y

12 mm

Example: Locate centre of gravity of the bracket shown in the Figure. Figure 7.1
62 mm

100 mm

1
51 mm

3
10 mm

88 mm

12 mm

2
34 mm

55 mm

45 mm

z n 1 2 3 4 Vn m3 1008812 1001288 0.5106251 -0.5661245 209190 xn m 50 50 39 78 X yn m 44 6 32.7 6 Y zn m 6 56 29 85 Z Vn x n m4 Vn y n m4 Vn z n m4

Similarly, location of centre of gravity of bodies made of plates or wires may be found using formulae such as: A n x n ; Y = A n y n ; Z = A n z n for homogeneous plates of uniform thickness, and X= An An An X= area. Other Applications: When a structure is subject to a distributed loading over an area, the net force (resultant) may be obtained by finding the volume of the area under the loading diagram, and its line of action may be found by locating the centroid of the loading diagram. This is useful in analysing structures subject to hydrostatic loading. Example: For the concrete dam shown in Figure 7.2, find the resultant of the ground reaction on the base of the dam and resultant force due to water pressure on the wall. Take the specific gravity of concrete as 2.5. Carry out calculations for unit width of the dam. w=1000 kg/m3 .
9 m 5 m 10 m

L x L
n n

;Y =

L y L
n n

;Z=

L z L
n n

for homogeneous wires of uniform cross sectional

22 m 18 m

W2 Ax W1 W4 Ay W3 M Figure 7.2

P Ax W2 W1 Ay M W4 W3

Lectures 7 and 8

Determine the force H as a functio n of W and . Both arms are hinged at their centre C. The system is statically symmetrical.

W/2

W/2

W/2

W/2

C VA A B H HA A (b) (a) Scissor Type Lifting Machine Write the equations of equilibrium. Figure 7.3

C VB H B Free-body Diagram

DO NOT TURN TO THE NEXT PAGE UNTIL ADVISED TO DO SO AT THE LECTURE

Lectures 7 and 8

Equilibrium of A System of Rigid Bodies In the preceding example we saw that for each rigid body, it is possible to write three independent equations of equilibrium (for a 3-D problem there will be six equations) and if the number of unknowns including the internal actions at connections do not exceed the number of equations, then it may be possible to solve this problem, even if the number of overall reactions exceed the total number of equations that may be written for the overall structure. Such systems of connected rigid bodies may be divided into three broad categories: Trusses, Frames and Machines. Trusses are the simplest of all for they consist of two force members that undergo axial straining only. Frames and machines have members that sustain axial forces as well as other types of internal actions. The difference between the frames and machines being frames are designed to take loading and are usually fully constrained while machines are designed to transmit forces and have moving components.

Analysis of Statically Determinate Pin-Jointed Frames (Trusses) Trusses are structures formed by assembling uniform skeletal members by welding, riveting or pinning together, to carry static loads (eg. roof) or moving loads (crane, bridge). If the members are pinned together and the loads are applied at the joints only, then the members will be subject to one type of induced action only, namely axial force. However, even the rigidly connected triangulated frames subject to loads at points other than the joints may be treated as pin jointed frames for the purpose of calculating the axial force, provided equivalent nodal loads are used in calculations. In general, the terms 'trusses' and 'pinjointed frames' are used to refer to triangulated skeletal structures when carrying out analysis to determine the axial forces in the members. In this section, we will deal only with plane structures, but the concept could be easily extended to analyse three-dimensional trusses whose joints are idealised as ball and socket type. Assumptions Joints are frictionless, so that the members are free to rotate at the joints. i.e. No moment resistance. External loads act only at the joints. Otherwise the bending of the members must be considered. Self- weight of the members are negligible. The forces act along the axis of the members. All member forces and external forces at each joint meet at a point. Direction of member forces Consider a member AB which is pinned at A and B. Let us assume that there is an induced shear force SAB in AB, which is subject only to loads at the nodes A and B. Consider an almost full segment of this member between A and a point close to B (say B'). Since B' is close to a pin, there will not be any moment at B'. MA = 0 gives: SAB (L) = 0. Therefore SAB = 0. This means that member forces act axially. SAB A B' FAB

Figure 7.4

Lectures 7 and 8

Sign Convention: In calculations tensile forces are usually taken as positive. The convention used is a joint convention. The arrows indicate the direction of forces acting at the joints. Initially the member forces are shown as tensile, and where calculations yield negative values, the corresponding forces may be tagged as compressive. Tension: Compression: 1. Method of Joints In this method, equations of equilibrium are written for each joint and solved. Two equations are obtained for each joint. It is convenient to start at the joints where the number of unknown forces induced is a minimum. [Sometimes it may be easier to start by calculating the support reactions first, by considering the overall equilibrium]. tan = (3/4) sin = (3/5) cos = (4/5) 12 kN E 4m 90 90 D 4m C

3m

Analysis: HA

VA A VE HE E D Overall Free-body Diagram B

Figure 7.5

12 kN

Figure 7.6
Joint C has the smallest number of members with unknown forces. So let us start at C.

Lectures 7 and 8

12 kN FBC Fx = 0 C FCD Fy = 0

Fx = 0 D Fy = 0

Fx = 0 Fy = 0

VA HA A

Fx = 0 Fy = 0

VE HE E Fx = 0 Fy = 0

Figure 7.7 Free-body diagrams of Joints

Lectures 7 and 8

In this problem we had: Number of unknown member forces, m = 6 Number of unknown reactions, r = 4 Total number of unknowns = m+r = 10 Number of joints, j = 5 Number of equations of equilibrium = 2j = 10 Total number of unknowns, m+r = Number of equations of equilibrium, 2j If m+r > 2j, then the problem is statically indeterminate If m+r < 2j, then the truss may be unstable or semi-definite. Check: 32 kN For overall equilibrium, Fx = 0. Okay. Fy = 0. Okay. M about E = 12(8) 32(3) =0. Okay. 1. Method of Sections A 12 kN -32 kN E B 12 kN 0

FigureD 7.8

In this method, the truss is divided into two parts by making an imaginary cut. The equations of equilibrium may be written for either part. The member forces are found by solving these equations, which now includes force as well as moment equations. Example: Calculate the forces in members CD, DJ and DI, of the truss shown below. All members have the same length. (i.e. all triangles are equilateral.) A 10 kN B C D 10 kN E 10 kN F 10 kN

Figure 7.9

A sketch of the overall free-body diagram is shown below. Let the length of each member be 'a'.

Lectures 7 and 8

10 C kN

10 D kN

10 E kN

10 F kN

HM

M VM

H VG

Figure 7.10

It should be noted that forces in members CD, DJ and DI, which are internal and therefore do not appear on the overall free-body diagram do appear on the sectional free-body diagram because they are external to that sub-structure. Let the length of each member be a. Taking moments about M, in the anticlockwise sense, we get,

VG(

) -10 (5.5a) -10 (

) - 10 (

) - 10 (

) - 10(

)=0

This gives: VG = 26.7 kN. Now make an imaginary cut through members CD, DJ and IJ and consider the equilibrium of a part of the truss to one side of the cut. Let us choose the right side (this is arbitrary). The required free-body diagram is:

FCD FDJ J

10 D kN

10 E kN

10 F kN h = a sin 60

I FIJ

G 26.7 kN

The cut need not be a straight line

Figure 7.11
For overall equilibrium, Fy = 0 gives: - FDJ sin 60 -10 10 10 + 26.7 = 0 This gives FDJ = - 3.8 kN M about J in the clockwise direction gives: -FCD (a sin 60) + 10 (0.5a) + 10 (1.5a) + 10 (2.5a) 26.7 (3a) = 0 This gives FCD = -40.5 kN FDI may be found by considering the equilibrium of joint D. The method of sections is more convenient, if only some member forces are required in a large structure. If load is applied at

Lectures 7 and 8

points other than the joints, then the bending of the members need to be taken into consideration. The axial force in members may still be found by applying equivalent loads on the joints, but the effect of shearing force and bending moment needs to be considered in designing such truss members. Short Cuts: To avoid having to solve simultaneous equations where possible use the following approach. If possible take a section so that you could find the required forces by taking moments about a point through which all unknown forces, except the one that is required, act. If this is not possible and if the all other unknown forces, except the required force, are parallel then resolving the forces perpendicular to the parallel forces would give the required force immediately. Zero Force Members It is possible in some situations to identify truss members (two force bodies) that do not carry any force by simple inspection. 0 F1 F1 Figure 7.12 When only two members meet at a joint which is free of any external loading, the forces in each members must be zero except when the members are co- linear in which case the forces will be equal. If two members are connected at a joint are collinear and are connected to only another member at that joint, the force in the third member would be zero. Equal Force Members If a pair of two colinear me mbers meets at a joint, the force in the collinear members would be the same. F1 0 0

F2

F2

Figure 7.13

F1

Lectures 7 and 8