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University of Cape Town Department of Physics

PHY2014F Vibrations and Waves


Part 2 Coupled oscillators Normal modes of continuous systems The wave equation Fourier analysis covering (more or less) French Chapters 2, 5 & 6

Andy Buffler
Department of Physics University of Cape Town
andy.buffler@uct.ac.za
1

Problem-solving and homework Each week you will be given a take-home problem set to complete and hand in for marks ... In addition to this, you need to work through the following problems in French, in you own time, at home. You will not be asked to hand these in for marks. Get help from you friends, the course tutor, lecturer, ... Do not take shortcuts. Mastering these problems is a fundamental aspect of this course. The problems associated with Part 2 are: 2-2, 2-3, 2-4, 2-5, 2-6, 5-2, 5-8, 5-9, 6-1, 6-2, 6-6, 6-7, 6-10, 6-11, 6-14 You might find these tougher: 5-4, 5-5, 5-6, 5-7
2

French page 20

The superposition of periodic motions Two superimposed vibrations of equal frequency combination can be written as x = A cos(0t + ) z = z1 + z2

x1 = A1 cos(0t + 1 ) x2 = A2 cos(0t + 2 )

z1 = A1e j (0t +1 ) Using complex numbers: z2 = A2 e j (0t +2 )

z = e j (0t +1 ) A1 + A2 e j (2 1 ) A A2
Then

Phase difference = 2 1
2 A2 = A12 + A2 + 2 A1 A2 cos(2 1 )

A1

2 1

0t + 1

and A sin = A2 sin (2 1 )

Superposed vibrations of slightly different frequency: Beats

If we add two sinusoids of slightly different frequency 1 and 2 we observe beats 1 2 1 + 2 cos 1t + cos 2t = 2cos t cos t French 2 2 page 22 cos 1t cos t 2 x1 x2 t x1+x2 t cos 1t + cos 2t
Tbeat 2 = 1 2 2 cos 1 t 2
4

Combination of two vibrations at right angles

x = A1 cos(1t + 1 ) y = A2 cos(2t + 2 )

French page 29

???

Consider case where frequencies are equal and let initial phase difference be Write x = A1 cos(0t ) and y = A2 cos(0t + ) A2 y= x A1 Rectilinear motion

Case 1 : = 0

x = A1 cos(0t ) y = A2 cos(0t )

Case 2 : = 2

x = A1 cos(0t ) y = A2 cos(0t + 2) = A2 sin(0t ) Elliptical path in clockwise direction


5

x2 y 2 2 + 2 =1 A1 A2

Combination of two vibrations at right angles 2

Case 3 : =

x = A1 cos(0t ) y = A2 cos(0t + ) = A2 cos(0t )

A2 y= x A1

Case 4 : = 3 2 x = A1 cos(0t ) y = A2 cos(0t + 3 2) = + A2 sin(0t ) x2 y 2 Elliptical path in 2 + 2 = 1 A1 A2 anticlockwise direction x = A1 cos(0t ) y = A2 cos(0t + 4)
6

Case 5 : = 4

Harder to see use a graphical approach

Superposition of simple harmonic vibrations at right angles with an initial phase difference of 4

Superposition of two perpendicular simple harmonic motions of the same frequency for various initial phase differences.

Abbreviated construction for the superposition of vibrations at right angles see French page 34.
9

Perpendicular motions with different frequencies: Lissajous figures

See French page 35.

Lissajous figures for 2 = 21 with various initial phase differences.

3 4

10

2 : 1
1:1
Lissajous figures

1:2 1:3 2:3 3:4 3:5 4:5 5:6

= 0

4 2 3 4

11

French page 121

Coupled oscillators

When we observe two weakly coupled identical oscillators A and B, we see: xA t xB

these functions arise mathematically from the addition of two SHMs of similar frequencies so what are these two SHMs? These two modes are known as normal modes which are states of the system in which all parts of the system oscillate with SHM 12 either in phase or in antiphase.

Coupled oscillators A B

xA t xB t

13

The double mass-spring oscillator

xA

xB

m and mxB = kxB

Individually we know that mx A = kx A


k For both oscillators: 0 = m Now add a weak coupling force:

xA

kc

xB

m For mass A: or

mx A = kx A + kc ( xB x A )
2 0 A 2

x A = x + ( xB x A )

k kc 2 = where , = m m
2 0

14

The double mass-spring oscillator 2

For mass A: For mass B:

2 x A = 0 x A + 2 ( xB x A ) 2 xB = 0 xB 2 ( xB x A )

two coupled differential equations how to solve ? d2 2 ( x A + xB ) = 0 ( x A + xB ) Adding them: dt 2 d2 2 Subtract B from A: ( x A xB ) = 0 ( x A xB ) 2 2 ( x A xB ) dt 2

Define two new variables: d 2 q1 2 = 0 q1 dt 2

q1 = x A + xB q2 = x A xB and

called normal coordinates

Then

d 2 q2 2 = (0 + 2 2 )q2 dt 2

15

The double mass-spring oscillator 3

The two equations are now decoupled d 2 q1 = s2 q1 dt 2 d 2 q2 = 2 q2 f dt 2

s2 = 02 2 = 02 + 2 2 f
q1 = C cos(s t + 1 )

s = slow f = fast

Write

which have the solutions:

q2 = D cos( f t + 2 )

Since q1 = x A + xB and q2 = x A xB We can write xA =


1 2

( q1 + q2 )

and

xB =

1 2

( q1 q2 )
16

The double mass-spring oscillator 4 C D x A = cos(s t + 1 ) + cos( f t + 2 ) 2 2 C D Then xB = cos(s t + 1 ) cos( f t + 2 ) 2 2 So xA and xB have been expressed as the sum and difference of two SHMs as expected from observation.

C, D, 1 and 2 may be determined from the initial conditions. when xA = xB ,then q2 = 0 there is no contribution from the fast mode and the two masses move in phase the coupling spring does not change length and has no effect on the motion s = 0 when xA = xB ,then q1 = 0 there is no contribution from the slow mode the coupling spring gives an extra force each mass k + 2 kc 2 experiences a force ( k + 2kc ) x giving f = m 2 = 0 + 2 2 17

The double mass-spring oscillator 5 symmetric mode antisymmetric mode mixed mode

18

The double mass-spring oscillator 6

We now have a system with two natural frequencies, and experimentally find two resonances.

Amplitude

Frequency

19

Pitch and bounce oscillator

French page 127

d k m L k

Two normal modes (by inspection): Bouncing x A = xB


xA xB

Pitching
x A = xB

Restoring force = 2kx 2k d 2x 2 bounce = m 2 = 2kx m dt


xB

xA

Centre of mass stationary

6k d 2 = m L2

= I
1 kd ( 1 d ) = 12 mL2 2

6kd 2 = 2 mL

2 pitch

20

N=2 1 1 = 20 sin = 0 2 ( 2 + 1)

2 2 = 20 sin = 30 2 ( 2 + 1)

21

N=3

N=4

22

French page 136

N-coupled oscillators

fixed 1

l 2 3 p1 p

Tension T p+1 N

fixed

Each bead has mass m consider transverse displacements that are small. y 1 2 3

p1
p1

p+1

Transverse force on pth particle: Fp = T sin p1 + T sin p = T y p y p1 l for small +T y p +1 y p l


23

N-coupled oscillators 2

Fp = m

d 2 yp dt
2

= T

y p y p1 l

+T

y p +1 y p l

d 2 yp dt 2

2 2 + 20 y p 0 ( y p+1 y p1 ) = 0 2 where 0 =

T ml

p = 1, 2 N

a set of N coupled differential equations. Normal mode solutions: y p = Ap sin t Substitute to obtain N simultaneous equations

2 2 + 20 ) Ap 0 ( Ap +1 Ap 1 ) = 0

or

Ap+1 Ap 1 Ap

2 2 + 20

02

24

N-coupled oscillators 3

From observation of physical systems we expect sinusoidal shape functions of the form Ap = C sin p Substitute into

Ap+1 Ap 1 Ap

2 2 + 20

02

And apply boundary conditions A0 = 0 and AN +1 = 0 n find that = n = 1, 2, 3, N (modes) N +1 There are N modes:

y pn = Apn sin nt = Cn sin


and

pn sin nt N +1
25

n = 20 sin

n 2 ( N + 1)

N-coupled oscillators 4

n = 20 sin
For small N:

n 2 ( N + 1)

n 20

0 1 2 3

N+1 n
26

N-coupled oscillators 5

In many systems of interest N is very large and we are only interested in the lowest frequency modes.

n 20

linear region

0 n << N n n = For n << N : sin 2 ( N + 1) 2 ( N + 1) then


n 0 = n = 20 n 2 ( N + 1) N + 1

N+1 n

i.e. n n for n << N

27

N-coupled oscillators 6

N coupled oscillators have N normal modes and hence N resonances

response

28

Continuous systems

29

Continuous systems

Consider a string stretched between two rigid supports tension T

x=L String has mass m and mass per unit length = m L


Suppose that the string is disturbed in some way:

x=0

y x
The displacement y is a function of x and t : y ( x, t )
30

Normal modes of a stretched string

Consider the forces on a small length of string

+
French page 162

T x

y x + x x

Restrict to small amplitude disturbances then is small and y cos = 1 sin = tan = = x The tension T is uniform throughout the string. Net horizontal force is zero: T cos( + ) T cos = 0 Vertical force: F = T sin( + ) T sin y y Then F = T x +x T x x x

31

Normal modes of a stretched string 2

y y F =T x +x T x x x dg g ( x + x) g ( x) = Use dx x 2 y Then F = T 2 x x 2 y 2 y or ( x ) 2 = T 2 x t x
giving Write
2 y 2 y = 2 2 x T t

: mass per unit length


Check: T has the dimensions 1 v 2 Then v = T is the speed at which a wave propagates along the string see later
32

2 y 1 2 y = 2 2 2 x v t

One dimensional wave equation

Normal modes of a stretched string 3

Look the standing wave (normal mode) solutions Normal mode: all parts of the system move in SHM at the same frequency Write: y ( x, t ) = f ( x) cos t

f ( x) is the shape function substitute into wave equation y 2 ( x, t ) d 2 f ( x) = cos t 2 2 x dx y 2 ( x, t ) = f ( x) ( 2 cos t ) t 2 d 2 f ( x) 1 2 cos t = 2 f ( x) cos t 2 dx v
which must be true for all t

d2 f 2 then = 2 f ( x) 2 dx v

33

Normal modes of a stretched string 4

d2 f 2 = 2 f ( x) 2 dx v d 2x 2 which has the same form as the eq. of SHM: = 0 x dt 2 has general solution: x = A sin(0t + ) Thus we must have: f ( x) = A sin x + v Apply boundary conditions: y = 0 at x = 0 and x = L f (0) = 0 and x = 0, f =0 : 0 = A sin 0 + v x = L, f =0 : 0 = A sin L v f ( L) = 0
i.e. = 0 i.e.

L = n

n = 1,2,3,
34

Normal modes of a stretched string 5

n v Write n = L

n = 1,2,3,

x n v n x Therefore f ( x) = An sin = An sin v L L shape function, or eigenfunction x=0 x=L n=1

f ( x) = A1 sin ( x L )

1 = v L

f ( x) = A2 sin ( 2 x L ) f ( x) = A3 sin ( 3 x L ) f ( x) = A4 sin ( 4 x L ) f ( x) = A5 sin ( 5 x L )

n = 2 2 = 2 v L n = 3 3 = 3 v L n = 4 4 = 4 v L n = 5 5 = 5 v L
35

Normal modes of a stretched string

n=1 n=2 n=3 n=4


36

37

Normal modes of a stretched string 6

Full solution for our standing waves: n x y ( x, t ) = An sin cos nt L The mode frequencies are evenly spaced:

n v n = L

n = n1

n 3 2 1

(recall the beaded string) This continuum approach breaks down as the wavelength approaches atomic dimensions also if there is any stiffness in the spring which adds an additional restoring force which is more pronounced in the high frequency modes.
38

0 1 2 3

Normal modes of a stretched string 7

All motions of the system can be made up from the superposition of normal modes

n x y ( x, t ) = An sin cos(nt + n ) L n =1

n v with n = L
Note that the phase angle is back since the modes may not be in phase with each other.

39

Whispering galleries

best example is the inside dome of St. Pauls cathedral. If you whisper just inside the dome, then an observer close to you can hear the whisper coming from the opposite direction it has travelled right round the inside of the dome.

40

Longitudinal vibrations of a rod

French page 170

x + x
section of massive rod

F1
x +

F2
x + + x +

section is displaced and stretched by an unbalanced force

Average strain = x Y : Youngs modulus

Average stress = Y

(stress) x stress at x + x = (stress at x) + x


41

Longitudinal vibrations of a rod 2

If the cross sectional area of the rod is

F1 = Y x

and

2 F2 = Y + Y 2 x x x

2 F1 F2 = Y 2 x = ma x 2 2 Y 2 x = x 2 x t 2 2 or = 2 x Y t 2 2 1 2 2 = 2 2 x v t v= Y

42

Longitudinal vibrations of a rod 3

Look for solutions of the type: ( x, t ) = f ( x) cos t

f ( x) = A sin x + where v Apply boundary conditions: one end fixed and the other free
i.e. = 0 x = 0 : (0, t ) = 0 x = L : F = Y =0 x L cos then =0 v or

L = ( n 1 ) 2

n = 1,2,3, Y L L

The natural angular frequencies

( n 1 ) v = ( n 1 ) 2 2 n =

43

x=0

x=L n=1 n=2 n=3 n=4 n=5

1 =

2L

3 Y 2 = 2L 5 Y 3 = 2L

44

Normal modes for different boundary conditions

Simply supported Clamped one end Free both ends Clamped both ends

n=1

n=2

n=3

45

l A

The elasticity of a gas

French page 176

, p

Bulk modulus: K = V
2 rms

dp dV

Kinetic theory of gases: Pressure p = v 2 Ek 2 1 If Ek = 2 mvrms then p = 3A l Now move piston so as to compress the gas work done on gas: W = pAl = Ek 2 Ek 2 l 2 l 5 l Then p = Ek = ( pAl ) ( p) = p 2 l 3A l 3A l 3A 3 l p 5 = p giving K adiabatic = V V 3 K 1.667 p = and v =
1 3

m 2 = vrms 3 Al

46

French page 174

Sound waves in pipes

A sound wave consists of a series of compressions and rarefactions of the supporting medium (gas, liquid, solid) In this wave individual molecules move longitudinally with SHM. Thus a pressure maximum represents regions in which the molecules have approached from both sides, receding from the pressure minima.

wave propagation
47

Longitudinal wave on a spring

48

Standing sound waves in pipes

t = 0:
Pressure p p0 Flow velocity u 0
t =T 2:

p x u x49

Standing sound waves in pipes 2

Consider a sound wave in a pipe. At the closed end the flow velocity is zero (velocity node, pressure antinode). At the open end the gas is in contact with the atmosphere, i.e. p = p0 (pressure node and velocity antinode). Open end pressure node Closed end pressure antinode

p p0 u
0 velocity antinode velocity node
50

Standing sound waves in pipes 3

Pipe closed at both ends

Pipe open at both ends

Pipe open at one end

n nv L= = 2 2f nv f = 2L n v n = L

L=

( 2n 1) ( 2n 1) v
4

f =

( 2n 1) v
2L

n =

4L ( 2n 1) v

51

Sound

Audible sound is usually a longitudinal compression wave in air to which the eardrum responds. Velocity of sound (at NTP) ~ 330 m s-1 By considering the transport of energy by a compression wave, can show that P = 2 2 f 2 Avs 2
m

where A is cross sectional area of air column and sm is maximum displacement of air particle in longitudinal wave

P 2 Then intensity = = 2 2 f 2 vsm A

unit: W m-2
52

Sound 2

The human ear detects sound from ~10-12 W m-2 to ~1 W m-2 use a logarithmic scale for I : I Intensity level or loudness: = 10log10 decibels I0 where I0 = reference intensity = 10-12 W m-2

53

Musical sounds

Waveforms from real musical instruments are complex, and may contain multiple harmonics, different phases, vibrato, ...
Pitch is the characteristic of a sound which allows sounds to be ordered on a scale from high to low (!?). For a pure tone, pitch is determined mainly by the frequency, although sound level may also change the pitch. Pitch is a subjective sensation and is a subject in psychoacoustics.

The basic unit in most musical scales is the octave. Notes judged an octave apart have frequencies nearly (not exactly) in the ratio 2:1. Western music normally divides the octave into 12 intervals called semitones ... which are given note names (A through G with sharps and flats) and designated on musical scales.
54

Musical sounds ...2 Timbre is used to denote tone quality or tone colour of a sound and may be understood as that attribute of auditory sensation whereby a listener can judge that two sounds are dissimilar using any criteria other than pitch, loudness or duration. Timbre depends primarily on the spectrum of the stimulus, but also on the waveform, sound pressure and temporal characteristics of the stimulus.

One subjective rating scale for timbre (von Bismarck, 1974) dull compact full colourful sharp scattered empty colourless
55

Two dimensional systems

French page 181

y
Consider an elastic membrane clamped at its edges y x

x
the membrane has mass per unit area , and a surface tension S which gives a force Sl perpendicular to a length l in the surface The forces on the shaded portion are

Sy

Sx Sy Sx

56

Two dimensional systems 2

If the membrane is displaced from the z = 0 plane then a cross section through the shaded area shows:

Sy

Sy x

z x + x x

looks exactly like the case of the stretched string.

2 z The transverse force on the element will be S y 2 x x And if we looked at a cross section perpendicular to this 2 z the transverse force will be S x y 2 57 y

Two dimensional systems 3

The mass of the element is xy .


2 z 2 z 2 z Thus S y 2 x + S x 2 y = xy 2 x y t

or

2 z 2 z + 2 = 2 x y S

2 z 2 t

a two dimensional wave equation with the wave velocity v =


S

58

Two dimensional systems 4

Look for normal mode solutions of the form: z ( x, y, t ) = f ( x) g ( y ) cos t

z 2 d 2 f = 2 g ( y ) cos t 2 x dx z 2 d 2 g = 2 f ( x) cos t 2 y dy z = f ( x) g ( y ) ( 2 cos t ) t 2


2

d2 f d 2g g ( y ) cos t + 2 f ( x) cos t = 2 dx dy

i.e.

2
v
2

f ( x) g ( y ) cos t

1 d 2 f 1 d 2g 2 + = 2 2 2 f dx g dy v

In a similar fashion to the 1D case, find

n1 x f ( x) = An1 sin Lx

and

n2 y g ( y ) = Bn2 sin L y

59

Two dimensional systems 5

n1 x n2 y cos n1 ,n2 t then z ( x, y, t ) = Cn1 n2 sin sin L Lx y where the normal mode frequencies are

n ,n
1

n1 v n2 v = + L Lx y

e.g. for a membrane having sides 1.05L and 0.95L then

n ,n =
1 2

v n1
L

n2 + 1.05 0.95

60

Normal modes of a rectangular membrane

up 1,1 down

2,1

2,2

3,1

3,2
61

Normal modes of a circular membrane

1,0

2,0

3,0

1,1

2,1

2,2

62

Modes of vibration of a 38 cm cymbal. The first 6 modes resemble those of a flat plate ... but after that the resonances tend to be combinations of two or more modes. 63

Normal modes of a circular drum

64

Chladni plates

65

Soap films

66

Holographic interferograms of the top and bottom plates of a violin at several resonances.
67

Holographic interferograms of a classical guitar top plate at several resonances.


68

Holographic interferograms showing the vibrations of a 0.3 mm thick trombone driven acoustically at 240 and 630 Hz.
69

Time-average hologram interferograms of inextensional modes in a C5 handbell

70

Normal modes of a square membrane

n2

4 3 2 1 0

v 4 2L v 3 2L v 2 2L v 1 2L

area per point = v 2L

one point per normal mode


f 4,3

f n1 ,n2

n1v n2 v = + 2L 2L

0 0 0

v v v v v 5 1 2 3 4 2L 2L 2L 2L 2L 1 2 3 4 5 n1
71

Normal modes having the same frequency are said to be degenerate

Normal modes of a square membrane for large n1 and n2

n2 df

area = 1 (2 f )df 4
v area per mode = 2L n1
2

2 Number of modes with 2L 1 (2 f )df frequencies between f and (f + df) = 4 v 2 2 L f df = v2

72

French page 188

Three dimensional systems

Consider some quantity which depends on x , y , z and t , e.g. the density of air in a room.
2 2 2 1 2 In three dimensions: + 2 + 2 = 2 2 2 x y z v t

which can be written:

1 2 2 = 2 2 v t
2 2 2

The solutions for a rectangular enclosure:


n1 v n2 v n3 v n1 ,n2 ,n3 = + + Ly Lz Lx v 2 2 2 n1 ,n2 ,n3 = n1 + n2 + n3 and for a cube: L

73

Three dimensional systems 2

How many modes are there with frequencies in the range f and (f + df) ? Set up an imaginary cubic lattice with spacing v 2 L
n2

and consider positive frequencies only.


df

Volume of shell =
f n1 n3

1 8

(4 f 2 )df
3

v Volume per mode = 2L

Number of modes with frequencies between f and (f + df) =

2L (4 f )df v 3 2 4 L f df = v3
1 8 2

74

Three dimensional systems 3

Number of modes with 4 V f 2 df frequencies between f and (f + df) = v3 holds for any volume V provided its dimensions are much greater than the wavelengths involved. need to multiply by a factor of 2 when dealing with electromagnetic radiation (2 polarization states)
Ultraviolet catastrophe for blackbody radiation

Equipartition theorem: in thermal equilibrium each mode has an average energy 1 k BT in each of its two energy stores 2 Hence, energy density of radiation in a cavity: 4 V f 2 df 1 df = 2 2 ( 2 kT ) 3 c 8 f 2 or = kT 3 c

experiment !?

75

Planck was able to show, effectively by assuming that energy was emitted an absorbed in quanta of energy hf , that the average energy of a cavity mode was not kT but hf e hf kT 1 where Plancks constant h = 6.67 10-34 J K-1 Then 8 f 2 df = c3 no. of modes in range f to f +df

df
energy density

hf e
hf kT

Plancks law

average energy per mode


76

which agrees extremely well with experiment.

77

French page 189

Introduction to Fourier methods

We return to our claim that any physically observed shape function of a stretched string can be made up from normal mode shape functions.
f ( x) n x i.e. f ( x) = Bn sin L n =1 a surprising claim ? first find Bn

n1 x multiply both sides by sin L

and integrate over the range x = 0 to x = L L L n1 x n1 x n x f ( x)sin L dx = sin L Bn sin L dx n=1 0 0

78

Fourier methods 2

n1 x n1 x n x f ( x)sin dx = sin Bn sin dx L L L n=1 0


L n1 x n1 x n x f ( x)sin dx dx = Bn sin sin L L L n =1 0 L

If the functions are well behaved, then we can re-order things:

[n1 is a particular integer and n can have any value between 1 and .] Integral on rhs:

L ( n1 + n ) x n1 x n x 1 ( n1 n ) x sin sin dx = cos cos dx 2 L L L L 0

79

Fourier methods 3

Both (n1 + n) and (n1 n) are integers, so the functions ( n1 n ) x cos L on the interval x = 0 to L must look like from which it is evident that

( n1 n ) x cos L dx = 0 0 Except for the special case when n1 and n are equal then L ( n1 n ) x ( n1 n ) x cos = 1 and cos L dx = L L 0
L

80

Fourier methods 4

Thus all the terms in the summation are zero, except for the single case when n1 = n i.e.

L ( n1 + n ) x 1 ( n1 n ) x n1 x f ( x)sin dx = Bn1 cos cos dx 2 L L L 0 L = Bn1 2 L 2 n1 x i.e. Bn1 = f ( x)sin dx L0 L

We have found the value of the coefficient for some particular value of n1 the same recipe must work for any value, so we can write: L 2 n x Bn = f ( x)sin dx L0 L

81

Fourier methods 5

The important property we have used is that the functions

n x n1 x sin and sin L L are orthogonal over the interval x = 0 to x = L.


i.e.

n1 x n x sin dx = sin L L

0 if n1 n L if n1 = n 2

Read French pages 195-6

82

Fourier methods 6

The most general case (where there can be nodal or antinodal boundary conditions at x = 0 and x = L) is
A0 n x n x + An cos + Bn sin f ( x) = 2 n=1 L L

where

2 n x An = f ( x) cos dx L0 L
L

2 n x Bn = f ( x)sin dx L0 L
L

83

Fourier methods 7 One of the most commonly encountered uses of Fourier methods is the representation of periodic functions of time in terms of sine T and cosine functions f (t )

2 T t This is the lowest frequency in f (t ) clearly there are higher frequencies by the same method as before, write A0 2 nt 2 nt f (t ) = + An cos + Bn sin 2 n=1 T T A0 = + An cos nt + Bn sin nt 2 n=1 T T 2 2 where An = f (t ) cos ( nt ) dt and Bn = f (t )sin ( nt ) dt T0 T0 Put =
84

Waveforms of ...

a flute

a clarinet

an oboe

a saxophone
85

Fast Fourier transform experiments, 10 March 2008

86

Fast Fourier transform experiments, 10 March 2008

87

Fast Fourier transform experiments, 10 March 2008

88

Fast Fourier transform experiments, 10 March 2008

89

Fast Fourier transform experiments, 10 March 2008

90

Odd functions

An odd periodic function f (t ) = f (t ) where f (t ) t


T 2 < t < T 2

f (t ) t

f (t ) t

can be expressed as a sum of sine functions


f (t ) = Bn sin nt
n =0

2 T
91

2 Bn = f (t )sin ( nt ) dt T0

Even functions

An even periodic function f (t ) = + f (t ) where f (t ) t


T 2 < t < T 2

f (t ) t

f (t ) t

can be expressed as a sum of cosine functions


A0 f (t ) = + An cos nt 2 n=1

2 T
92

2 An = f (t ) cos ( nt ) dt T0

Fourier methods Example

Find Fourier coefficients for the case: f (t ) 1 -1 This is an odd function: f (t ) = f (t ) 2 Bn = f (t )sin ( nt ) dt T0
T 2 T
T

t
f (t ) = Bn sin nt
n =1

2 2 = (1)sin ( nt ) dt + (1)sin ( nt ) dt T 0 TT2 T 2 T 2 1 2 1 = (1) cos ( nt ) 0 + (1) cos ( nt ) T 2 T n T n 93

Fourier methods Example cont.

2 = T 1 1 Bn = [ cos n cos 0] + [cos 2n cos n ] n n For even n: cos 2n = cos n = 1 For odd n: cos n = 1 and Beven n = 0 cos 2n = +1

Bodd n =

1 1 4 (1 1) + (1 + 1) = n n n

4 1 1 f (t ) = sin t + sin 3t + sin 5t + ... 3 5


94

Fourier sums Example 3

2 terms T 2

T 2

20 terms

4 terms

50 terms

8 terms

200 terms

95

Fourier sums Example 1

2 terms

8 terms

3 terms

20 terms

4 terms

50 terms

96

Fourier sums Example 2

2 terms

20 terms

4 terms

50 terms

8 terms

200 terms

97

Time domain Fourier transforms

Frequency spectrum

t f1 t 7 f1 t t

f f f

f t f1 3 f1 5 f1 7 f1 t f1 3 f1 5 f1 7 f1 f f 98

99

100

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