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exactly, to go, he advised them to set out who had been a source of both financial
for Abyssinia, the “land of truthfulness,” and moral support. As chief of the Banū
whose ruling (Christian) king was a just Hāshim, Abū ālib was succeeded by his
person, and to stay there until God re- brother Abū Lahab who, it is said, had ini-
lieved them from their difficulties (Ibn tially promised to protect Muammad in
Isāq, Sīra, i, ). Several groups of Mus- the same way as Abū ālib had done, but
lims, therefore, both with and without their soon withdrew this protection on the
families, emigrated there. The Abyssinian grounds that Muammad had alleged that
king, the Negus, received them favorably. Abd al-Mu##alib (their common ancestor)
He inquired about their new religion and was in hell (q.v.). This loss of security
inquired about their understanding of caused great distress to the Prophet and his
Jesus (q.v.), the son of Mary (q.v.). In reply, followers, since he could now be easily tar-
their leader, Jafar, recited :-, geted for harsher treatment (see -
which had been revealed shortly before ). Thus, both he and
their leaving Mecca. The king, satisfied his supporters were no longer safe in
with this response, allowed them to stay in Mecca. Moreover, the Prophet probably
his country, denying the request of the del- realized that he had already achieved what
egation of Quraysh (q.v.) who had followed he could in Mecca. No dramatic change in
them to Abyssinia in the hope of convinc- the attitude of the Meccans could be ex-
ing the king to force their return. A total of pected and no important conversions
eighty-two people, excluding the youth, could be foreseen. Faced with such cir-
emigrated to Abyssinia at different times cumstances, he changed his strategy and
( abarī, Tarīkh, ii, ), though Ibn Sad, decided to convey his message to the no-
(-abaqāt, i, , ) gives a higher figure madic tribes of Arabia (see ;
of one hundred sixteen. When rumor ), doing this during the last
reached this group that leading Meccans three years of his stay in Mecca. In his
had been followers of the Prophet ( abarī, quest to continue his mission he went to
Tarīkh, ii, , ), thirty-three of their āif, a neighboring city at a distance of
number returned to Mecca where they re- some twenty-five miles ( km) south of
mained until their second emigration, this Mecca and dominated by the Thaqīf, a
time to Medina. Those Muslims who had branch of the Hawāzin. Like Mecca, āif
elected to stay in Abyssinia eventually left was a commercial city (see )
to join the Prophet in Medina. and the Thaqīf, who maintained close ties
A summary narrative of the second but with Yemen (q.v.), were a natural rival of
more consequential emigration can be the Quraysh. What actually prompted the
drawn from the most commonly available Prophet to choose āif in preference to
sources of early Islamic history. Accord- other localities is not clear, but he certainly
ing to these accounts soon after the end of sought to utilize their rivalry with the
the boycott of the Prophet’s clan, Banū Quraysh to his advantage. The people of
Hāshim, by the rest of the clans of Qu- āif, however, not only rejected his mes-
raysh, probably in .., two important sage but encouraged the town rabble to
figures in the life of the Prophet died: his throw stones at him. He was physically in-
uncle Abū ālib (see jured and left āif without any immediate
) who had continuously provided success. On his way back to Mecca, he
him with protection (q.v.) and his wife realized that his re-entry into the city
Khadīja (q.v.; see ), would be highly risky, given his lack of
20
protection and his failed mission at āif. In the following pilgrimage season (
So, through an intermediary, he ap- ..), men and three women met the
proached three clan chiefs for protection. Prophet at Aqaba and made a pledge
One of them, al-Mu#im b. Adī, chief of not only to obey him but also to protect
the Banū Nawfal and a relative of the and fight for him. This pledge is known as
Prophet on his mother’s side, appears to the Pledge of War (bayat al-arb). Tradi-
have agreed and took him to the Kaba tional accounts stress that the Prophet’s
(q.v.), where the protection was recognized uncle Abbās, though not yet a Muslim,
by the leaders of the Quraysh (Ibn Isāq, was present at this Pledge in order to
Sīra, i, ). oversee the smooth transfer of responsi-
The Prophet then re-entered Mecca and bility for Muammad’s protection from
remained there, preaching to the various the Banū Hāshim to the people of Yath-
tribes that came to the city for pilgrimage rib (Ibn Isāq, Sīra, ii, -). The authen-
and fairs. During the pilgrimage season of ticity of this anecdote is, however, seri-
.. he met at Aqaba with six mem- ously questioned by modern scholarship
bers of the Khazraj tribe in Yathrib (see and is ascribed to Abbāsid propaganda
) who accepted his message and efforts — Abbās was the eponymous an-
promised to propagate it. These six were cestor of this dynasty — aimed at enhanc-
the first from Yathrib (the name of Medina ing their image. Soon after this group went
before the hijra) to convert to Islam, al- back to their city, the Prophet instructed
though reports do claim that two members his Companions to leave, in small groups,
of the Aws, killed before the battle of for Yathrib. All but two of his Compa-
Buāth (between the Aws and Khazraj one nions gradually left Mecca and reached
year before the hijra), died as Muslims Yathrib. Of the remaining two, Abū Bakr
(Balādhurī, Ansāb, i, -). Five of these was asked by the Prophet to delay his emi-
six came back during the pilgrimage the gration and to be his travel companion as
following year and brought seven others the Prophet was expecting divine permis-
with them, three of whom were from the sion to emigrate (see -
tribe of Aws. They met the Prophet again ; ).
at Aqaba and made a solemn pledge (q.v.) The other, Alī (see . ),
to support and protect him. This was remained in Mecca at the Prophet’s in-
known as the Pledge of Women (bayat al- struction and later joined the rest of the
nisā) as no fighting was involved (Ibn Muslims at Yathrib.
I%āq-Guillaume, -; cf. :). They The standard accounts continue that
went back to Yathrib, having promised to after receiving divine permission, the
convey Muammad’s message to their Prophet left Mecca on the same night the
brethren. The Prophet also sent Mu%ab b. Quraysh surrounded his house to attack
Umayr to Yathrib to teach the Qurān to and kill him ( :). He stayed the first
the new converts and to invite others to three days after leaving Mecca at the
Islam. Their work was apparently so effec- Cave of Thawr ( :; see ), south
tive that converts were made from every of Mecca, then moved to Yathrib follow-
family of anār (i.e. the Helpers or residents ing an unusual route. On the th of
of Yathrib who were to receive and help Rabī I he reached Qubā, in al-Āliya of
the Emigrants — muhājirūn — from Mecca) Yathrib (topographically, Medina was di-
except the Aws Allāh, a group of the Aws vided into Āliya and Sāfila — upper and
known as Aws Manāt before Islam. lower — Medina, respectively; see Lecker,
21
Muslims, -; see ), where he collapse due to their internal feuds (be-
stayed for about two weeks and built the tween the Aws and the Khazraj, which
first mosque (q.v.). He then moved to the resulted in a long-lasting war). It was for
main part of the city, called Sāfila, and assistance in the resolution of this crisis
settled at the spot on which his famous that they had invited the Prophet (Ibn
mosque is now located. The city changed Isāq, Sīra, ii, ; iv, -; abarī, Tafsīr,
its name to commemorate the occasion, ad :). Several commentators, such
from Yathrib to Madīnat al-Nabī (lit. the as al- abarī (d. ⁄), al-Rāzī (d. ⁄
city of the Prophet), commonly shortened ) and al-Qur#ubī (d. ⁄), as well
to al-Madīna (Medina being the popular as Sayyid Qu#b (d. ) in modern times,
English transliteration). are of the opinion that : and :
The early sources differ in their interpre- refer to the chaotic situation which pre-
tations of who was saved by the hijra: the vailed in Medina before the Prophet
Prophet from Meccan persecution, or the brought peace, stability and order. This
Medinans from self-destruction. One side interpretation understands Muammad to
stresses that it was Muammad who was be the rescuer, and the Medinans the res-
rescued as he sought a safe haven to avoid cued. Some sources indicate that Muam-
the persecution of the Meccans and to mad himself insisted on this understanding
continue his mission. With this under- during reconciliation with the unhappy
standing it is the Prophet who receives Medinans after the Battle of unayn (q.v.;
salvation, the Medinans who provide it by ⁄; Ibn Isāq, Sīra, iv, -; see also
offering Muammad and his followers ). While the exe-
shelter and protection (Ibn Sad, -abaqāt, i, getical and historical sources express no
; for qurānic reference to shelter and unanimity on this issue, they uniformly
assistance, cf. :, ; for a detailed dis- contend that both parties greatly benefited
cussion on the salvation issue, see Rubin, from the hijra.
Eye, -). One allusion to the potential Classical Muslim historiography is also
salvific role of the Medinans is the insis- unanimous in understanding the emigra-
tence of the uncle of the Prophet, Abbās tion to Medina as an event of great impor-
(said to have been present at the second tance for the development of Islam (q.v.).
pledge of Aqaba), that the Medinans be According to this literature, for the great
serious about their commitment to shelter- majority of Meccans the Prophet was an
ing and protecting Muammad and not unwanted reformer who had created ten-
abandon him when he moved to their city. sion and uneasiness in their society and
Evidence of the view that perhaps Mu- hence was rejected by them. Their disdain
ammad did not need ‘salvation’ is found was compounded by the Prophet’s lack of
in Abbās’ reported statement that if the either elite status or strong financial back-
Medinans had such an intention [i.e. to ing. In Medina, after the hijra, his position
abandon Muammad], they should leave changed markedly. There, he was an in-
him immediately, for he already enjoyed vited and accepted leader with the respon-
protection and honor in his city and from sibility of saving the Medinan community
his clan (Ibn Isāq, Sīra, ii, -). from self-destruction and leading them to
In the reports that emphasize the Medi- prosperity. He eventually became the un-
nans as the actual recipients of salvation disputed leader of all of Medina, to whom
and the Prophet as the provider, the Medi- issues were referred for final resolution (Ibn
nans are depicted as being on the verge of Isāq, Sīra, ii, ). There, the Muslim
22
ration of their followers when they are run or gallop swiftly or, in so doing, to
oppressed in their own lands or unable to pass by or beyond something. The root
perform their religious obligations as they therefore took on the meaning of passing
would wish. beyond boundaries or limits, i.e. to trans-
gress, a meaning which occurs commonly
Muhammad al-Faruque in the Qurān in various forms (e.g.
:; see ).
Bibliography An enemy is thus one who has transgressed
Primary: Abd al-Razzāq, Muannaf; al- against another.
Balādhurī, Amad b. Yayā, Ansāb al-ashrāf, ed.
M. al-Fardūs al-A'm, vols., Damascus -;
The term “enemy” is often applied in the
al-Bayhaqī, Abū Bakr Amad b. al-usayn, Qurān specifically to Satan ( :, ;
Dalāil al-nubuwwa wa-marifat awāl āib al- :; :; :; :; :; :; :;
sharīa, ed. A. Qilājī, vols., Beirut ; :; see ; ) or more generally
Bukhārī, +aī; Ibn anbal, Musnad; Ibn azm,
Jawāmi al-sīra wa-khams rasāil ukhrā, ed. I. Abbās to those in ancient days who did not listen
and N. al-Asad, Cairo , repr. Gujranwalah to previous prophets ( :; :; :;
ca. ; Ibn Isāq, Sīra, ed. M. al-(aqqā, repr. see ), espe-
Beirut ; Ibn Isāq-Guillaume; Ibn al-Jawzī,
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al-Wafā bi-awāl al-Mu afā, ed. M.A. A#ā,
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ed. M. al-Kha#rawī and M. Mastū, Damascus , ; see also ; ; ).
; Ibn Rushd, Muammad (al-jadd, the “Enemy” is also applied to those who re-
grandfather), Kitāb al-Jāmi min al-muqaddimāt, ed.
al-Mukhtār b. al- āhir al-Talīlī, Amman ; fuse to believe in God and⁄or God’s angels
Ibn Sad, -abaqāt, ed. I. Abbās, repr. Beirut n.d.; ( :-; :; :, ; :-; see
Nasāī, Sunan; abarī, Tarīkh, ed. Ibrāhīm. ; ), those actively opposing
Secondary: M.R. Amad, al-Sīra al-nabawiyya fī
Muammad and his followers ( :, ;
$aw al-maādir al-aliyya. Dirāsa tahlīliyya, Riyadh
; P. Crone, The first-century concept of :, ; see )
hiǧra, in Arabica (), -; M. al-Ghazālī, or who do so discretely ( :), the idola-
Fiqh al-sīra, Beirut ; M.J. Kister, Notes on trous relatives of the believers ( :; see
the papyrus account of the Aqaba meeting, in
Muséon (), -; F. Krenkow, The
) including the
topography of the hijrah, in (), -; relatives of Abraham (q.v.; :; :)
Lane; M. Lecker, Muslims, Jews and pagans. Studies and kinship groups hostile to one another
on early Islamic Medina, Leiden ; W. Made-
even among the believers ( :; see
lung, Has the hijra come to an end? in
(), -; G. Mélamède, The meetings at al- ; ).
AFaba, in Le monde orientale (), -, repr. “Enemies” is also used to describe the
in U. Rubin et al. (eds.), The life of Muammad, natural state of humankind in conflict with
Brookfield, VT , -; U. Rubin, The eye of
the beholders. The life of Muammad as viewed by the
one another as a result of Adam’s and his
early Muslims. A textual analysis, Princeton ; unnamed wife’s banishment from the gar-
W.M. Watt, Khārijite thought in the Umayyad den (q.v.; :; :; :; see
period, in Der Islam (), -; id., Muham- ; ; ).
mad at Mecca, Oxford ; id., Muhammad at
Medina, Oxford , repr. Karachi . God commands them, “Descend [from the
garden, from now on being] enemies one
to another” (ihbi ū ba$ukum li-ba$in
Enemies aduww). This state of affairs persisted nat-
urally until God brought friendship and
A military foe or hostile force. The root of unity among the believers ( :; see
the common Arabic term for “enemy” ;
(aduww, pl. adā), -d-w, occurs frequently ), although as
in the Qurān. Its essential meaning is to mentioned previously, the Qurān does