Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Andy Buffler
Department of Physics University of Cape Town
andy.buffler@uct.ac.za
1
Problem-solving and homework Each week you will be given a take-home problem set to complete and hand in for marks ... In addition to this, you need to work through the following problems in French, in you own time, at home. You will not be asked to hand these in for marks. Get help from you friends, the course tutor, lecturer, ... Do not take shortcuts. Mastering these problems is a fundamental aspect of this course. The problems associated with Part 2 are: 2-2, 2-3, 2-4, 2-5, 2-6, 5-2, 5-8, 5-9, 6-1, 6-2, 6-6, 6-7, 6-10, 6-11, 6-14 You might find these tougher: 5-4, 5-5, 5-6, 5-7
2
French page 20
The superposition of periodic motions Two superimposed vibrations of equal frequency combination can be written as x = A cos(0t + ) z = z1 + z2
x1 = A1 cos(0t + 1 ) x2 = A2 cos(0t + 2 )
z = e j (0t +1 ) A1 + A2 e j (2 1 ) A A2
Then
Phase difference = 2 1
2 A2 = A12 + A2 + 2 A1 A2 cos(2 1 )
A1
2 1
0t + 1
If we add two sinusoids of slightly different frequency 1 and 2 we observe beats 1 2 1 + 2 cos 1t + cos 2t = 2cos t cos t French 2 2 page 22 cos 1t cos t 2 x1 x2 t x1+x2 t cos 1t + cos 2t
Tbeat 2 = 1 2 2 cos 1 t 2
4
x = A1 cos(1t + 1 ) y = A2 cos(2t + 2 )
French page 29
???
Consider case where frequencies are equal and let initial phase difference be Write x = A1 cos(0t ) and y = A2 cos(0t + ) A2 y= x A1 Rectilinear motion
Case 1 : = 0
x = A1 cos(0t ) y = A2 cos(0t )
Case 2 : = 2
x2 y 2 2 + 2 =1 A1 A2
Case 3 : =
A2 y= x A1
Case 4 : = 3 2 x = A1 cos(0t ) y = A2 cos(0t + 3 2) = + A2 sin(0t ) x2 y 2 Elliptical path in 2 + 2 = 1 A1 A2 anticlockwise direction x = A1 cos(0t ) y = A2 cos(0t + 4)
6
Case 5 : = 4
Superposition of simple harmonic vibrations at right angles with an initial phase difference of 4
Superposition of two perpendicular simple harmonic motions of the same frequency for various initial phase differences.
Abbreviated construction for the superposition of vibrations at right angles see French page 34.
9
3 4
10
2 : 1
1:1
Lissajous figures
= 0
4 2 3 4
11
Coupled oscillators
these functions arise mathematically from the addition of two SHMs of similar frequencies so what are these two SHMs? These two modes are known as normal modes which are states of the system in which all parts of the system oscillate with SHM 12 either in phase or in antiphase.
Coupled oscillators A B
xA t xB t
13
xA
xB
xA
kc
xB
m For mass A: or
mx A = kx A + kc ( xB x A )
2 0 A 2
x A = x + ( xB x A )
k kc 2 = where , = m m
2 0
14
2 x A = 0 x A + 2 ( xB x A ) 2 xB = 0 xB 2 ( xB x A )
two coupled differential equations how to solve ? d2 2 ( x A + xB ) = 0 ( x A + xB ) Adding them: dt 2 d2 2 Subtract B from A: ( x A xB ) = 0 ( x A xB ) 2 2 ( x A xB ) dt 2
q1 = x A + xB q2 = x A xB and
Then
d 2 q2 2 = (0 + 2 2 )q2 dt 2
15
s2 = 02 2 = 02 + 2 2 f
q1 = C cos(s t + 1 )
s = slow f = fast
Write
q2 = D cos( f t + 2 )
( q1 + q2 )
and
xB =
1 2
( q1 q2 )
16
The double mass-spring oscillator 4 C D x A = cos(s t + 1 ) + cos( f t + 2 ) 2 2 C D Then xB = cos(s t + 1 ) cos( f t + 2 ) 2 2 So xA and xB have been expressed as the sum and difference of two SHMs as expected from observation.
C, D, 1 and 2 may be determined from the initial conditions. when xA = xB ,then q2 = 0 there is no contribution from the fast mode and the two masses move in phase the coupling spring does not change length and has no effect on the motion s = 0 when xA = xB ,then q1 = 0 there is no contribution from the slow mode the coupling spring gives an extra force each mass k + 2 kc 2 experiences a force ( k + 2kc ) x giving f = m 2 = 0 + 2 2 17
The double mass-spring oscillator 5 symmetric mode antisymmetric mode mixed mode
18
We now have a system with two natural frequencies, and experimentally find two resonances.
Amplitude
Frequency
19
d k m L k
Pitching
x A = xB
xA
6k d 2 = m L2
= I
1 kd ( 1 d ) = 12 mL2 2
6kd 2 = 2 mL
2 pitch
20
N=2 1 1 = 20 sin = 0 2 ( 2 + 1)
2 2 = 20 sin = 30 2 ( 2 + 1)
21
N=3
N=4
22
N-coupled oscillators
fixed 1
l 2 3 p1 p
Tension T p+1 N
fixed
Each bead has mass m consider transverse displacements that are small. y 1 2 3
p1
p1
p+1
N-coupled oscillators 2
Fp = m
d 2 yp dt
2
= T
y p y p1 l
+T
y p +1 y p l
d 2 yp dt 2
2 2 + 20 y p 0 ( y p+1 y p1 ) = 0 2 where 0 =
T ml
p = 1, 2 N
a set of N coupled differential equations. Normal mode solutions: y p = Ap sin t Substitute to obtain N simultaneous equations
2 2 + 20 ) Ap 0 ( Ap +1 Ap 1 ) = 0
or
Ap+1 Ap 1 Ap
2 2 + 20
02
24
N-coupled oscillators 3
From observation of physical systems we expect sinusoidal shape functions of the form Ap = C sin p Substitute into
Ap+1 Ap 1 Ap
2 2 + 20
02
And apply boundary conditions A0 = 0 and AN +1 = 0 n find that = n = 1, 2, 3, N (modes) N +1 There are N modes:
pn sin nt N +1
25
n = 20 sin
n 2 ( N + 1)
N-coupled oscillators 4
n = 20 sin
For small N:
n 2 ( N + 1)
n 20
0 1 2 3
N+1 n
26
N-coupled oscillators 5
In many systems of interest N is very large and we are only interested in the lowest frequency modes.
n 20
linear region
N+1 n
27
N-coupled oscillators 6
response
28
Continuous systems
29
Continuous systems
x=0
y x
The displacement y is a function of x and t : y ( x, t )
30
+
French page 162
T x
y x + x x
Restrict to small amplitude disturbances then is small and y cos = 1 sin = tan = = x The tension T is uniform throughout the string. Net horizontal force is zero: T cos( + ) T cos = 0 Vertical force: F = T sin( + ) T sin y y Then F = T x +x T x x x
31
y y F =T x +x T x x x dg g ( x + x) g ( x) = Use dx x 2 y Then F = T 2 x x 2 y 2 y or ( x ) 2 = T 2 x t x
giving Write
2 y 2 y = 2 2 x T t
2 y 1 2 y = 2 2 2 x v t
Look the standing wave (normal mode) solutions Normal mode: all parts of the system move in SHM at the same frequency Write: y ( x, t ) = f ( x) cos t
f ( x) is the shape function substitute into wave equation y 2 ( x, t ) d 2 f ( x) = cos t 2 2 x dx y 2 ( x, t ) = f ( x) ( 2 cos t ) t 2 d 2 f ( x) 1 2 cos t = 2 f ( x) cos t 2 dx v
which must be true for all t
d2 f 2 then = 2 f ( x) 2 dx v
33
d2 f 2 = 2 f ( x) 2 dx v d 2x 2 which has the same form as the eq. of SHM: = 0 x dt 2 has general solution: x = A sin(0t + ) Thus we must have: f ( x) = A sin x + v Apply boundary conditions: y = 0 at x = 0 and x = L f (0) = 0 and x = 0, f =0 : 0 = A sin 0 + v x = L, f =0 : 0 = A sin L v f ( L) = 0
i.e. = 0 i.e.
L = n
n = 1,2,3,
34
n v Write n = L
n = 1,2,3,
f ( x) = A1 sin ( x L )
1 = v L
n = 2 2 = 2 v L n = 3 3 = 3 v L n = 4 4 = 4 v L n = 5 5 = 5 v L
35
37
Full solution for our standing waves: n x y ( x, t ) = An sin cos nt L The mode frequencies are evenly spaced:
n v n = L
n = n1
n 3 2 1
(recall the beaded string) This continuum approach breaks down as the wavelength approaches atomic dimensions also if there is any stiffness in the spring which adds an additional restoring force which is more pronounced in the high frequency modes.
38
0 1 2 3
All motions of the system can be made up from the superposition of normal modes
n x y ( x, t ) = An sin cos(nt + n ) L n =1
n v with n = L
Note that the phase angle is back since the modes may not be in phase with each other.
39
Whispering galleries
best example is the inside dome of St. Pauls cathedral. If you whisper just inside the dome, then an observer close to you can hear the whisper coming from the opposite direction it has travelled right round the inside of the dome.
40
x + x
section of massive rod
F1
x +
F2
x + + x +
Average stress = Y
F1 = Y x
and
2 F2 = Y + Y 2 x x x
2 F1 F2 = Y 2 x = ma x 2 2 Y 2 x = x 2 x t 2 2 or = 2 x Y t 2 2 1 2 2 = 2 2 x v t v= Y
42
f ( x) = A sin x + where v Apply boundary conditions: one end fixed and the other free
i.e. = 0 x = 0 : (0, t ) = 0 x = L : F = Y =0 x L cos then =0 v or
L = ( n 1 ) 2
n = 1,2,3, Y L L
( n 1 ) v = ( n 1 ) 2 2 n =
43
x=0
1 =
2L
3 Y 2 = 2L 5 Y 3 = 2L
44
Simply supported Clamped one end Free both ends Clamped both ends
n=1
n=2
n=3
45
l A
, p
Bulk modulus: K = V
2 rms
dp dV
Kinetic theory of gases: Pressure p = v 2 Ek 2 1 If Ek = 2 mvrms then p = 3A l Now move piston so as to compress the gas work done on gas: W = pAl = Ek 2 Ek 2 l 2 l 5 l Then p = Ek = ( pAl ) ( p) = p 2 l 3A l 3A l 3A 3 l p 5 = p giving K adiabatic = V V 3 K 1.667 p = and v =
1 3
m 2 = vrms 3 Al
46
A sound wave consists of a series of compressions and rarefactions of the supporting medium (gas, liquid, solid) In this wave individual molecules move longitudinally with SHM. Thus a pressure maximum represents regions in which the molecules have approached from both sides, receding from the pressure minima.
wave propagation
47
48
t = 0:
Pressure p p0 Flow velocity u 0
t =T 2:
p x u x49
Consider a sound wave in a pipe. At the closed end the flow velocity is zero (velocity node, pressure antinode). At the open end the gas is in contact with the atmosphere, i.e. p = p0 (pressure node and velocity antinode). Open end pressure node Closed end pressure antinode
p p0 u
0 velocity antinode velocity node
50
n nv L= = 2 2f nv f = 2L n v n = L
L=
( 2n 1) ( 2n 1) v
4
f =
( 2n 1) v
2L
n =
4L ( 2n 1) v
51
Sound
Audible sound is usually a longitudinal compression wave in air to which the eardrum responds. Velocity of sound (at NTP) ~ 330 m s-1 By considering the transport of energy by a compression wave, can show that P = 2 2 f 2 Avs 2
m
where A is cross sectional area of air column and sm is maximum displacement of air particle in longitudinal wave
unit: W m-2
52
Sound 2
The human ear detects sound from ~10-12 W m-2 to ~1 W m-2 use a logarithmic scale for I : I Intensity level or loudness: = 10log10 decibels I0 where I0 = reference intensity = 10-12 W m-2
53
Musical sounds
Waveforms from real musical instruments are complex, and may contain multiple harmonics, different phases, vibrato, ...
Pitch is the characteristic of a sound which allows sounds to be ordered on a scale from high to low (!?). For a pure tone, pitch is determined mainly by the frequency, although sound level may also change the pitch. Pitch is a subjective sensation and is a subject in psychoacoustics.
The basic unit in most musical scales is the octave. Notes judged an octave apart have frequencies nearly (not exactly) in the ratio 2:1. Western music normally divides the octave into 12 intervals called semitones ... which are given note names (A through G with sharps and flats) and designated on musical scales.
54
Musical sounds ...2 Timbre is used to denote tone quality or tone colour of a sound and may be understood as that attribute of auditory sensation whereby a listener can judge that two sounds are dissimilar using any criteria other than pitch, loudness or duration. Timbre depends primarily on the spectrum of the stimulus, but also on the waveform, sound pressure and temporal characteristics of the stimulus.
One subjective rating scale for timbre (von Bismarck, 1974) dull compact full colourful sharp scattered empty colourless
55
y
Consider an elastic membrane clamped at its edges y x
x
the membrane has mass per unit area , and a surface tension S which gives a force Sl perpendicular to a length l in the surface The forces on the shaded portion are
Sy
Sx Sy Sx
56
If the membrane is displaced from the z = 0 plane then a cross section through the shaded area shows:
Sy
Sy x
z x + x x
2 z The transverse force on the element will be S y 2 x x And if we looked at a cross section perpendicular to this 2 z the transverse force will be S x y 2 57 y
or
2 z 2 z + 2 = 2 x y S
2 z 2 t
58
d2 f d 2g g ( y ) cos t + 2 f ( x) cos t = 2 dx dy
i.e.
2
v
2
f ( x) g ( y ) cos t
1 d 2 f 1 d 2g 2 + = 2 2 2 f dx g dy v
n1 x f ( x) = An1 sin Lx
and
n2 y g ( y ) = Bn2 sin L y
59
n1 x n2 y cos n1 ,n2 t then z ( x, y, t ) = Cn1 n2 sin sin L Lx y where the normal mode frequencies are
n ,n
1
n1 v n2 v = + L Lx y
n ,n =
1 2
v n1
L
n2 + 1.05 0.95
60
up 1,1 down
2,1
2,2
3,1
3,2
61
1,0
2,0
3,0
1,1
2,1
2,2
62
Modes of vibration of a 38 cm cymbal. The first 6 modes resemble those of a flat plate ... but after that the resonances tend to be combinations of two or more modes. 63
64
Chladni plates
65
Soap films
66
Holographic interferograms of the top and bottom plates of a violin at several resonances.
67
Holographic interferograms showing the vibrations of a 0.3 mm thick trombone driven acoustically at 240 and 630 Hz.
69
70
n2
4 3 2 1 0
v 4 2L v 3 2L v 2 2L v 1 2L
f n1 ,n2
n1v n2 v = + 2L 2L
0 0 0
v v v v v 5 1 2 3 4 2L 2L 2L 2L 2L 1 2 3 4 5 n1
71
n2 df
area = 1 (2 f )df 4
v area per mode = 2L n1
2
72
Consider some quantity which depends on x , y , z and t , e.g. the density of air in a room.
2 2 2 1 2 In three dimensions: + 2 + 2 = 2 2 2 x y z v t
1 2 2 = 2 2 v t
2 2 2
73
How many modes are there with frequencies in the range f and (f + df) ? Set up an imaginary cubic lattice with spacing v 2 L
n2
Volume of shell =
f n1 n3
1 8
(4 f 2 )df
3
2L (4 f )df v 3 2 4 L f df = v3
1 8 2
74
Number of modes with 4 V f 2 df frequencies between f and (f + df) = v3 holds for any volume V provided its dimensions are much greater than the wavelengths involved. need to multiply by a factor of 2 when dealing with electromagnetic radiation (2 polarization states)
Ultraviolet catastrophe for blackbody radiation
Equipartition theorem: in thermal equilibrium each mode has an average energy 1 k BT in each of its two energy stores 2 Hence, energy density of radiation in a cavity: 4 V f 2 df 1 df = 2 2 ( 2 kT ) 3 c 8 f 2 or = kT 3 c
experiment !?
75
Planck was able to show, effectively by assuming that energy was emitted an absorbed in quanta of energy hf , that the average energy of a cavity mode was not kT but hf e hf kT 1 where Plancks constant h = 6.67 10-34 J K-1 Then 8 f 2 df = c3 no. of modes in range f to f +df
df
energy density
hf e
hf kT
Plancks law
77
We return to our claim that any physically observed shape function of a stretched string can be made up from normal mode shape functions.
f ( x) n x i.e. f ( x) = Bn sin L n =1 a surprising claim ? first find Bn
78
Fourier methods 2
[n1 is a particular integer and n can have any value between 1 and .] Integral on rhs:
79
Fourier methods 3
Both (n1 + n) and (n1 n) are integers, so the functions ( n1 n ) x cos L on the interval x = 0 to L must look like from which it is evident that
( n1 n ) x cos L dx = 0 0 Except for the special case when n1 and n are equal then L ( n1 n ) x ( n1 n ) x cos = 1 and cos L dx = L L 0
L
80
Fourier methods 4
Thus all the terms in the summation are zero, except for the single case when n1 = n i.e.
We have found the value of the coefficient for some particular value of n1 the same recipe must work for any value, so we can write: L 2 n x Bn = f ( x)sin dx L0 L
81
Fourier methods 5
n1 x n x sin dx = sin L L
0 if n1 n L if n1 = n 2
82
Fourier methods 6
The most general case (where there can be nodal or antinodal boundary conditions at x = 0 and x = L) is
A0 n x n x + An cos + Bn sin f ( x) = 2 n=1 L L
where
2 n x An = f ( x) cos dx L0 L
L
2 n x Bn = f ( x)sin dx L0 L
L
83
Fourier methods 7 One of the most commonly encountered uses of Fourier methods is the representation of periodic functions of time in terms of sine T and cosine functions f (t )
2 T t This is the lowest frequency in f (t ) clearly there are higher frequencies by the same method as before, write A0 2 nt 2 nt f (t ) = + An cos + Bn sin 2 n=1 T T A0 = + An cos nt + Bn sin nt 2 n=1 T T 2 2 where An = f (t ) cos ( nt ) dt and Bn = f (t )sin ( nt ) dt T0 T0 Put =
84
Waveforms of ...
a flute
a clarinet
an oboe
a saxophone
85
86
87
88
89
90
Odd functions
f (t ) t
f (t ) t
2 T
91
2 Bn = f (t )sin ( nt ) dt T0
Even functions
f (t ) t
f (t ) t
2 T
92
2 An = f (t ) cos ( nt ) dt T0
Find Fourier coefficients for the case: f (t ) 1 -1 This is an odd function: f (t ) = f (t ) 2 Bn = f (t )sin ( nt ) dt T0
T 2 T
T
t
f (t ) = Bn sin nt
n =1
2 = T 1 1 Bn = [ cos n cos 0] + [cos 2n cos n ] n n For even n: cos 2n = cos n = 1 For odd n: cos n = 1 and Beven n = 0 cos 2n = +1
Bodd n =
1 1 4 (1 1) + (1 + 1) = n n n
2 terms T 2
T 2
20 terms
4 terms
50 terms
8 terms
200 terms
95
2 terms
8 terms
3 terms
20 terms
4 terms
50 terms
96
2 terms
20 terms
4 terms
50 terms
8 terms
200 terms
97
Frequency spectrum
t f1 t 7 f1 t t
f f f
f t f1 3 f1 5 f1 7 f1 t f1 3 f1 5 f1 7 f1 f f 98
99
100