequencies from DC to Blue Light (hint - that's a lot of frequencies). This is the beginning stage of say, a radio receiver, that we want to allow only one small band of frequencies in - for instance 580 to 590 Megahertz. So our wide band signal comes into the antenna and is fed to the input of our filter. It hits the first two components - a capacitor (C1) and a coil (L1). This cap and coil are chosen as a High pass filter, to allow all frequencies ABOVE 580 MHz into the receiver. That's great - but we don't want frequencies higher than 590 MHz coming in so we add - RIGHT BEHIND OUR FIRST FILTER - a second filter, (C2 and L2) that act as a Low pass filter, keeping any frequencies above 590 MHz out. So all frequencies ABOVE 580 and BELOW 590 are allowed to pass through the filter, but all other frequencies are kept out. Typically, but not necessarily, both the capacitors in this circuit are close to the same value, and both the coils are close to the same value. This is because both circuits have the same cut-off frequency, but one is a high pass, and the other is a low pass. See - that didn't take a lot of math to understand! I almost forgot - but I'm sure you would have reminded me. How can you have a band PASS filter without a band STOP filter? What happens if instead of needing one frequency or group of frequencies to be allowed into the next stage of your radio - what you actually need is a certain frequency or group of frequencies deflected and sent straight to ground - so that the don't enter your radio at all? As is sometimes the case, you may have a very strong signal that would interfere with the normal operation of your circuit. This signal can be squashed by the copious use of a band-stop filter. This will also be a good time to introduce a special kind of a filter circuit - called a "tank" circuit.

The tank circuit contains a capacitor and an inductor in parallel with each other. In this configuration, the low frequency signal tries to go through the cap, but is blocked, so it turns around and goes through the coil instead. The high frequency signal tries to go through the coil, but is bucked as well, and is forced to turn tail and go by way of the capacitor. As such, it is said that the signal sloshes around inside the circuit like so much water sloshing around in a tank.... hence - a tank circuit.

Clearly this type of circuit has some great advantages. By its very nature - it is a band pass filter, that is tuned to a specific frequency, as set by the values of the cap and coil. But what happens if we take this band pass filter, and turn

the output of it toward ground? This is exactly how a band stop filter works. A tank circuit ( or any other kind of band pass filter for that matter ), whose output goes directly to ground, will force the specified frequencies to leave the circuit quite abruptly, and go their way to be buried in the depths of the earth. Often, when this type of circuit is employed, it is preceded and followed by other filter circuits. In the end, though, it is just a filter, and like any other filter, is designed to pass certain frequencies, and block out others. Note - if ever you are repairing a circuit of this type, pay very close attention that you replace the defective component with the exact same component. I could tell you a story about the vertical circuit of a big screen television, but I

won't. Let's just say if you use a value that is close, but not right on the money - you may not be happy with the outcome.

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Lesson 52 - Amplifier Requirements and Block Diagrams

Amplifiers This is probably the biggest topic of them all. Electronics was limited to light bulbs and switches until the invention of the amplifier. At first, tubes were the only amplifiers on the market, until Walter Brattain utterd the immortal words, "This Thing's got Gain!" ushering in the new era of semiconductor based transistors. Gain was the key word in that sentence. Gain is the difference between a passive circuit, and an active one. The ability to amplify and even generate signals. It is because of gain that we can hear an intercom system, a telephone, a radio, and even see the faintest of stars in the universe. Gain means amplification, and amplification means making things bigger. A weak signal goes in, a strong one goes out. Gain. What a simple principle. Yet - it takes quite a bit to get gain. The stars have to be aligned just right. You've got to stand on the right foot, and hold your tongue in a certain position, and oh, yea, have a device capable of amplification, and apply the correct level of biasing voltages to it. Remember biasing? We discussed it when we were talking about Tubes. We again discussed it when we spoke of transistors. In the tube the plate has to be positive with respect to the cathode. In addition, it took quite a bit of potential difference between the plates to make it work. Even then, unless you had a cloud of electron witnesses hanging around the filiment, it wasn't going to happen. With the transistor, you needed to have a 7/10 of a Volt ( 0.7 Volts) difference between the emitter and the base before you could turn it on. Of course, the .7 Volts is assuming a silicon transistor. 2/10 of a volt was more in order if it was a Germanium transistor - well, you get the picture. In either case, amplifiers come in many styles and varieties, depending on what you plan on amplifying. There are voltage amplifiers, power amplifiers, current amplifiers, Class A, Class B, Class AB, Class C, Audio Amps, RF Amps, distribution amps, operational amps, and even limiting amps. I could most likely write an entire book just on amplifiers ( perhaps I will someday when my life gets put on hold ). But that is not the purpose of this

course. THIS course is to explain things simply, and make the complicated understandable. Good luck with that. How am I doing so far? SOME explaination of amplifiers is in order at this point, though, so I'll do my best to keep it short, simple, and understandable. To begin with, all amplifiers need 3 things to work: 1. Proper Biasing ( a power supply ) 2. An Input Signal 3. A load

Let's now look at an "off the beaten path" topic - Block Diagrams.

There are many different types of diagrams you'll run into while learning electronics. Mostly we've spoken of schematic diagrams and schematic symbols. Schematics (proper) will show every single component in the circuit. Sometimes that is overkill - information overload. What if all you want is a basic understanding of the circuit? That's where BLOCK DIAGRAMs come in. In a schematicdiagram, a power supply is shown as a whole bunch of individual components. In a block diagram- it is just, well, a BLOCK! An Amplifer - on the other hand, is typically shown as a triangle, with the point going to the right (along with the direction of signal flow). As shown in our block diagram, the Amplifier (the triangle) is being fed with the signal from the signal souce (the circle with the sine wave in it). It has power coming from the 12 Volt power supply, and its output is going to a

load. What is not shown here is whether the amplifier is a tube or transistor, what the value of the biasing transistors is, or even whether it is amplifying voltage, current, or power. In any case - it has gain. The gain is always some measurable amount, and if you compare the output signal on the right to the input signal coming from the left - the output should be some order of magnitude bigger.

Lesson 53 - Amplifier Classes

In Lesson 52, we discussed that all amplifiers need 3 things to work: 1. Proper Biasing (a power supply) 2. An Input Signal 3. A load We need, therefore to discuss biasing of amplifiers in more detail, but before we can - we need to go over something called CLASS of an amplifier. Class of an amplifier is but one parameter of an amplifier. The main paramaters are: 1. 2. 3. 4. Class of Amplifier Type of Amplifier Configuration of Amplifier Gain of Amplifier

- not necessarily in that particular order. Amplifier circuits are "classified" by how accurately they reproduce the incoming signal. The classes, simply put, are A, B, AB and C for analog circuitry, and classes D and E/F for digital/switching circuits. First we will give you a brief overview, then cover each in more detail: Class A - 100% of the input signal is used (conduction angle 360 or 2)

Class B - 50% of the input signal is used (conduction angle 180 or ) Class AB - more than 50% but less than 100% is used. (conduction angle 181 to 359, < < 2) Class C - less than 50% is used (0 to 179, < )

Class D, E, and F - strictly on/off - for switching purposes only.

The class of operation of an amplifier describes how well it works, how efficient it is in power consumption, and how good the fidelity of the outgoing signal is. Let's take a look at the 3 most common classes of operation, and determine what makes them work the way they do. Class A Amplifiers: In a class A amplifier, the output signal is as pure as possible. The output is a perfect representation of the input signal. If a perfect sine wave is fed into the amplifier, a perfect sine wave comes out the output. When this happens, we say that there is very little Distortion, and that the amplifier has High Fidelity. High fidelity is important in systems such as stereos and video circuits.

Class of amplification, is accomplished as a result of choosing the correct Quiescent Operating Point. Operating Point refers to the voltages applied to a circuit. Quiescent means at rest. So the Quiescent Operating Point is the voltages applied to the amplifier circuit before any video, audio, or data signals are applied. The reason for the input and output being equal, has to do with the biasing of the amplifier. By putting the average input bias point (represented by voltage Eg in the diagram)dead center of the amplifier's gain curve, we set the amplifier up for maximum fidelity - true reproduction of the

input signal. Distortion takes place, when the applied signal's highs and lows go beyond the capability of the active device (the tube or transistor), and the active device either goes into cutoff or saturation. In a class A device, we would alwlays set the operating point directly in the center of it's operating curve, such that the highs and lows would not go beyond the cutoff or saturation points of the active device. Amplifier circuits are not always designed to generate a perfectly pure signal. Sometimes they are SUPPOSED to introduce distortion for one reason or another. These circuits are classified as classes B, AB and C for analog designs, and classes D and E/F for switching designs. Below are brief descriptions of all the amplifier classes. Class A - 100% of the input signal is used (conduction angle = 360 or 2) Class A amplifiers amplify over the entire input cycle such that the output signal is an exact magnified copy of the input. They are not efficient (no more than 50% efficiency is attainable), since the amplifying device is always conducting whether or not an input signal is applied. Class B - 50% of the input signal is used (= 180 or )

A Class B amplifier has an operating point set at one extreme end of its characteristic, so that either the quiescent current or the quiescent voltage is almost zero. If a sine wave is applied to the input, the amplification takes place only for 50% of the whole cycle. In other words, the amplifying device is switched off half of the time. It is possible for a Class B amplifier to obtain efficiency of up to 78.5%. Class B amplifiers exhibits a high amount of distortion. Of special note is the fact that the output

of a Class B amplifier closely resembles the output of an ordinary diode (possible hint to future designers). Class AB - more than 50% but less than 100% is used. (= 181 to 359, < < 2)

A Class AB amplifier is an amplifier that operates between the two extremes defined for Class A and B amplifiers. Class C - less than 50% is used (0 to 179, < ) Class C amplifiers conduct less than 50% of the input signal, allowing it to reach 90% efficiency but resulting in high distortion at the output. Thus, in a Class C amp, the output current (or voltage) is zero for more than 50% of the input waveform cycle. Some applications, such asmegaphones, can tolerate the high distortion of Class C amps. Class C amps can also be used in tuned RF applications, since the distortion can be significantly reduced by the tuned loads. Class D A class D amplifier is a power amplifier whose power devices are operated in on/off mode. The input signal is converted into a sequence of pulses whose peak is directly proportional to the average amplitude of the input signal. The frequency of the pulses is typically ten or more times the highest frequency of interest in the input signal. The output of the amplifier must then go through a passive filter to remove any unwanted spectral components, resulting in an amplified replica of the input. Power efficiency and fast switching are the

main advantages of a class D amplifier. Class D amplifiers were widely used to control motors, low frequency power amplifiers (think woofers in audio), or on occasion in A/D converters. Class E/F Class E/F amplifiers are special cases. They are extremely low power usage switching amplifiersused typically only for radio frequencies. Class E/F amplifiers consist of two basic parts: 1. an active switching device 2. an impedance network made up of reactive and purely resistive components The switching device is considered 'on' during the zero-voltage crossing, and off during the zero-current crossing, such that it can not have both current flowing through it and a non-zero voltage across it at the same time, thereby minimizing its power dissipation. On the flip side, the impedance network is set up such that the 'imaginary part' (XL or +j ) of the impedance is eliminated through proper matching of components to obtain resonance, leaving only its 'real part.'(R ) Therefore, the efficiency of a Class E/F amp is because power is only lost during the resistive part of the impedance network. Sneaky huh?

Lesson 54 - Biasing & Configuration of Amplifiers

Now that weve touched on both tube and transistor basics, and have a handle on how they both work, it is time to begin studying active amplifier circuits in more detail. Keep in mind that a Passive circuit is one which may control, but does not amplify a signal. They are made up of passive components such as resistors, capacitors, coils and diodes. Active circuits, on the other hand, are made up of active components, or components which amplify. This normally includes any combination of tubes, transistors, and integrated circuits. But there are many types of amplification. The basic definition is to raise a level, or to increase gain. We can have a circuit raise the Current level, and it becomes a Current amplifier. We can have it raise a Voltage level, and it becomes a Voltage Amplifier. Or we can make it raise the level of Watts, and

it is a Power Amplifier. Both the transistor and tube are capable of performing all three tasks, and in this lesson and the next, you will see that they both do it in a similar manner. Let's begin with tubes, shall we? Biasing, of course, simply deals with setting voltages to control the operating point - or quiescent state - of the amplifier. Configuration deals with how the amplifier is laid out in the circuit. Both combined can contribute to how the amplifier operates, as well as what the class of the amplifier will be. In most schematics, signal passes from the left side of the page (input) to the right side of the page (output). With a 2 terminal component, like a diode or a resistor, each side of the component is typically connected to either the input or the output. Active components such as transistors and tubes, have 3 terminals. Three terminal components will have one terminal connected to the input, one to the output.... but what happens to the third? We say that it is common to both the input and the output. If, lets say, it is a tube... the grid can be in the input, and the plate/anode in the output. What part of the circuit would the cathode be in then? Well, typically, it is "grounded", and as such, is common to both the input and output. This configuration would be called a grounded cathode, or common cathode. The equivalent to this would be a common emitter configuration in a transistor. I common emitter configuration, the base is on the input, and the collector the output. By far, this is the most common configuration you will see transistors

in. While it features relatively high gain, good frequency response, high input impedance, medium-to-low output impedance, this configuration is probably

used the most because it is the easiest to understand, and it is the one that is used the most. This may sound like a circular argument - but if you were to "copy" (reverse-engineer) a working circuit to make your own, wouldn't you use the one that is most common - provided it would fit the bill? On the other hand, what if the emitter is used as the input, and the collector as the output. This would be common grid, or grounded grid configuration. The equiv in tubes would be a common base, or grounded base. Common grid doesn't have as high gain as common cathode, but it has better linearity. This is because the grid is neutral with respect to the input and output. In theory - very little or no current flows through the grid circuit, so there is little chance of distortion between the input and output circuits, unless of course it is caused by other components in the circuit.

Finally, we have a common plate/cathode or common collector circuit. Common plate is an interesting circuit, in that tubes only operate from negative to positive with respect of anode to cathode.

In otherwords - In order for the plate to be common, and the plate has to ride at 250V+/-... the input to the plate has to ride on a very high voltage, and typically the output must also ride on a high voltage. Because of this - common plate often can have a good current gain, but typically NO voltage gain whatsoever. In general, GAIN=Signalout / Signalin. so if we are talking about

VOLTAGE ..... Vg=Vout/Vin CURRENT ..... Ig=Iout/Iin POWER ..... Pg=Pout/Pin

The same formula applies to all three, just swap the appropriate letter. Not a difficult formula to remember - so I won't ask you to. Your teacher at school might though. Each of these configurations have their own purpose, strengths, and weaknesses, but rest assured - if you dabble in electronics long enough - you'll run into all of them

son 59 - Semiconductors Revisited

Recall that in a semiconductor diode, we have 2 regions of DOPED semiconductive material. One region is doped positive, and the other region is doped negative. There is also a junction, where the two regions are joined. When a diode is forward biased, it conducts electricity easily, like a ball rolling down a hill. When it is reverse biased, it is extremely resistive to current flow, as the ball is rolling uphill, and is much harder to get over the hump. Remember also, that we had diode tubes, which operated in a similar manner. They would conduct electricity in one directioneasily, but would not conduct in the opposite direction. When we added another element to a tube, we created a triode, which would not only allow electricity to flow, but could also amplify the signal. Reason tells us that if we add another element to a semiconductor diode, that a similar effect should take place. In December of 1947, Scientists at Bell Laboratories would prove this theory correct. With the addition of a 3rd semiconductive layer, joined at a second P-N junction, W. H. Brattain made the world famous comment, " We've Got Gain! " implying that this 3 layer device could amplify! With proper bias applied, there is a small hill to overcome at the first P-N

junction (approximately 0.7 Volts for Silicon, 0.3 Volts Germanium), which is the normal characteristic for any semiconductor diode. But then the electrons reach the peak of the hill at the second P-N junction, and have a fast run downward. There is an increase in flow downhill, and the electrons act like a waterfall, pouring into the collector. It may seem at first, that a transistor is like 2 diodes placed back to back, and in resistance checks will even resemble this. Actually though, 2 diodes back to back will not operate like a transistor in circuit. A diode only has 2 semiconductive regions, and therefore has 2 leads. A transistor, on the other hand, has 3 regions, and must have 3 leads. To the left is a photo of a small signal transistor. Just as you must know which end is which on a diode, a transistor has markings which identify which lead is which. The three leads are called the Emitter, Base, and Collector. The Emitter is the lead that current enters into. It can be compared to the Cathode of a tube. The Collector is the lead that current exits from. It can be compared to the Plate of a tube. Finally, the Base is the controlling lead, and is comparable to the Control Grid of a tube. It might help to remember that electrons are emitted at the Emitter, collected at the Collector, and controlled by the Base.

Transistors come in many different packages, and while they are NOT always marked so that you will know which lead is which, they are by no means standard either! One transistor may have the emitter on the left, another may have it in the middle. Transistors often do, however have identifying marks, and can be referenced to find out which lead is which. In

any case - it is ALWAYS best to check the specification sheet for any given transistor before using it. Doing so will save you a load of heartache. Of the many kinds of transistors there are, probably the most commonly used is the Small Signal, Bipolartransistor, as pictured above. Bipolar transistors come in two flavors: PNP and NPN. This is because the semiconductive material can be laid out in ( basically ) two different ways. If we look closely at how a bipolartransistor is made, we can understand more easily how this can be. The illustration to the left is a cutaway of a semiconductor transistor. Try to visualize this as being circular ( button shaped ) from the top view, with 3 layers, one upon another. Transistors are built in layers by very precise machines. Each layer is added to the layer below it. We begin with a single layer ( or substrate ), and add layers on top of it. If we begin with a layer of N type semiconductor ( on the bottom ), the second layer would be P type, followed by another N type. We say that transistors, and other semiconductive devices, are "grown" in this manner. The second layer ( in this case a P type ), is very thin, along the order of 800 micrometers ( M ) or less. As shown by the blue line, electric current enters via the N type emitter substrate layer, passes through the ( red ) P type base substrate layer, until it reaches the

N type collector substrate layer. The gold colored lines represent the leads that connect the transistor to outside circuitry. If we were to reverse the N and P layers, we would have a PNP transistor, with the base being N type, and the emitter and collector being P type material. The schematic diagram symbol for a bipolartransistor is shown to the right. Notice that the only difference between an NPN and PNP type transistor, is the direction of the arrow. To remember which is which, just keep in mind that the NPN is Not Pointing to the base. ( NP = Not Pointing ) Otherwise, the two symbols are identical. The EMITTER is ALWAYS the ARROW, the base is always the line ( think baseline ), and the collector is the one left over. What we haven't covered yet, is other semiconductor devices, like the Silicon Controlled Rectifier, Field Effect Transistor, as well as multicircuit microchips, logic circuits, and microprocessors.

Lesson 60 - The Silicon Controlled Rectifier (Thyristor / SCR)

Along the way, as with tubes, the semiconductor diode has evolved. One of the first semiconductor diodes invented was the Shockley diode (Named after William Shockley of AT&T fame). Sometimes a Shockley diode is called a PNPN or 4 layer diode to differentiate it from other diodes. Not to be confused with the Schottky diode, the Shockley had 2 N regions and 2 P regions. While the Shockley diode is no longer manufactured, the Thyristor, or Silicon Controlled Rectifier, can be substituted if necessary - we'll explain later. If you look at the image above (b), you get an idea of how the Shockley diode is constructed. It is actually built in alternating layers of P, then N doped semiconductor material. However, this gives you no clue as to how the device actually functions! In reality, if you mentally separate the top section, then the bottom section, you see that in reality it is (c) 2 Bipolar transistors - a PNP and an NPN, joined with direct coupling, and in fact, it acts that way (c and d in the image above).

Note the circuit. We have a battery, an "infinately" variable resistor, a Shockley diode, and an Ammeter. We begin with the resistor having infinate resistance, no current is flowing whatsoever. As we slowlydecrease resistance, even with no base voltage applied, we reach a "breakdown voltage" (some texts call this the breakover voltage) where the voltage is high enough to force through internal resistances, and current begins to flow through our "first transistor". Once it begins to conduct, it provides base voltage for the "second transistor", which turns on, allowing a strong current flow through the entire circuit. At this point, the diode is "on" and will stay on until nearly all voltage is removed. In this condition, it is said to be "latched" on.

Now let us begin to increase resistance again. Since the Schockley Diode is already conducting, even if we now lower the voltage, the diode does not have to battle the "breakdown voltage" any more (as it is already broken down), and it can simply continue to conduct current at a lower level of voltage. Finally, at some voltage level, it simply refuses to conduct any further, and quite suddenly drops in current altogether.

Note that here we introduce an interesting principle called "Hysteresis". If we follow the "current path" on a graph (as we have been) we notice something interesting. On a simple device like a resistor, (think Ohm's Law for a moment), as we increase the voltage, the current increases. We can predict at any given time what the current is going to be, by knowing the voltage applied, because the resistance does not change. In the SCR, we can be at the same voltage level, and have 2 different currents - depending on whether we are ramping up the voltage, or dropping the voltage after we've reached the breakdown point. In other words - we have a variable resistance device, and all variable resistance devices exhibit some form of Hysteresis. In a common transistor, we can plot a similar curve by varying the base voltage, or the same by varying the grid voltage in a tube.

The Silicon Controlled Rectifier (or SCR), otherwise known as the "Thyristor" is simply a build up from the Schockley Diode that we've already discussed. Take a look at the image above. Like the Schockley Diode, it has 4 sections (PNPN), but it has a gate on the second P doped section. If we leave the gate floating (unconnected) the SCR behaves exactly like a Shockly diode. However, if we add a voltage to the gate, something interesting happens. Because the gate is connected to the base of the second transistor, it can be used as an alternative means to latch the SCR. Even though there is not enough voltage drop from the Anode to the Cathode to cause a breakover to happen, once the gate voltage is applied, the SCR goes into latch mode. Then even if the gate voltage goes away, current continues to flow from Anode to Cathode, as if it had the breakdown voltage reached.

Once the SCR is triggered, it latches into a continual ON state. The only reliable way to turn it off is to remove power from the SCR altogether. I say reliable, because in some circumstances (but not all), it MAY be possible to turn it off by shorting the Gate connection to the Anode connection. This does not always work and therefore is considered unreliable. Why would someone want a circuit you can't turn off? Consider a burglar alarm. The thief opens a window, which has a magnetic switch on it. That turns on the alarm, and a siren goes off. You don't want the alarm to turn back off just because he shut the window again. This is a perfect use for an SCR. Another common use for it is in surge protection circuitry. Assume you have a voltage surge to a very high voltage circuit. Too high of a voltage could damage very expensive parts, so you have an SCR in line with it. When a spike appears on the line, it triggers the SCR. The SCR turns on and triggers a relay contactor, which shuts off the power to the device. Power remains turned off until you get to the site to insure that there is no longer a high voltage danger to your expensive equipment. When very high voltage applications exist, instead of using an SCR controlled contactor, one might choos instead to use its older cousin - the Thyratron. A thyratron is build in similar fashion to a Triode vacuum tube, however it is filled with gas such as argon or mercury vapor instead of having a vacuum. Because it is filled with the gas, it does not have the linear characteristics of a traditional vacuum tube, and can not typically be used for amplification. It is normally used as a high voltage latching circuit - much like described above - only without the need of the relay/contactor. If you run into a Thyratron in your travels, it is a safe bet that it is being used as a high voltage latch circuit. Be careful not to break these open and snort the gas, as I hear mercury vapor is NOT good to breathe.

Lesson 61 - Field Effect Transistors

Way back in 1945, Shockley had an idea for making a solid state amplifying device out of semiconductors. He reasoned that if you had a strong electrical FIELD, you could cause the flow of electricity within a nearby semiconductor. He tried to build one himself, but failed. He also had Walter Brattain attempt to make one - but again it didn't work. Along the way, they came across a partial success - the bipolar junction transistor we've already studied. But it didn't work quite the way theyexpected. The thought was that the semiconductor device should work identical in nature to a vacuum tube. It didn't. But when the words "This thing's got Gain!" were first uttered, the world would never be the same. It wouldn't happen until nearly 20 years later, still in Bell Labs, that John

Atalla would be trying to make Shockley's ideas come to life, when a new semiconductor device would come about - the Field Effect Transistor. This device worked much more like tubes, and in many cases, were lower voltage replacements in similar circuitry! Taking the bipolar transistor for a ride, we'll discuss now how the Field Effect Transistor is made, and how it works. If you look at the bipolar transistor to the left, you notice that it is built in Layers. These layers are called "substrates". A very large crystalline structure is formed in a very high temperature oven. It is then sliced into disks or wafers. Each wafer is then spun coated with a photo sensitive layer, then is "developed" using the semiconductor equivalent to a photographic developer (basically an overgrown overhead projector on steroids). The light sensitive layer is then washed away with a chemical bath also similar to how a photograph is made. It is then doped, and copper is added as needed. Finally, it is shaved down, cut into sections and you get what you see to the right. A layered "chip" of silicone with just the right impurities to make it do its job.
Absolutely NOT an advertisement for AMD - I supply this video link for you because so far it is the best online video I've seen that describes how the chip is actually formed. Enjoy - but don't get lost on Youtube.... come right back to continue your course!

Now that you've watched the video - on to the differences between the bi-polar transistor and the Field Effect Transistor (FET). The FET is also built in layers, but slightly differently. In the FET, we find a doped piece of semiconductor material with 3 electrodes attached to the TOP: One to the middle Positive section - called the Gate. One to each of the two Negative sections, called the Source and Drain respectively. Under the Positive doped section is another negative doped section called the "substrate". By applying a voltage to the source and drain electrodes, current will flow through it. The side where the electrons come in is known as the source, and corelates to the anode of a tube. The side where the electrons go out is called the drain, and coresponds to the Plate of a tube. If no signal is applied to the gate (corresponds to the grid), current will flow from one side to the other as if it were a normal conductor. There is a region that runs along the FET's gate section called the "Depletion Region", which contains both N- and P- type semiconductor material. Current will not flow in the Depletion Region, because it contains (in addition to the P type holes)

electrons which repel the electrons that would want to flow through it. Instead, the signal flows from one end to the other through a thin "channel" underneath the depletion region. If a negative signal is applied, more electrons are added to the depletion region, repelling the electron flow through the FET. If enough of a negative signal is applied - it will pinch off the channel, and no current flow at all will occur. In this condition, we say that the FET is operating in "Cut Off" mode. On the other hand, if a positive signal is applied, electrons are actually drawn away from the depletion region, attracting the electron flow through even more! If enough of a positive signal is applied - it will approach a point we call "saturation", where no further signal can go through. Cut Off and Saturation are not normally considered a good thing. To an analog signal, like your favorite music, it will cause distortion, as the tops and/or bottoms of the sine waves are removed. This gives a very bad sound. There are conditions, however, when cutoff or saturation are considered a good thing. If we are simply building a switching circuit that needs to turn on and off, then "signal quality" is not necessarily as important as "state". In that case, it may conserve energy to run the FET "switch" in saturation andcutoff all the time.

Of course, there may be times when you want to have a device that will work in "backwards" mode...In such an event, there is a backwards FET which has a negative channel. It operates in exactly the same manner - except backwards. I won't go into all the specifics because I think you are smart enough to figure it out for yourself. The two most common forms of FET are the JFET (Junction FET) and the MOSFET (Metal Oxide Semiconductor FET). They both work in the "depletion zone" method as described above, but each has its own flavor of pros and cons.

Lesson 62 - Junction Field Effect Transistors (JFETs)

Now that you've learned a little bit about Field Effect Transistors in general, and understand the basics behind how they work - lets discuss the major types of FET's you'll encounter in the field. The first of which is the JFET, or Junction Field Effect Transistor. Like any other FET, the JFET has a gate, a source, and adrain, which corresponds to the base, emitter, and collector of a transistor (grid, anode, and cathode of a tube). It has a substrate and doping and a channel and a depletion region and all the other things that define what a Field Effect Transistor is. As we already discussed, the basic FET has no PN Junction for the electrons to jump across, like the standard "bipolar junction" transistor transistor does. Instead - the current flows through a channel, and as such, can actually flow in either direction (source to drain, ordrain to source). This can cause problems in troubleshooting for beginners. This is because when you use an Ohmmeter to measure across the PN junction of a diode or Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT), you'll see a high

resistance in one direction, and a low resistance in the other. However on a JFET, you'll see about the same resistance from source to drain in either direction. Many times folks have replaced "bad transistors" because of this, only to find out that the new transistor read the same way - because it's not a BJT - it's a JFET! When electricity is applied to the oppositely doped gate - it generates an electromagnetic field within the device. That field causes the depletion region to expand or collapse, letting more, or fewer electrons pass through - hence the term "Field Effect". Another interesting feature of the JFET is its high input impedance, often thousands of Ohms. Typical transistors have a low input impedance (Rin), which means they have less sensitivity. The higher impedance and higher sensitivity comes at a cost though - they are more susceptible to static charges, and better care should be taken to avoid stray static, or they can be damaged before you even get them installed! But how exactly does a field effect transistor work in a real circuit? I thought you'd never ask! FET circuits work almost identical to Triode Tube circuits. The Source, Gate, and Drain act like the Anode, Grid, and Cathode respectively. As such, the R1 gate resistor acts like a grid resistor. The R3 source resistor acts like an anode resistor, and the drain resistor is the equivalent to a plate resistor as found in a vacuum tube circuit. With that thought in mind, FET's are used far more often in modern electronics, and are essentially the workhorse of any microprocessor chip. Now aren't you glad we spent so much time discussing tubes? Vdd for this JFET is 9 Volts, which comes in at S1 and is applied to the drain of Q1 via the drain resistor R2. At this point you might ask why I called the 9 Volts coming in "Vdd"? Well, there are some "standard" names that we give to voltages in electroni circuits. For instance, Vdd, Vss, Vee, Vcc, Vgg, etc. These are usually easy to figure out. Vdd - drain voltage, Vcc, collector volgate, Vss source voltage, Vgg grid or gate voltage, etc. In addition, the same nomenclature applies to current, power, or resistance. Icc would be colector current, Rin - Input Resistance, Pout output power. I skimmed over this earlier in the course, but did not go into details. If you've arrived this far in the course - this should not be too difficult to comprehend. Once Vdd is applied to the drain of the FET, we have current flowing through the channel. Because it is a series circuit, all current flowing through the channel must also flow through R2, and R3. Let us assume that R3 is 560 Ohms, and R2 is 1.5K Ohms. That gives us (roughly) a resistance of 2.06K. 9 Volts divided by 2.06K Ohms (Remember Ohms Law?) gives us a current flow of about 4.36 mA. When we multiply times the resistance, we get the voltage, which winds up about a 6.55.2 volt drop across R2, and a 2.44 volt drop across R3. The values for R2 and R3 are chosen to keep the Vdd voltage roughly in

the middle of the FET's rated range, so that it never goes into cutoff or saturation. Ratings for any particular FET can be found online. Did I lose you yet? Lets assume we chose an MPF102 or an NTE451 (Note: NTE makes equivalent components for almost any transistor or integrated circuit. They have an online cross reference that can be found athttp://www.nteinc.com. This device has a (Max) 25Vdd. So with the maximum voltage in the circuit being 9V (our source battery voltage), we will never go into saturation for this inexpensive, high gain JFET. I would say we are operating in Class A mode. Our signal comes in on the gate, and out on the drain, meaning that the source is common to both input and output. So we say this is a Common Source, Class A Amplifier using an MPF102 JFET. Say that to your friends and they'll be impressed! Continuing with our circuit analysis, the voltage drop across R1 is nominally non existant - until you apply a signal at the input. The voltage vs ground is the voltage drop across R1 and the gate voltage (Vgg) at Q1. Note that the resistance of R1 is 3.3M&Ohm;. The resistance of R1 is chosen to keep the quiescent (silent/no signal applied) voltage at the drain midway between ground (0 Volts) and the highest possible voltage in the circtui (9 Volts). So typically, we have 4-5 volts at the drain with no signal applied. When we apply a signal to the gate of Q1, it swings positive and negative, changing the voltage drop (and current flow) through R1. The changing voltage coming into the gate opens and closes the depletion region of the JFET allowing more or less electrons to pass through from the source to the drain. This fluxuating current is seen by the drain resistor (Rdd). Since the Resistance of the resistor does not change, if we increase the current - it increases the voltage drop across the resistor. Likewise, if we decrease the current flow, we decrease the voltage drop. 9 volts is 9 volts. The source battery isn't going to change. So what happens to the voltage at Vdd when the voltage drop of the drain resistor changes? With 9 volts coming in, if there is only a 2 volt drop across the resistor, we have 7 volts at the Drain. On the flip side, if we have a 7 volt drop at the Drain resistor, we wind up with 2 volts at the Drain. So our output signal is swinging from 2 volts to 7 volts. So if this is all we need to get the JFET to amplify, what are all the other components for? Let's look at Z1 and Z2. Because the input signal to the JFET fluxuates, and COULD go above the ratings of the JFET (which is static sensitive), so a voltage clamping circuit, Zener Diodes Z1 and Z2, are put in place for protection of the amplifier. C2 is also for surge protection. As we flip the switch S1, a surge of current rushes in and can hurt our JFET. We put C2 there to soak up that surge, and keep the voltage coming into the circuit stable. C1 allows our output signal to pass through to the next circuit, while blocking any DC voltages from going to the next circuit (or coming from it).

R4 is a "no load" load resistor. There may come a point when the amplifier is turned on, but no load is attached to it. If this is the case, then R4 protects the JFET from having its drain voltage go too high. Below is a list of components if you choose to build the circuit yourself and test it. It is a well designed, and fairly bullet proof circuit.

Have Fun!
Q1 R1 R2 R3 R4 Z1 Z2 C2 C2 S2 MPF102 3.3M Ohms 1.5K Ohms 560 Ohms 220 Ohms 5.1V 5.1V 4.7uF 10uF SPST Switch

Lesson 63 - Boolean & Logic Circuits

I am endeavoring, ma'am, to construct a mnemonic circuit using stone knives and bearskins. Spock (Star Trek) Ever wonder what he meant by that? So did I. But that insanity has nothing to do with Logic or Logic Circuits. What DOES have to do with them is a special form of MATH called "Boolean Logic". Oh, jeepers! More math? Well - someday, you'd like to know at least a LITTLE about computers and processors. In order to understand computers, you have to first understand basic digital logic circuits. In order to understand logic circuits - you have to know about logic functions, which means math specefically "Boolean" logic. Boolean logic is important in Algebra, statistics, computer programming, and of course - digital logic circuitry. Its importance is neither discussed nor argued here - only accepted and learned. I do not plan, in this course, to take you through all the possible variances and their ramifications, simply to give you the basics of what it is and how it works. It begins with a hypothesis that there are only 2 choices to make in any given situation: Something either is, or it isn't. (Socrates) It'll either work, or either it won't.(Grandpa) There is no try, only do, or do not (Yoda). The light bulb is on, or it is off. Most decisions we have to make in life are simple, yes or no,

go/no-go, on or off, black and white there are no gray areas - and color is a lie! So you go to a used car lot to buy a car. Do you buy the red car or the blue car or the green car? The car salesman doesn't ASK you that question. It is too confusing, and will NOT help you make a decision. What he asks you is, "If I can get you this car for these payments, will you sign here and drive it home today?" He asks a YES or NO question to make things very clear to you. If you say yes, you sign, drive, and both of you are happy. If you say no, he tries for another 6 hours to get you to say yes so that he can make his commission and he can go drive home. Because so many decisions can be broken down into one of 2 answers, decision making for us, as well as for computers, is simplified by levelling the playing field to the least common denominator. For a computer that works in an electronic world - the least common denominator is an on/off switch. Either it is on, or either it is off. In computer programming, the on is represented by the number 1, and the off by the number 0. There are no other numbers. There are no letters. There are only 1's and 0's. Computer programs are written in 1's and 0's that will INTERPRET to letters and numbers so we can understand them - but the computer itself only sees the 1's and 0's. Without going into ASCII, Hexidecimal, and Binary conversions (which would make a course all its own), how do we cover what a computer sees when we type in the word "LOVE"? Well I'm not going there today either. Instead we will cover how a computer, using only 2 numbers (1 and 0), can possibly make a simple decision.

Conjunction Junction
Computers use conjuctions - AND, NOT, and OR (But has been left out - sorry), as their basic decision making functions. According to BOOLEAN math (developed by George Boole in 1854), the two "STATES" can be filtered by the words AND, NOT and OR. To make things even more complicated - there have been several symbols over the years for various logic statements. For instance the Logic symbol for AND could be: &, X, *, , or . For the sake of simplicity in THIS course, we will always use to represent AND. The Logic Symbol for OR could be: +, or

For the sake of THIS course, we will always use to represent OR. The Logic Symbol for NOT can be:

~, !, or

For the sake of this course, we will always use to represent NOT.

So let us begin with the simplest logic funcion - the NOT function: NOT is an easy Logic Function to understand.... just think - this is a 1.... NOT! What NOT means in Boolean math is that whatever your answer is - you are wrong and the OPPOSITE is correct. If we had a NOT logic gate, and put a 1 in, a 0 would come out. Here is the logic table for the NOT gate:

INPUT A OUTPUT 0 1 1 0

The schematic symbol for the not gate is as follows:

AND is a little more difficult, but not impossible to grasp. You have 2 inputs to any given AND statement (The A input and the B input). ONLY if BOTH the A and B inputs are 1, will the output be a 1. It will help you to understand if, when you see the character "", you say the word "AND". Here we go: 1 1 1 otherwise A B 0. Confused yet? Hope the logic table helps. Here is the logic table for the AND statement:

A AND B YIELDS OUTPUT 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1

Below are shown the TWO schematic symbols for the AND gate. One is the American Symbol - the other is the European. Note that for many different schematic symbols there may be alternate symbols used in another country. I nearly lost half a brain the first time I encountered Russian schematics. The point is - while in this course we use the American symbols - you should endeavour to learn the European counterparts on your own. You never know when you may encounter them.

If you understand the AND function, then the OR function is easy. Again, you have 2 inputs to any given OR statement (The A input and the B input). If EITHER A OR B inputs are 1, will the output be a 1. It will help you to understand if, when you see the character "", you say the word "OR". Here we go: 0 0 0 otherwise A B 1. Great! Now you've got it down pat! Again - I hope the logic table helps. Here is the logic table for the AND statement:

A OR B YIELDS OUTPUT 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1

Below is shown the schematic symbol for the OR gate. Keep in mind that there are also European symbols, and may be other symbols for various components. Always make sure you know what country your schematic is from, and what the schematic symbols for that particular region of the world is.

Lesson 64 - Making Sense of Logic

Now that you are a whiz at Boolean math and understand the basics of AND, NOT, and OR - what in tarnation does that have to do with electronic components? Can you make a not gate out of resistors or something? Well, to put it simply - yes! Any kind of gate - including the ones we discussed (and some that we didn't), can be created using the discrete electronic components that we have learned already. Since we started with the NOT gate in Boolean math - it seems like a good place to start with in studying the schematics behind it. Years ago - they used relays to create logic circuits. This is not a far stretch of the imagination. If you apply voltage to a relay, it turns on. If you do not - it turns off.

Let us first look at the NOT gate. Under its normal condition, 5 volts comes in on the top, through the switch part of the relay, and out to the right. If the toggle switch is flipped on the left side, the relay triggers, the coil pulls the relay switch in, and there is no output. 10, 01. We have created a NOT gate out of a relay.

Now let's take a close look at the operation of the Relay AND gate. Again the 5 volt signal comes in from the top, and taking the path of least resistance,

follows the road to nowhere! If we flip the top switch (SW1) we apply power to the coil, but because there is no ground, there is no complete circuit, and the relay does not energize. Again - the 5 volts goes nowhere. The same applies if we flip the bottom switch (SW2). It isn't until we flip BOTH SW1 AND SW2 that the relay energizes, and the 5 volts is allowed to continue on to the next circuit. 111 else 0.... it is an AND gate. Now comes the all permitting OR gate. Following the signal, the 5 Volts comes in at the top, and moves its way to the right. It is stopped by the open relay switches, because neither relay is energized. If we close switch 1, relay 1 energizes and lets the voltage through. If we close switch 2, relay 2 energizes and allows current to flow through. If we close both switches, current flows, and again we have 5 volts at the output. 011, 101, 111, 000. We have an or gate. Truth be told, relay logic is VERY old technology - predating the invention of the tube or transistor. However, evidence exists of its usefulness. I have run into many relay logic circuits in the repair of high voltage circuits. I've seen them implemented in industrial electronics, where they control motors, presses, and even the occasional air conditioning or security system unit. I have NEVER gone so far as Harry Porter did though - for your viewing enjoyment - meet the father of all relay computers!

At more than one point in the course - we discussed "class" of amplifiers, and terms like "saturation" and "cutoff". We went over these, because I knew then that you would be studyingthem in more detail now. Digital logic circuits, as opposed to analog circuits, NEVER run in class A, B, or C operation. Creating a clean, pristine, distortion free signal is not only not desired - it isn't possible. Wait a minute - the cable guy told me that when I went to DTV, I would have a perfect signal, and my TV looks better than ever now. Yes and no. It only "looks" better to you, because the massive amount of distortion you see, you don't see. It happens so quickly that it is beyond the frequency and range of your analog eyes to detect but rest assured there is a TON of distortion going on. I know this, because you are seeing the effects of "square waves", and there is no such thing as a perfect, distortionless square wave. We'll maybe cover all that in another course. For now, suffice it to say that in Digital Logic circuits - there can only be 2 states - On, and Off (1 and 0). Those 2 states are represented in the electronic world as "saturation" and "cutoff". When a transistor (tube, FET or other amplifying device) is in saturation, it is so overly distorted that it can not go any

higher no matter how much more signal is applied to the input. The opposite works for cutoff. The amplifying device has so little signal applied that it is completely turned off. Applying even less current will not make the output go any lower. Because the amplifier is set up to operate at such close parameters, (Class D, E, or even F), when you DO apply a nice sine wave (or Bethovan's 5th Symphony), to the input of the amplifier - it comes out as square shaped waves - with the tops and bottoms compressed off, and the sound coming out of it will be just plain hideous! However, if the signal you apply is already a distorted signal (saturated or cutoff), and you aren't worried about distorting it more - then it is just fine to push it through a class D, E, or F amplifier. Because of this - they use these classes of amplifiers in an effort to conserve energy. In Digital Logic, 5 volts is typically considered to be a 1, and zero volts (ground) is considered to be a 0. Typically, any input above 3 volts will send the transistor into saturation (making 5 volts output), and any input below 2 volts will put the transistor into cutoff (0 volt output). What happens if you apply a signal between 2 and 3 volts? Glad you asked. Because of the unstable nature of the circuit, any signal that falls between the saturation and cutoff points will cause the circuit to have unpredictable results - so we must at all cost avoid this situation. Often we run into this problem if a ground is not properly connected in a digital circuit, which is why grounding is so important in digital circuitry. In an analog circuit, you would expect a sine wave, or similar analog signal to go through the circuitry. In a digital circuit, the signal looks much different, speeding through as a series of 1's (5 Volts) and zeros (0 Volts) over time. So the signals you would look for on an oscilloscope would look much different. The test equipment you need to troubleshoot it also looks different. Devices like logic probes, data and word analyzers, and computers are needed to decipher the presence and integrety of digital data. Simply keep in mind for now, as you move on to the next section of the course - that a 1 is 5 volts, and a 0 is well, 0 volts.

Lesson 68 - Microchips

ow that you have a fair understanding of what a semiconductor, and have studied logic circuits - lets delve into me basic microchips. Microchips come in two basic varieties - analog and digital. The key difference being ho ey send signals through them. Either they deal with states of 1's and 0's (digital), or they deal with varying leve

voltages and currents, and are expected to pass them without any degredation. In either case - there are some asic commonalities between them.

o begin with, they come in similar packaging... either DIP (Dual Inline Pins) with legs on only 2 sides, postage stamp variety, with legs coming out from all 4 sides. They all require at least one bias voltage, and a ound. Some digital chips require a "clock" signal, while some analog may require a crystal oscillator input ith the key difference being whether it is an analog or a digital input. Finally, many analog chips can pass digita gnals, and some digital chips can pass analog signals!

o what really determines whether it is a digital or analog chip? The answer lies in what the chip was originally esigned to do. At the end of the day, a microchip is just a smaller version of a much larger "transistor" circuit. If e transistor circuit was an audio amplifier, then when it is miniaturized into a microchip - it is still an audio mplifier circuit, and would still reqire good fidelity - so it would be analog. If it is the microprocessor of a omputer - it is a digital chip. Keep in mind that many types of equipment have both analog and digital chips in em. Why? Well, an MP3 player that stores music in digital format would be of little use if it couldn't play analo und for your analog ears to hear - and that is but one example.

ets look at some basic chips and see what they do. These are all chips that you WILL run into in the future: Common Analog Chips
o o o o

LM741 Amplifier LM384 Amplifier CNW135 Optocoupler 7800/7900 Voltage Regulator Series

Common Digital Chips

o o o o

7400 Logic Series 555/556 Timer 6502/6800/8000 Microprocessors PIC1650

Note that the above links point to the manufacturer's data sheets on each microchip.

M741

he LM741 is a "simple" Operational Amplifier. A close look at the picture, and you see that there is a notch at e top. When you are looking at a microchip, (with the lettering facing you) there is always an identifying marke at tells where "pin 1" is. Usually it is a dot or a notch like this chip has, sometimes both. Microchip pins always o counterclockwise, so after finding the dot or the notch, pin one is the first pin counterclockwise from the notch

The LM741 takes (roughly) 18 volts bias on pin 7 to operate, with ground on pin 4. Note that these voltages are relative. If your "ground" were floating at 30V, you could have the V+ at 30V plus 18V or 48 Volts, and the chip wouldn't know the difference - so long as there was an 18V drop between pins 4 and 7. Once we have the chip properly biased, we can start adding signals.

This particular chip has 2 pins it can take an input on (2 or 3). Recall that transistors invert (NOT) signals. So if you feed a transistor with nother transistor - the signal is inverted twice. This anti-inversion (or non-inverted if you so please) makes the utput the SAME phase as the input. Because it has 2 inputs, an inverted and a non-inverted - the circuit lends self well to applications as oscillators - requiring positive feedback, and gain control - requiring negative edback. Once we have bias, and feed the input to either of the two inputs - we should arrive at a larger, mplified output on pin 6. How amplified? That depends on how much mplification you want! By placing a resistor of the appropriate value, ou can have either negative or positive gain, with a common mode gain upwards to 90dB possible!

o the right you'll find a handy circuit - one that will find its place onto ny bona-fide electronics workbench. A Micro-Amp meter (a very ecision device)! Note the special "R1", which can be switched (you ck the switching method - but I prefer an old fashioned 10 position tating switch). Depending on the value of R1, you have the ability to curately measure between 1/10th of a microamp all the way to 1 mp! I suppose you could modify it to go all the way up to 10 Amps, ut I wouldn't suggest trying 100 Amps - thats deadly current there, and ost likely your components wouldn't care for it. Also - notice that the LM741 needs 18 volts to run it. That would be two 9 Volt batteries connected in series connected across pins 4 and 7. If you want, you can run a toggle switch between the battery leads as an on-off switch to the circuit. Perhaps I'll add these modifications in a later verion of the schematic. For now - feel free to experiment and get back with me!

LM384 Amplifier

nother very popular analog amplifier chip is the LM384, 5 Watt Audio Power Amplifier. The LM384 is a 14 pi ackage that is intended to use 28 Volts instead of the 18 used by the LM741. It is built heavy duty and can hand ore power. More power means it generates more heat, and it will also burn up quicker - so it needs more of a heat sink". Because of the heat problem it developes, 3 pins on each side of the chip are intended to be grounded a large copper surface area on the board to dissipate the heat. As such pins 3,4,5, and 10,11, 12 respectively ust be grounded heavily.

o the right is another handy piece of test equipment for your home lab, esigned using the LM384. The Signal tracer is used to track down oblems in (typically) audio circuits, although it can also be used for me video or RF amplifiers. In a pinch it can also be used for "go/noo" logic circuit testing (it will test if data is going through the circuit ut not whether the data is correct). Connect a "test probe" to the input the circuit, then simply touch the probe end to an audio circuit, and if ere is sound - you'll hear it! Testing the inputs and outputs of all the mplifiers, you can trace your way down the circuit to where you can't nd sound anymore, and you've localized your problem.

CNW135 Optocoupler

ne of the properties of semiconductor materials we've already scussed is their ability to generate light when they conduct, which is e basis of a Light Emitting Diode, or to conduct when they see light, hich is the basis of a photocell (photoelectric cell) or a solar panel. What happens if we put an LED and a Photocell in a dark box, so that o light can come into the box. When we apply power to the LED, it onduct, and generates light, which will in turn cause the photocell to onduct, turning it on (as a switch). This in fact is the method behind ow an Opto-coupler or Opto-Isolator works.

ns 1 and 4 are not used. Bias for the device comes in on pin 8, with ound on 5. This leaves only pins 2,3,6,and 7 for inputs and outputs. ddly, if you put an input signal on 7, you get output on 6 just like it ere a normal transistor. Thats because it IS a normal transistor. owever - if we leave pin 7 unused, and put an input signal across 2 and it lights up the LED, which turns on the internal photocell, and applies power to pin 7. In short - we can use pi as a troubleshooting tool. By monitoring the signal on 7, we can tell whether the LED is lighting up, and hether the photocell is working. Many pieces of equipment do this by putting an LED between 7 and ground as n indicator of whether input signal is applied or not. Now that we have signal on 2 and 3, we should see singal ome out on 6 vs 5.

he CNW135 Optocoupler is one of the handiest devices around if you want to transfer either switching pulses, o w level signals betweeen two devices that may be riding at different ground levels.

et me give you a practical example: Years ago, I needed to move a large satellite dish (think VLA). It used 3 ery large motors, and took some high voltages and currents. In order to control its movements more precisely (I anted it to be correct within 1/10ths of a degree), I needed computer accuracy. So I wrote a program that would ad an input from a magnetic sensor, and calculate where the dish was at any time. From there, I simply had to nd a way to get the computer to move the dish. The problem was that computer circuitry is sensitive, and I didn ant to connect my (at the time) expensive computer to a high voltage, high current motor. I decided to isolate th omputer from the drive motors optically via an opticoupler.

NW135 to the rescue. Because the two sides are "electrically" disconnected, but rather are connected optically, o electricity passes from the dish's drive motors to the computer. The outgoing signal from the computer lights p the Light Emitting Diode inside the CNW135 optocoupler, which turns on the Photocell inside the CNW135. his device "couples" the output of the computer (via the LED) to the input of the motor drive circuits (via the hotocell). Now there was no more problem, and I could find any satellite in the sky without worry of destroying y computer.

800/7900 Series Voltage Regulators

While the 7800/7900 series chips have only 3 pins, and more resemble a transistor than a microchip - do not be eceived. They have a very complex internal design for a very specific purpose. Modern electronic equipment is ade to exacting specifications, and do not operate well with fluxuating voltage levels. In order to keep verything constant - the LM7800/LM7900 (as well as the MC7800/MC7900) series microchips are designed as gh tech voltage regulators. In short - they do the same job as a zener diode, but are much more effective at it, nd can handle more power.

he magic is in the "comparator" circuit. Lets say we are using an LM7812 (12 volt LM7800 series). If we have 5 volts coming in (too much), it passes the 15 volts to the Series Pass element. This "too high" voltage is seen a e Error Amplifier, which controls the internal "variable resistor" (actually a transistor), which sends current to ound, lowering the output voltage. In short - if the voltage coming in is higher than 12 volts, it drops it down ntil the output IS EXACTLY 12 volts. The Voltage Reference is basically an internal zener diode that is ompared t the input by the Error Amplifier, which then Amplifies the difference (error) between what you want oing out, and what you have coming in, and adjusts the Voltage Controller accordingly.

he first two letters designate the manufacturer. The last two numbers dictates what voltage it regulates to, so a C7805 is a 5 volt regulator, and a LM7818 is an 18 volt regulator. The 7900 series is numbered the same way ut regulates negative voltages. So an LM 7915 is a -15 Volt regulator.

o the right is a handy tool for your workbench that uses an LM7812. o work bench should be without a well regulated 12 Volt power pply. Certainly you can build it, and have the pride and satisfaction of ying you made it yourself, but I have to be honest with you. You can urchase a 12 Volt power supply with decent regulation nowdays for far ss than the cost of building it yourself.

Lesson 69 - Common Digital Chips

So far, we've discussed the basic operation of the following Analog chips, and tried to cover some decent test equipment you can build for your home lab out of these basic chips: Common Analog Chips

LM741 Amplifier LM384 Amplifier CNW135 Optocoupler 7800/7900 Voltage Regulator Series

While we won't be building any projects from most of these - you should be familiar with the basic operation of each of these digital devices as well, as you will see them commonly in the field. Common Digital Chips

7400 Logic Series 555/556 Timer 4004/6502/Z80/8008+ Microprocessors PIC1650

Note that the above links point to the manufacturer's data sheets on each microchip. 7400 Series

The 7400 series of chips is a family of logic chips, not unlikethe logic transistor circuits we've already discussed. In particular, the 7400 contains 4 seperate NAND gates in one small package. This is commonly known as a Quad 2 Input NAND gate. Other common packages are:

7402 Quad 2 input NOR gate 7404 Hex Inverter 7408 Quad 2 input AND gate 7410 Triple 3 input NAND gate 7411 Triple 3 input AND gate 7427 Triple 3 input NOR gate

7432 Quad 2 input OR gate 7446 Seven Segment Display Driver

While this is not intended to be an exhaustive list, Wikipedia is fairly correct on this particular issue, and is a good resource if you need specific data on a 7400 series chip. In the long run, just knowing that when you see a chip labled 74XX is likelysome kind of boolean logic chip will put you some distance ahead of your peers in the field. If you have some of the more common ones memorized, you can have a good chance of following the circuit without a schematic! 555/556 Timers

One of my all time chips - this is a utility tool for every electronics engineer's toolkit. This chip is useful as a clock or an oscillator, as well as a trigger, and many other possibilities. In essence, it is a modified flip/flop - specifically designed for precision timing. Timing being considered the RC time constant between pins 3 and 2. Bias is applied across pin 8 with ground on 1. This chip is able to handle a WIDE variety of bias voltages, from 3 to 13 Volts! Like a standard Flip Flop, there is both a Set and Reset, albeit they are internal. The Trigger on pin 2 acts as the Set. When voltage on pin 2 goes low, it causes pin 3 (OUT) to go high. Pins 5 and 6 work together. Pin 5 sets a "control voltage (typically .6 to .7 volts - typical e-b junction biasing for a silicon transistor). When pin 6 rises ABOVE the voltage at pin 5, the timing interval ends. Pin 7 is usually used to discharge a capacitor between timing intervals, although pin 4 can interrupt a timing interval at any time by shorting it to ground. Included is a handy circuit you can modify to fit your own needs. It is a simple waveform generator, capable of making both square and triangle (sawtooth) waves. Of course, the wave forms could be shaped to be sine waves, etc - with the right RC filtering following it. You can also vary the frequency and pulse width by changing the values of R1/C1 respectively. As is it generates a signal at roughly 200 hz - a nice genle low tone if you play it into a speaker. Add switches, variable resistors, etc and play with it. HAVE FUN!