EHU 601 (Industrial Management), Unit-4 Quality Control Unit-4 Quality Control 1.

Quality Meaning Quality is a relative term and it is generally used with reference to the end use of the product. According to International Organization for Standardization (ISO), Quality means the totality of features and characteristics of a product or service that bear on its ability to satisfy stated or implied needs. Earlier, quality meant product specifications and test reports, but today it refers to the entire organization its systems, strengths and ability to deliver cost-effective and consistently good products or services. In brief, quality means meeting customer or client needs every time. 1.1 Determinants of Quality (Refer details from text) a. b. c. d. e. Technological Advancement Quality of Human Resources Availability of Funds Management Commitment Natural Factors

2. Quality Control Meaning Quality control deals with the determination of quality standards & measurement and control necessary to see that the established standards are maintained and practiced. According to Alford and Beaty, Quality Control refers to the industrial management technique by the means of which products of uniform acceptable quality are manufactured. Total Quality Control is An effective system for integrating the quality development, quality maintenance and quality improvement efforts of the various groups in an organization, so as to enable production and services at the most economical levels which allow full customer satisfaction. Quality control refers to systematic control of various factors that affect the quality of the end product. The quality of the end product depends on the quality of raw materials used, the manufacturing tools and equipment, the degree of skill and proficiency of workers, working conditions, etc. The purpose of quality control is to regulate these factors to the extent that the end product conforms to the predetermined standards. Quality control is concerned with: I. Determining tolerances, i.e., range within which deviations in actual quality from standards will be acceptable; PALLAB SIKDAR (Dept. of Applied Sciences & Humanities, CET IILM-AHL)
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EHU 601 (Industrial Management), Unit-4 Quality Control II. III. IV. V. Conducting inspections and tests of materials, processes and products; Separating acceptable units from the ones which do not conform to quality standard; Drawing managements attention to conditions which adversely affect quality; and Advising management on ways and means of improving the quality

A standard quality control program involves the following steps: a. Establishing the standards and specifications of the products on the basis of the preferences of the customers and the cost of manufacture. b. Design and use of measures for making production conform to the standards. c. Selection of the process of manufacture. d. Establishing a logical inspection plan and collection & analysis of data. It also includes evaluation of methods and processes of manufacture. e. Coordination of activities to improve the quality. 3. Process Control Under the process control system, from a batch of products manufactured by a certain production process, some of the products are selected at random. Their quality characteristics like (length, diameter, thickness etc.) are measured and classified according to actual dimensions. If we tabulate these dimensions in order of size (in ascending or descending order) and give frequencies with which each size occurs, we have a frequency distribution. If the distribution of observation follows a normal curve, then it is assumed that the variations are due to chance causes and no assignable causes of error are present. The conditions which produced these variations are said to be under control and it is concluded that the process is under statistical control. On the other hand, if the distribution does not follow a normal curve then it is concluded that one or more assignable causes of error are present and the process is not in statistical control. 4. Statistical Quality Control (SQC) The technique of statistical quality control was first developed by the Bell Telephone Laboratories and Western Electric Company in the 1920s and started gaining wide acceptance in 1940s. SQC uses sample inspection instead of 100 percent inspection which is not only costly and time consuming, but also impractical in many cases. The items for inspection are selected on the basis of the techniques of random sampling so that each unit has an equal probability of being drawn and the sample is representative of the universe i.e. it has the same characteristics as the lot from which it is drawn. PALLAB SIKDAR (Dept. of Applied Sciences & Humanities, CET IILM-AHL)
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EHU 601 (Industrial Management), Unit-4 Quality Control SQC is based on the theory of probability. In case of a sample inspection, a small part of a certain lot of products is inspected and its quality is assumed to be the quality of the lot. This is called statistical inference. The characteristic of the whole lot or population is inferred to be like the sample. Sampling is very useful if it is reliable. It eliminates 100% inspection and is the only possible method for products which must be tested until they fail or break. It is also the only method to test the chemical characteristics of liquids and powdered materials or the thickness gauge of metal sheets etc. SQC deals with samples and their reliability as the indicators of the characteristics of the lot. The objectives of SQC are to show how reliable the sample is and how to control the risk associated with sampling technique. SQC has three general objectives: a. to control the quality of work done on individual operations while the work is being done b. to decide whether to accept or reject lots of products already produced c. to furnish management with a quality audit of the companys products In SQC, sample always refers to a representative sample having the same properties as the population from which it is drawn. A larger sample is more representative, and therefore more reliable, but reliability does not increase proportionately with sample size. For example, if the sample size is increased from 50 to 100, it gains considerably in reliability, but very negligibly if it is increased from 1000 to 2000. This is so because the reliability of sample depends on its numerical size and not on its proportion of the universe. The size of the population also does not affect the reliability of the sample. A sample of 100 from a lot of 5000 has the same reliability as a sample of 200 from a lot of 20000 units. It shows that the size of the sample increases at a lower rate as compared to increases in the size of the universe. This fact makes the use of sample inspection highly economical. Sample size can be calculated using the following formula: n = 2N Where, n = Sample size N = Population or lot size or universe But if it is perceived that items in the lot vary widely in terms of quality, the sample size may be increased up to a maximum of 2.5 times the sample size determined by the above formula.

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EHU 601 (Industrial Management), Unit-4 Quality Control 4.1 Benefits of SQC (Refer text for details) 4.1.1 Variable Control and Attribute Control Variable or In-process Control: It refers to controlling the quality of work in the process of manufacturing. It deals with average of measurements and range of deviations. Measurements of size, strength of welding points, tensile strength of metals etc are variable control measures. Attribute Control: It refers to deciding whether to accept or reject lots of materials purchased or products already manufactured. It is very important in case of acceptance sampling. It is also very useful in situations where it is not possible to measure the characteristics of the item and the inspector has to use his judgement. 4.2 Control Charts A control chart is a graph which presents lines defining the range of expected variability. It gives a running record of quality measurement by which every new measurement can be graphically compared with the past performance and properly evaluated. The main purpose of control chart is to detect the presence of assignable causes of variation. The assignable causes of deviations include: (i) difference among workers, (ii) differences among machines, (iii) differences among materials, and (iv) differences due to the interaction between two or three of these factors. The basic concept behind a control chart is when a process is effected the variations among the samples are predictable in terms of numerical limits. When the products characteristics exceed these limits, assignable causes can be safely assumed. The control charts are used both for variable control and attribute control. In case of in-process or variable control, control charts indicate the points in the manufacturing process where the quality variations are in excess of high and low tolerance limits so that preventive action may be taken. In case of attribute control, control charts indicate whether the number or the percentage of rejections is within or outside the acceptable limits. The commonly used control charts are: a. b. c. d. Mean (X ) Chart (Variable control chart) Range (R) Chart (Variable control chart) Fraction defective (P) Chart (Attribute control chart) Defects per unit (C) Chart (Attribute control chart) PALLAB SIKDAR (Dept. of Applied Sciences & Humanities, CET IILM-AHL)
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EHU 601 (Industrial Management), Unit-4 Quality Control 4.2.1 Mean Chart A mean control chart is used to monitor changes in the mean of a process. To construct a mean chart we first need to construct the center line of the chart. To do this we take multiple samples and compute their means. Usually these samples are small, with about four or five observations. Each sample has its own mean (X). The center line of the chart is then computed as the mean of all sample K sample means, where K is the number of samples.

Avg. of Sample Means = (Mean1 + Mean2 +..Meanx) K

To construct the upper and lower control limits of the chart, following formulas are used Upper Control Limit (UCL) = Avg. of Sample Means + z Lower Control Limit (LCL) = Avg. of Sample Means z z = Standard normal variable (1 for 68 % confidence, 2 for 95 % confidence, 3 for 99 % confidence) = Standard deviation of sample observations For example, standard diameter of a radio valve is 1 inch and tolerances are 0.002. It means that the diameter should not be more than 1.002 and less than 0.998. Mean of the sample is 1 inch and standard deviation 0.004. Then 3 statistic is 0.012, with UCL as 1.012 (1+0.012) and LCL as 0.988. If any of the observed diameter values are falling outside the UCL or LCL range, it is a signal for preventive action, as it indicates presence of certain assignable causes leading to exceptional deviations. 4.2.2 Range Chart (Refer text for details) When the quality controller is interested in the range or the difference between the largest and smallest measurements, he uses the R control chart. This chart is valuable when there is concern about consistency of the observed values i.e. the variations between extremes. Range of variations for each sample is calculated by subtracting the smallest from the largest value. 4.2.3 Control Chart for Fraction Defective (P Chart) P charts are used to measure the proportion that is defective in a sample. Sample size of n can be taken randomly at different time intervals. If d is the number of defectives in a sample, then the fraction defective (p) in the sample.

p = d/n
d = Number of defective unit in a sample, n = Total number of units in a sample PALLAB SIKDAR (Dept. of Applied Sciences & Humanities, CET IILM-AHL)
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EHU 601 (Industrial Management), Unit-4 Quality Control If p is the average fraction defective, then

p = (Total number of defective items in all samples inspected) (Total number of items in all samples)
P chart is based on binomial distribution. p = p (1 p)/n , p = standard deviation of average fraction defective The control limits for the p chart are: UCL = p + 3p

LCL = p - 3p
The number of defective units cannot be negative, but if LCL sometimes comes out to be negative, it is taken as zero. 4.2.4 Control Chart for Number of Defects per Unit (C Chart) In certain cases, it is more convenient to work with number of defects per unit, rather than with proportion or fraction defective. C chart is used for the control of number of defects observed per unit. C charts are based on Poisson distribution. The standard deviation in this case is given by c = C

C = Average number of defects C = (Total number of defects in all the samples) (Total number of samples inspected)
The control limits for C chart are: UCL = C + 3c LCL = C - 3c 4.3 Acceptance Sampling Plans (a) Single Sampling Plan In single sampling plan, the decision regarding the acceptance or rejection is made after drawing a sample from a bigger lot. Inspection is done and if the defectives exceed a certain number the lot PALLAB SIKDAR (Dept. of Applied Sciences & Humanities, CET IILM-AHL)
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EHU 601 (Industrial Management), Unit-4 Quality Control is rejected. Otherwise, the lot is accepted when the number of defectives is less than the acceptance number. (b) Double Sampling Plan In this, a small sample is first drawn. If the number of defectives is less than or equal to the acceptance number (C1) the lot is accepted. If the number of defectives is more than another acceptance number (C2) which is higher, then C1 then the lot is rejected. If in case, the number in the inspection lies between C2 and C1, then a second sample is drawn. The entire lot is accepted or rejected on the basis of outcome of second inspection. (c) Sequential Sampling Plan Sequential sampling plan is used when three or more samples of stated size are permitted and when the decision on acceptance or rejection must be reached after a stated number of samples. A first sample of n1 is drawn, the lot is accepted if there are no more than c1 defectives, the lot is rejected if there are more than r1 defectives. Otherwise a second sample of n2 is drawn. The lot is accepted if there are no more than c2 defectives in the combined sample of n1 + n2. The lot is rejected if there are more than r2 defectives in the combined sample of n1 + n2. The procedure is continued in accordance with the table below. Sample Sample Size Size Acceptance Number c1 c2 c3 c4 c5 Rejection Number r1 r2 r3 r4 c5 + 1

First Second Third Fourth Fifth

n1 n2 n3 n4 n5

n1 n1 + n2 n1 + n2 + n3 n1 + n2 + n3 +n4 n1 + n2 + n3 + n4 + n5

If by the end of fourth sample, the lot is neither accepted nor rejected, a sample n 5 is drawn. The lot is accepted if the number of defectives in the combined sample of n1 + n2 + n3 + n4 + n5 does not exceed c5. Otherwise the lot is rejected. A sequential sampling plan involves higher administrative costs and use of experienced inspectors. PALLAB SIKDAR (Dept. of Applied Sciences & Humanities, CET IILM-AHL)
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EHU 601 (Industrial Management), Unit-4 Quality Control 4.4 Total Quality Management (TQM) 4.4.1 Concept of Total Quality A process is a series of procedures that transform a set of inputs into an output. In this process, output quality could be only as good as the quality of inputs and the quality of business process that transform the inputs into products or service. It is, therefore, imperative that for ensuring quality of outputs, with consistency and reliability, quality has to be ensured across the whole process and process inputs. Total quality relates to the quality management system of the total business process across the organizational functions and processes. It is not simply the quality of the final product or service. Total quality is a company-wide quality coverage for ensuring quality in everything that is necessary to be done in a company for providing products or services to customers expectations and delight. In total quality system, quality is the outcome of collective actions of all the members of the organization, because people are the ones who run the processes. 4.4.2 TQM Concept TQM is a philosophy which believes in a company-wide responsibility towards quality. The main aim of TQM is to actively involve the production personnel in the pursuit of quality and to infuse in them the spirit of continuous improvement. TQM is an effective system of integrating quality developments, quality maintenance and quality improvement efforts of various groups in an organization. TQM is the control of all transformational processes of an organization to satisfy customers need in the most economical manner. TQM may be defined as creating an organizational culture committed to the continuous improvement of skills, teamwork, process, product & service quality and customers satisfaction. TQM emphasizes on doing things right, first time and every time, towards bringing down the cost of quality. 4.4.3 Objectives of TQM (Refer text for details) (a) Meeting Customers Requirements (b) Continuous Improvement (c) Involvement of Employees 4.4.4 Benefits of TQM (Refer text for details)

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