CS 1351 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

QUESTION BANK



UNIT I


1. Define AI
Artificial Intelligence is the study of how to make computers do things
which, at the moment, people do better.


2. What are the requirements by a computer to pass a turing test?
The requirements by a computer to pass a Turing test are :
a. Natural language processing
b. Knowledge representation
c. Automated reasoning
d. Machine learning


3. When is a class of problems said to be intractable ?
A class of problems is said to be intractable if the time required to solve
instances of the class grows at least exponentially within the size of the
instances.


4. What are the types of speech recognition systems available ?
The types of speech recognition systems available are,
a. Speaker dependence Vs speaker independence
b. Continuous Vs isolated-word speech
c. Real time Vs off-line processing
d. Large Vs small vocabulary
e. Broad Vs narrow grammar


5. List some of the AI tasks
Some of the AI tasks are,
a. Vision
b. Natural language
c. Planning
d. Robotics
e. Medical diagnostics
f. Equipment repair
g. Computer configuration
h. Financial planning



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6. What are the main tasks in entire language processing problem?
The main tasks in entire language processing problems are,
a. Processing written text
b. Processing spoken language


7. Define an agent.
An agent is anything that can be viewed as perceiving its environment
through sensors and acting upon that environment through effectors. (OR)
It is a physical object that can be analysed as having perception and
producing actions.


8. Define rational agent
A rational agent always selects an action based on the percept sequence it
has received so as to maximize its (expected) performance measure given
the percepts it has received and the knowledge possessed by it.


9. Distinguish between deterministic and stochastic environment.
Deterministic Stochastic
The next state of the environment is
completely determined by the agent
The environment is complex type
with respect to the point of view of
the agent
The agent need not worry about the
possible uncertainty.
Since the environment is stochastic,
the agent makes stochastic actions.


10. Give an informal description of the general search algorithm.
function GENERAL-SEARCH(problem, strategy)returns a solution or failure
initialize the search tree using the initial state of problem
loop do
if there are no candidates for expansion then return failure
choose a leaf node for expansion according to strategy
if the node contains a goal state then return the corresponding solution
else expand the node and add the resulting nodes to the search tree
end
11. What are the factors to measure the performance of searching techniques?
Completeness, time complexity, space complexity and optimality.

12. What is the application of best first search?
Uniform Cost Search is a special case of the best first search algorithm. The
algorithm maintains a priority queue of nodes to be explored. A cost

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function f(n) is applied to each node. The nodes are put in OPEN in the
order of their f values. Nodes with smaller f(n) values are expanded earlier.


13. Name the types of search strategies.
There are two types of search strategies. They are,
a. Uniformed search or blind search
1. Breadth-first search
2. Uniform cost search
3. Depth-first search
4. Depth-limited search
5. Interactive deepening search
6. bi-directional search
b. Informal search or heuristic search


14. Give the advantages of BFS (Breadth First Search)
BFS was guaranteed to find the shortest solution path but required
inordinate amounts of space because all leaf nodes had to be kept in
memory.


15. Give the advantages of DFS (Depth First Search)
DFS was efficient in terms of space but required some cut-off depth in
order to force backtracking when a solution was not found.

16. Define production system.

A set of condition action rule is termed as a production system which
incorporates the forward chaining.

17. What elements are necessary to formally define a search problem?

Initial state, goal test and operator description.

18. Develop a PEAS description of the task environment for an internet book-
shopping agent or an interactive English tutor.

Page 40 AIMA 2/e(your text book)
Performance measure:-Get the required book within the least time and at
the least cost and within the budget.
Environment:- Internet
Actuators :- Ability to locate the desired link for the book.
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Sensor:-Ability to understand if the desired book is available.


19. State True/False & justify your answer: (a)There exists task environments
(PEAS) in which some pure reflex agents behave rationally. (b) The input
to an agent program is the same as the input to the corresponding agent
function.(c) There exists task environments (PEAS) in which some pure
reflex agents behave irrationally.


(a) True: Page 48 AIMA 2/e(your text book)
(b) False: the agent program takes the current percept whereas the agent
function takes the percept history.(c) True.


20. What do you mean by belief state? (Page 84)


21. Describe a state space in which iterative deepening search performs much
worse than depth-first search(for example O(n
2
) vs. O(n)).
Consider a domain in which every state has a single successor, and theres a
single goal at depth n. Then the depth-first search will find the goal in n
steps, whereas iterative deepening search will take 1+2+3++ n = O(n
2
)
steps.


22. State True/False and justify: The agent that senses only partial information
about the state can not be rational.
False: the rationality and omniscience are different concepts.




Big Questions.
1. Explain the structure of agents with neat diagram.(4)


2. Prove that the vacuum agent is rational.(6)
It suffices to show that for all possible actual environments (i.e., all dirt
distributions and initial locations), this agent cleans the squares at least as
fast as any other agent. This is trivially true when there is no dirt. When
there is dirt in the initial location and none in the other location, the
world is clean after one step; no agent can do better. When there is no dirt
in the initial location but dirt in the other, the world is clean after two
steps; no agent can do better. When there is dirt in both locations, the


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world is clean after three steps; no agent can do better. (Note: cleaning
squares at least as fast as any other agent is a much stricter condition than
necessary for an agent to be rational; it just needs to be as good as any
other agent with the same sensors and actuators.)


3. Lists some metrics to measure the success of an intelligent program.


4. Can robots replace humans?(4)




5. Discuss possible agent designs for the cases in which clean squares can
become dirty and the geography of the environment is unknown. Does it
make sense for the agent to learn from its experience in these cases? If so,
what should it learn?
If we consider asymptotically long lifetimes, then it is clear that learning a
map (in some form) confers an advantage because it means that the agent
can avoid bumping into walls. It can also learn where dirt is most likely to
accumulate and can devise an optimal inspection strategy. The precise
details of the exploration method needed to construct a complete map
appear in Chapter 4; methods for deriving an optimal inspection/cleanup
strategy are in Chapter 21.

6. Give the initial state, goal test, successor function, and cost function for
each of the following. Choose a formulation that is precise enough to be
implemented.

(a) You have to colour a planar map using only three colours, with no two
adjacent regions having the same colour.
This is a version of the graph-colouring problem (a standard CSP)
described in lecture.
Initial state: An uncoloured map.
Goal test: Each region on the map is shaded in one of (at most) three
colours, and no region shares a colour with its adjacent regions.
Successor function: For a partially-coloured map, the successor of a
particular partially-coloured map, on which an agent colours a new region,
is a copy of the map with the new region coloured in.





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Cost function: If the cost of colouring a region is independent of the colour
used, all paths to the goal will have the same cost. No solution is preferred
over any other, so let the cost of colouring a state be 1.


7. Consider a state space where the start state is number 1 and the successor
function for state n returns two states, numbers 2n and 2n + 1.
a. Draw the portion of the state space for states 1 to 15.
b. Suppose the goal state is 11. List the order in which nodes will be visited
for the breadth first search, depth-limited search with limit 3, and
iterative deepening search.
c. Would bi-directional search be appropriate for this problem? If so,
describe in detail how it would work?
d. What is the branching factor in each direction of the bi-directional
search?


The state space
b. BFS :- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Depth-limited: 1 2 4 8 9 5 10 11 Iterative
deepening:- 1; 1 2 3; 1 2 4 5 3 6 7; 1 2 4 8 9 5 10 11
c. Bidirectional search is very useful because the only successor of n in the
reverse direction is (n/2) . This helps focus the search.
d. 2 in the forward direction; 1 in the reverse direction.
8. Explain how to avoid repeated states while searching in graphs.
Increasing the order of effectiveness in reducing size of state space and
with increasing computational costs:
1. Do not return to the state you just came from.
2. Do not create paths with cycles in them.
3. Do not generate any state that was ever created
before.(CLOSED)
Net effect depends on frequency of loops in state
space.

9. Explain why problem formulation must follow goal
formulation?
10. Discuss about searching with partial information.








CS 1351 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
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UNIT II
1. What is a complete search algorithm?
An algorithm which guarantees to find the goal(or solution) if one exists at
a finite depth.


2. Why does one go for heuristic search?
Heuristic means rule of thumb. To quote Judea Pearl, Heuristics are
criteria, methods or principles for deciding which among several alternative
courses of action promises to be the most effective in order to achieve some
goal. In heuristic search or informed search, heuristics are used to identify
the most promising search path.


3. Describe a knowledge-based agent at three levels.
a. Knowledge level or epistemological level, describe the agent by
saying what is knows
b. Logical level, at which the knowledge is encoded into sentences.
c. Implementation level, that runs on the agent architecture.


4. What is a heuristic?
A heuristic is a technique that improves the efficiency of the search
process, possibly by sacrificing claims of completeness. In other words, it is
an estimate which may guide to reach the goal with an optimism, without
much prejudice to its possible completeness.


5. What is a heuristic function ?
A heuristic function is a function that maps from the problem state
description to measures of desirability, usually represented in numbers.


6. What is the purpose of the heuristic function?
To guide the search process in the most profitable direction by suggesting
which path to follow first when more than one is available.


7. Define consistency or monotonicity of a heuristic.
A heuristic h(n) is consistent if, for every node n and every successor n', of
n generated by any action a, the estimated cost of reaching the goal from n
is no greater thanthe step cost of getting to n' plus the estimated cost of
reaching the goal from n': h(n) s c(n,a,n') + h(n')

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8. What is the condition for optimality of A* search algorithm?
The heurist defined for the A* must be admissible and consistent.


9. How can we measure the effectiveness of a search?
(i) Branching factor (ii) Depth (iii) Completeness
10. Compare A* search with IDA* in terms of space and time complexity.
Assuming a search tree with a uniform branching factor of b.
Algorithm/complexity TIME SPACE
A* b
n
b
n
IDA* b*b
n
bn



11. How can we choose the ideal search?
We have seen several search strategies BFS, DFS, Best first search and
so on that are designed by computer scientists. There is a method rests
on an important concept called metalevel state space. By means of
meta-level learning algorithms, we can avoid exploring unpromising sub-
trees.


12. List the advantages of informed search strategies.
(i) Informed search finds the goal node more efficiently than the
uninformed strategy.
(ii) Using the evaluation function, the best first search for example finds the
lowest cost path to the goal node at the shortest time. The local
search algorithms could find the path by modifying the one or more current
states rather than doing a systematic search. The online search finds the goal
node in a completely unknown environment.
13. Name some local search algorithms.
(i) Hill Climbing (ii) Simulated annealing (iii) Local beam search (iv)
genetic algorithm.


14. What is meant by plateau with respect to search techniques?
A plateaux is an area of the state space where the evaluation function is
flat. That is all the neighbour nodes evaluates to the same value.

15. How to overcome the drawback of climbing local maxima/minima and
get stuck in a hill-climbing search to reach the global maxima/minima?
Do a random restart hill climbing.

16. Mention the three drawbacks of hill climbing search.
(i) local maxima (ii) Plateaus (iii) Diagonal ridges



17. Is hill climbing algorithm guaranteed to find a solution for the 8-queens
problem?
No it can not find an optimum solution for every value of the initial state.

18. Is simulated annealing algorithm guaranteed to find a solution for the 8-
queens problem or any TSP problem?
Even simulated annealing can get stuck at a local minima. Even otherwise it
is not guaranteed that it will find a optimal solution.

19. Define a constraint satisfaction problem


Constraint satisfaction problem or CSP is defined by a set of variables,
X
1
, X
2
, . X
n
, and a set of constraints, C
1
, C
2
, C
m
. Each variable X
i
has a
non-empty domain D
i
of possible values. Each constraint C
i
involves
some subset of variables and specifies the allowable combinations of
values for that subset. A state of the problem is defined by the assignment
of values to the some or all of the variables. The assignment that does
not violate any constraint is called a consistent or legal assignment. A
complete assignment is one in which every variable is mentioned, and a
solution to a CSP is a complete assignment that satisfies all the
constraints.


20. What is a CSP?
A constraint satisfaction problem is a problem in which the goal is to choose
a value for each of a set of variables, in such a way that the values all obey a
set of constraints. A constraint is the restriction on the possible values of two
or more variables.


21. What is a Boolean CSP?
Boolean CSPs are known as finite-domain CSPs, whose variables can be
either true or false.


22. What is forward checking?
Whenever a variable X is assigned, the forward checking process looks
at each unassigned variable Y that is connected to X by a constraint
and deletes from Ys domain any value that is inconsistent with the
value chosen for .



23. What is backtracking search?
It is a form of DFS in which there is a single representation of the state that
gets updated for each successor, and then must be restored when a dead end
is reached.


24. What are the two methods of performing CSP on a tree?
(i) Variable or value ordering (ii) Forward checking(constraint propagation)


25. Explain why it is a good heuristic to choose the variable that is most
constrained and the value that is least constraining in a CSP search?
Because MCV chooses the variable that is likely to cause a failure, and is
most efficient to fail as early as possible thereby pruning large parts of the
search space. The least contraining value heuristic is better because it allows
the most chances for the future assignments to avoid conflicts.


26. Why game playing is a good domain in AI?
There are two reasons that games appeared to be good domain in which
to explore machine intelligence. They provide a structured task in which it
is very easy to measure success or failure. They did not obviously
require large amounts of knowledge. They were thought to be solvable
by straight forward search from starting state to a winning position


27. What is a plausible move generator?
A generator in which only some small number of promising moves are
generated.


28. Define pruning.
The process of eliminating a branch of the search tree from
consideration without examining it, is called pruning.


29. What is alpha-beta pruning?
In order to handle the maximizing and minimizing players, it is
necessary to modify the branch and bound strategy to include two
bounds, one for each of the players. This modified strategy is called alpha-
beta pruning.




30. What is meant by quiescent condition in game playing?
In game playing, if it is unlikely to exhibit wild swings in value(of
the game) in the near future, such positions are termed quiescent.


31. Define quiescence search.
It is a search procedure to resolve uncertainty in the evaluation of a
leaf node in a game tree.


32. What is meant by horizon effect in game playing?
It arises when the program is facing a move by the opponent that causes
serious damage and ultimately unavoidable.(read page 174)
33. Prove that BFS is a special case of Uniform Cost Search.
If we assign unit cost to all the edges and the ordering due to tie is from
left to right, then applying UC search will result into a BFS search only
therefore BFS is a special case of UC search.


Big Questions.


1. Explain A* search algorithm in detail.
2. What are AND-OR graphs? Explain.
3. Explain AO* search algorithm in detail(refer to Principles of AI by Nils
Nillsson which is at library)
4. Discuss the problems(drawbacks) in hill-climbing algorithm. What is local
beam search?
5. Explain Genetic Algorithm in detail. What are the operators of genetic
programming?
6. List the advantages of informed search strategies.
7. The following diagram represents the state space of a deterministic
problem, with each arrow denoting a possible operator (labelled with the
step cost). Assume that the successors of a state are generated in
alphabetical order, and that there is no repeated state checking. Show the
search tree generated by breadth first search applied to the problem of
starting in A, where C is the goal. Circle the tree node that the search
identifies as the solution.


8. Explain the advantages of intelligent backtracking.


9. Here is the complete game tree for a very simple game. Assume that the
leaf nodes are to be evaluated in left-to-right order, and that before a leaf
node is evaluated, we know nothing about its value---the range of possible
values is - to .


(a)Mark the value of all the internal nodes and indicate the best move at the
root with an arrow.



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(b) True/False: Given the values of the first six leaves, the seventh and
eighth leaves are irrelevant and need not be evaluated.




















(c)True/False: Given the values of the first seven leaves, the eighth leaf is
irrelevant and need not be evaluated.
Answer:
(a) See figure below:
(b) False: if they were both + then the values of the min node and chance
node above would also be
+ and the best move would
change.
(c)True: even if it is +, the
min node cannot be worth
more than -1, so the chance
nod above cannot be worth
more than -0.5, so the best
move won't change.


10. Devise a state space in which A* using GRAPH-SEARCH returns a
suboptimal solution with an h(n) function that is admissible but
inconsistent.












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2

S
h = 7
B
h = 5

1




h=1

A 4





G
h=0



4





A graph with an inconsistent heuristic on which GRAPH-SEARCH fails to return
the optimal solution. The successors of S are A with f=5 and B with f = 7. A is
expanded first, so the path via B will be discarded because A will already be in
the closed list.


11. Define algebraic equation solving(e.g. Solve x
2
y
3
= 3 sin xy for x,y as a
search problem. Invent a heuristic for this.
Initial state is the equation to be solved.
Goal test is that one side of the equation contains just the target variable and
the other side contains no occurrences thereof.
Operators: multiply both the sides by an expression; square both the sides;
simplify an expression etc.. sum of the depths of nesting of all occurrences of
the target variable, minus 1. Depth of nesting mean the number of enclosing
operators to reach the outermost expression. On the LHS, the occurrence is
depth 2(squaring and multiplication); on the RHS 3(multiplication, sin and
minus) so h = 5.
12. Consider the problem of constructing crossword puzzles fitting words into
rectangular grid. The grid, which is given as part of the problem, specifies
which squares are blank and which are shaded. Assume that a list of words(i.
e. a dictionary) is provided and that the task is to fill in the blank squares
using any subset of the list. Formulate this problem as a constraint satisfaction
problem. Should the variables be words or letters?
As a CSP there are even more choices. You could have a variable for each box
in the crossword puzzle. In this case the value of each variable is a letter, and
the constraints are that the letters must make words. This approach is feasible
with the most constraining value heuristic. Alternatively, we could have each
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string of consecutive horizontal or vertical boxes be a single variable, and the
domain of the variables be words in the dictionary of the right length. The
constraint would say that two intersecting words must have the same letter in the
intersecting box. Solving a problem in this formulation requires fewer steps, but
the domains are larger(assuming big dictionary) and there are fewer constraints.
13. Solve the crypt arithmetic problem given in page 141(fig. 5.2). by hand
using backtracking, forward checking.
14. Discuss the various issues associated with the backtracking search for
CSPs.
15. Explain the logic of MIN-MAX algorithm.
16. Analyze the alpha-beta pruning algorithm with a suitable game tree.
17. Discuss a game that includes an element of chance.
18. Give a precise formulation for each of the following CSP problems:
Rectilinear floor planning: find nonoverlapping places in a large rectangle
for a number of smaller rectangles. (4)
Class scheduling: There are a fixed number of professors and classrooms,
a list of classes to be offered, and a list of possible time slots for classes.
Each professor has a set of classes that he/she can teach.
(4)
9. Solve the 8-Puzzle using A* algorithm and find the
heuristic function. (8)


































CS1351ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
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UNIT III


1. What are the functionalities of a knowledge-based agent?
It has 3 aspects to perform:
a. Background knowledge TELL & ASK, MAKE-PERCEPT-SENTENCE
& MAKE-ACTION QUERY
b. Knowledge level what will achieve its goal etc.
c. Implementation level declarative and procedural approach

2. Name the two kinds of agents that are built based on Propositional logic.
(i) Ones that uses inference algorithms and a KB. (ii) The ones which evaluate
logical expressions directly in the form of circuits.


3. Explain Modus Ponen and And Elimination
It is an inference rule and is written as follows :
o | ,o
|
the notation means that, whenever any sentence of the form o| and o are
given, then the sentence | can be inferred. For example, if (WumpusAhead .
WumpusAlive) shoot and (WumpusAhead . WumpusAlive) are given,
then shoot can be inferred.
Another inference rule is And-Elimination, which says that, from a
conjunction, any of the conjuncts can be inferred:
o . |
o
for example, from WumpusAhead.WumpusAline), WumpusAlive can be
inferred.


4. Distinguish between predicate and propositional logic.
Propositional logic consists of sentences that are either TRUE/FALSE.
Predicate logic is an extension of propositional logic in which the symbols
there exists(-) and forall() are incorporated.

5. Write the semantics of existential and universal quantifiers.
True expressions starting with -, means that there is at least one possible
object for variable substitutions within scope, they are said to be existentially
quantified. Consequently, - is called the existential quantifier.



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True expressions starting with , say something about all possible objects for
variable substitutions within their scope they are said to be universally
quantified.




6. What do you understand by logical reasoning?
In propositional logic, using the inference rules does the reasoning, the proof
steps describes how the premises imply the conclusion. But in FOL, a
knowledge base (KB) entails a sentence S if and only if every interpretation
that makes KB true also makes S true.


7. What are the four parts in the knowledge representation?
It has four fundamental parts. They are,
a. A lexical part
b. A procedural part
c. A structural part
d. A semantic part


8. Define well formed formulas.
Defining recursively as,
a. Literals are wffs
b. Wffs connected together by ,.,v and are wffs
c. Wffs surrounded by quantifiers are also wffs.


9. What is a sentence?
A wff in which all the variables if any are inside the scope of corresponding
quantifiers is a sentence.
Eg.: - x. Bird(x) . Dontfly(x) There exists a bird that doesnt fly.


10. Define semantic net.
A semantic net is really just a graph, where the nodes in the graph represent
concepts and the acts represent binary relationships between concepts.
The most important relationship between concepts is:
a. Subclass relations between classes and subclasses and
b. Instance relations between particular objects and their parent class.


11. Define validity of a sentence.

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A sentence is valid iff it is true in all possible worlds under all interpretations.
12. Define sound inference rule.
A pattern of inference that is guaranteed to generate true conclusions given
true premises.


13. Write the seven inference rules for propositional logic.
The seven inference rules for propositional logic are,
i. Modus ponens
ii. And-elimination
iii. And-introduction
iv. Or-introduction
v. Double-negation elimination
vi. Unit resolution
vii.Resolution


14. What is meant by syntax and semantics?
Syntax: The syntax of a language describes the possible configurations that
can constitute sentences.
Semantics: It determines the facts in the world to which the sentences refer.


15. Define predicate logic.
Predicate logic is defined as,
1. Predicate logic allows us to represent fairly complex facts about the world,
and to derive new facts in a way that guarantees that, if the initial facts
were true, then so are the conclusions.
2. There are two quantifications used in addition to propositional logic the are
there exists(-) and for all ()


16. What are the two quantifiers in predicate logic? Give example.
The two quantifiers in predicate logic are - and , the following are valid
sentences:
- x. Bird(x) . Dontfly(x) There exists a bird that doesnt fly.
x. Bird(x) hasfeather(x) Every bird has feather.


17. Define universal quantifier.





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True expressions starting with say something about all possible objects for
variable substitutions within their scope, they are said to be universally
quantified.
Consequently, is called existential quantifier.


18. Define existential quantifier.
True expressions starting with -, means that there is atleast one possible
object for variable substitutions within scope, they are said to be
existentially quantified. Consequently, - is called existential quantifier.


19. Define: Completeness of an inference procedure.
An inference procedure is complete if and only if all logical entailment of a
given theory can be proved by the procedure.


20. Define entailment.
We want to generate new sentences that are necessarily true, given that the old
sentences are true. This relation between sentences is called entailment.


21. What are the rules of inference?
Proof procedure use manipulations called sound rules of inference that
produce new expressions are guaranteed to be models of the new ones too.


22. True/False: (a) x,y. x = y is satisfiable.
(b) (x P (x)) v (x P (x)) is a valid sentence.
(c) Every valid sentence is satisfiable.
(d) The only unsatisfiable clause is the empty clause.
(e)If C
1
and C
2
are clauses in propositional logic and all the literals in C
1

are
contained in C
2
, then C
1
C
2
.
(f) If C
1
and C
2
are clauses in propositional logic C
1
C
2
, then all the
literals in C
1
are contained in C
2

(g) The clause A v B v C entails the clause Av B.
(h) forward chaining is a complete inference procedure.
Answer: (a) TRUE: satisfied by a model with exactly one object. (b) False
(c) True (d) True (e) True (f) True (g) False; the entailment is the other
way.(h)false. It does not have resolution proof.



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23. If u unifies the atomic sentences o and |, then o SUBST(u,|).
True. If u unifies o and |, then SUBST(u,|) SUBST(u,o) which is entailed
by o for any value of u.




24. Which of the following is entailed by the sentence (A v B) . (C v D v E)
(a)(A v B) (b) ( A v B v C) . ( B . C . D E)
(c)(A v B) . (D v E)
Ans:-
(a)ENATILED. Simple AND elimination.
(b) ( B . C . D E) is equivalent to (B v C v D v E) so this
simply weakens the clause by introducing another disjunct.
(c)(A v B) . (D v E) - NOT ENTAILED - this removes the C literal,
which strengthens the clause.


25. Define Ontological engineering.
The concepts such as Action, Time, Physical objects, and Beliefs that occur
in many different domains. Representing these abstract concepts is sometimes
called Ontological engineering or it is related to knowledge engineering.

26. Define resolution.
The most well known general proof procedure for predicate calculus is
resolution. Resolution is a sound proof procedure for proving things by
refutation-if you can derive a contradiction from ~p then p must be true.

27. Define unification.

The unification routine, UNIFY is to take two atomic sentences p and q and
return a substitution that would make p and q look the same.
UNIFY (p,q) = u
Where SUBST ( u,p) = SUBST (u,q)




28. Define Herbrands universe.
If S is a set of clauses, then H
S
the herbrands universe of S, is the set of
ground all terms constructible from the following:
a. The function symbols in S, if any.
a. The constant symbols in S, if any; if none then the constant symbol A.

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e.g.: if S contains just the clause P(x, F(x, A)) v Q(x,A) v R(x, B), then
H
S
is the following infinite set of ground terms:
{A, S, F(A,A), F(A,B), F(B,A), F(B,B), F(A,F(A,A)),}.


29. What are skolem function?
- Functions with the same number of arguments must be generated as the
number of universal quantifiers in whose scope the expression occurs.
- These generated function are called skolem functions.



30. When do you say the two objects match?
In higher order logic, two objects are equal if and only if all properties
applied to them are equivalent.
x,y (x = y) ( P P(x) P(y))


31. What is meant by a datalog?
It is a First Order definite clauses with no function symbols.


32. What is lifting lemma?
Let C
1
and C
2
be two clauses with no shared variable, and let C
1
' and C
2
' be
ground instances of C
1
and C
2
. If C' is a resolvent of C
1
', then there exists a
clause C such that (1) C is a resolvent of C
1
and C
2
and (2) C' is a ground
instance of C. This is called lifting lemma because, it lifts the proof steps
from ground clauses up to general first-order clauses.


33. What is subsumption?
If P(A) v Q(B) is in the KB, then it is not necessary to add P(A) to the KB
because, P(A) subsumes P(A) v Q(B). This feature is called subsumption.


34. What do you mean by closed world assumption?
It is implemented in logic programs e.g. Prolog which provides a simple
way to avoid having to specify lots of negative information.(pg. 355)


35. Describe default logic
Default logic is a formalism in which default rules can be written to
generate contingent nonmonotonic conclusions. A default rule look like
this:


20
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Bird ( x) : Flies ( x)

Flies ( x)
This rule means that if Bird(x) is true, and if Flies(x) is consistent with the
knowledge base, then Flies(x) may be concluded by default. (Page no. 359
Text)


36. Define non-monotonic reasoning.
In this the axioms and/or the rules of inference are extended to make it
possible to reason with incomplete information. These systems preserve,
however, the property that, at any given moment, a statement is either
believed to be true, believed to be false, or not believed to be either.


37. Define abductive reasoning
Let us assume the case of x: Measles(x) Spots(x)
The axiom says that having measles implies having spots. But suppose we
notice spots. We might like to conclude measles. Such conclusion is not
licensed by the rule of standard logic and it may be wrong, but it may be
the best guess we can make about what is going on. Deriving conclusions
this way is another form of default reasoning. We call this as abductive
reasoning.


38. Define statistical reasoning.
In this the representation is extended to allow some kind of numeric
measure of certainty(rather than simply TRUE or FALSE) to be associated
with each statement.


39. What is a truth maintenance system?
A TMS is a program that keeps track of dependencies between sentences.




Big Questions
1. Explain resolution with suitable examples.(8)
2. Explain unification with suitable illustration.(8)
3. (i) Represent the following in first order logic: (10)
a. Cats, dogs and horses are mammals.
b. Every mammal has a parent.
c. An offspring of a cat is a cat
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d. Brownie is a cat
e. Offspring and parent are inverse relations
(ii) Ask the following questions:
a. Brownie is a cat?
b. Silky Blacks offspring is Brownie?
4. With example sentences, explain how knowledge can be represented using
FOL.(8)
5. Explain forward chaining and backward chaining algorithm.(8)
6. Explain steps in knowledge engineering process.(6)
7. Describe the Wumpus world environment in detail.
8. Discuss on the completeness of resolution.(6)
9. Unify the following pairs(if possible) (6)
a. P(A, B, B) , P(x, y, z)
b. Q(y, G(A,B)), Q(G(x,x),Y).
c. Older(father(y), y), Older(father(x) John).
Answer
a. {x/A,y/B, z/B}

10. Translate into good, natural English:
x,y,l. SpeaksLanguage(x, l) . SpeaksLanguage(y, l)
Understands(x, y) . Understands(y, x)
A reasonable translation is, If two people speak the same language
then they understand each other.
One could quibble about whether this covers the case where x = y thus we
may say xy.


11. Translate into FOL the following sentences:
i. If someone understands someone, then he is that someones friend
ii. Friendship is transitive
iii.All German speak same languages
Answer:
i. x,y Understyands(x,y) Friend(x,y)
ii. x,y,z. Friend(x,y) . Friend(y,z) Friend(x,z)
iii. x, y, l German(x) . German(y) . Speaks(x, l) Speaks(y ,l).


12. Represent the following sentences in using and extending the
representations to situation calculus.
a. Water is a liquid between 0 and 100 degrees.


CS 1351 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
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w,s we Water (Centigrade(0) < Temperature(w,s) <
Centigrade(100))
T(w e Liquid, s)
b. Water boils at 100 degrees.


13. Explain the following w.r.t. FOL:
Categories and objects
Actions, situations and events.
Mental events and mental objects.
14. Construct semantic net for the following:
Mary gave green flowered vase to her favourite cousin.
Every batter hits a ball.
All the batters like the pitcher
15. Explain the concept of ontological engineering with an example. How is it
related to knowledge engineering? List down the important characteristics of
ontology.(16) 2010-April
16. Consider the following facts:
Members of ABC club are John, Bill and Ellen.
John is married to Sally.
N the club.
Bill is Ellens brother
The spouse of every married person is also in the club
The last meeting of the club was at Johns house.
Represent the facts in predicate logic. Prove by resolution
- The last meeting of the club was at Sallys house
- Ellen is not married.
17. Consider the following facts: (16) Nov-2010
John likes all kinds of food.
Apples are food.
Chicken is food
Anything anyone eats and isnt killed is food.
Bill eats peanuts and is still alive.
Sue eats everything Bill eats.
(i) Translate these sentences in formulas in predicate logic.
(ii) Prove that john likes peanuts using backward chaining.
(iii) Convert the formula of a part in clause form.
(iv) Prove that john likes peanuts using resolution.

23
18. Using the facts:
(i) Rama was a man
(ii) Rama was a saint
(iii) All saints are Hindus
(iv) Ravana was ruler
(v) All Hindus were either loyal to Ravana or hated him.
(vi) Everyone is loyal to someone
(vii) People only try to assassinate rulers they are not loyal to.
(viii) Rama tried to assassinate Ravana
(ix) All men are people.
Answer the question: Did Rama hate Ravana? using Resolution (10)
(AUTT M/J 2011)




























CS 1351 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE QUESTION
BANK


UNIT IV


1. What is machine learning?
A computer program is said to learn from experience E with respect to
some class of tasks T and performance measure P, if its performance at
tasks in T, as measured by P, improves with experience E. Where E is the
training set. T is the task it is made for. P is the performance measure.


2. What are the components of the learning agent?
(i) Learning element (ii) Performance element (iii) Problem generator


3. Distinguish between supervised and unsupervised learning?
Supervised: Teacher provides training examples & solutions
E.g. Classification
Unsupervised: No assistance from teacher
E.g. Clustering; Inducing hidden variables


4. What is inductive learning?
If you do have background knowledge, then a question is whether the
learned knowledge is entailed by the background knowledge or
not(Entailment can be logical or probabilistic)
If it is entailed, then it is called deductive learning
If it is not entailed, then it is called inductive learning


5. What is clustering in learning?
Given a set of examples, but no labelling of them, group the examples into
natural clusters


6. Give short notes on reinforcement learning?
An agent interacting with the world makes observations, takes actions and
is rewarded or punished; it should learn to choose actions in such a way as
to obtain a lot of reward.


7. What is the principle of ockhams razor?
It says that, entities are not to be multiplied beyond necessity.





25
x
j
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8. Distinguish between classification problem and regression problem in
supervised learning.
In supervised learning, the data or the training set is represented as
input/output space:
D = {<x
1
, y
1
>, <x
2
, y
2
>, . . . <x
m
,y
m
>}
Each x
i
is a vector of n values.
Well write
i
for the j
th
feature of the i
th
input output pair.
If y
i
is a Boolean, or a member of a discrete set, we will call the problem as
a classification problem. When the y
i
is real valued, the problem is real-
valued, we call this a regression problem.


9. What is a training set? Test set?
The set D as mentioned in the previous question is the training set or the
test set for the data.


10. What is cross validation?
To evaluate the performance of an algorithm as a whole(rather than a
particular hypothesis) cross validation technique is used. It helps decide
which class of algorithm to use on a particular data set.


11. What are the aspects of function learning?
Memory, averaging and generalization are the three aspects of function
learning.


12. What is ensemble learning?
It is to use a collection of hypotheses from the hypothesis space to make
predictions.


13. What is PAC learning?
The goal of a learner is to produce a probably approximately correct (PAC)
hypothesis, for a given approximation (error rate) c and probability o. This
is called PAC learning.


14. What is the idea behind the current-best-hypothecs search?
It searches for a consistent hypothesis and backtracks when no consistent
specialisation/generalisation can be found.



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15. What are version spaces?
- Hypothesis are represented by a set of logical sentences.
- Incremental construction of hypothesis.
- Prior domain knowledge can be included/used.
- Enables using the full power of logical inference.


16. What is EBL or explanation based learning?
The EBL takes the following input: 1. A training example 2. A goal
concept 3. A description of which concepts are usable.- operationality
crierion 4. A domain theory - a set of rules that describe relationship b/w
objects and actions in a domain.
From this, EBL computes the generalisation of the training example that is
sufficient to describe the goal concept, and also satisfies the operationality
criterion.


17. Define utility theory.
Utility theory says that every state has a degree of usefulness, or utility, to
an agent, and that the agent will prefer states with higher utility.


18. Write the axioms of probability.
The axioms of probability are,
a. All probabilities are between 0 and 1
b. Necessarily true propositions have probability 1, and necessarily false
propositions have probability 0.
c. The probability of a disjunction is given by:
P(AB) = P(A) + P(B) - P(A B)
19. Write the six axioms of utility theory.
The six axioms of utility theory are,
i. Orderability
ii. Transitivity
iii. Continuity
iv. Substitutability
v. Monotonicity
vi. Decomposability





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20. What is utility principle?
If an agents preferences obey the axioms of utility, then there exists a real-
valued function U that operates on stats such that U(A)>U(B) if and only if
A is preferred to B, and U(A)=U(B) if an only if the agent is indifferent
between A and B.
U(A) > U(B) A>B
U(A) = U(B) A~B


21. What does value function mean?
Money behaves as a value function or ordinal utility measures, meaning
that the agent prefers to have more rather than less when considering
definite amounts.


22. Name the types of nodes used in the decision network.
The types of nodes used in the decision network are,
1) Chance node
2) Utility node
3) Decision node


23. Define Markov Decision Problem (MDP)
The problem of calculating an optimal policy in an accessible, stochastic
environment with a known transition model is called MDP.


24. Define Markov chain.
The agent is thus concerned with a sequence of Xt values, where each one
is determined by the previous one : P(X
t
| X
t-1
). This sequence is called a
state evolution model or Markov chain.


25. Define orderability.
Given any two states, a rational agent must either prefer one to the other or
else rate the two as equally preferable is called orderability.


26. Define learning
Learning denotes the changes in the system that are adaptive in the sense
that they enable the system to do the same task or tasks drawn from some
more population more efficiently and effectively the next time.



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27. Define near miss.
It is a negative example that, for a small number of reasons, is not an
instance of the class being taught.
28. What is meant by neural network?
A network as a whole corresponds to a collection of interconnected neurons
are called neural networks.


29. What is a decision tree?
A decision tree is a representation in which,
a) Each node is connected to a set of possible answers.
b) Each non leaf node is connected to a test that splits its set of possible
answers into subsets corresponding to different test results.
c) Each branch carries a particular test results subset to another node.


30. What is a version space?
A version space is a representation that enables you to keep track of all
useful information supplied by a sequence of learning examples, without
remembering any of the examples.


31. Define Bayes Theorem.

P(Y | X ) =
P( X | Y )P(Y )
P( X )


32. What is meant by decision network?
For example, the Bayesian network is a directed graph in which each node
constitutes a probability information. Or more elaborately:
(i) A set of random variables makes up the nodes of the network.
Variables may be discrete or continuous.
(ii) A set of directed links or arrows connects pairs of nodes. If
theres an arrow from node X to Y, X is said to be the parent of Y.
(iii) Each node has a conditional probability distribution P(X
i
|
Parents(X
i
)) that quantifies the effect of the parents on the node.
(iv) The graph has no directed cycles(and hence is a directed acyclic
graph, or DAG).

33. What do you mean by explanation based learning?
Hypothesis . Descriptions Classifications

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Background Hypothesis
General rule follows logically from the background knowledge. Converting
first principle special theories into special purpose knowledge.


34. Define explanation based learning.
It(EBL) is a method for extracting general rules from individual observations.
The basic idea behind EBL is first to construct an explanation of the
observation using prior knowledge, and then to establish a definition of the
class of cases for which the same explanation structure can be used.

35. What is meant by relevance based learning?
In EBL, Background Hypothesis. Instead, in RBL, the background did
not completely produce the hypothesis but in addition to background
knowledge, the descriptions and old hypothesis are added which became
deductive in nature. Thus as a result it becomes
Hypothesis . Descriptions . Background Classifications

36. Define Inductive Logic Programming(ILP)
Given an encoding of the known background knowledge and a set of
examples represented as a logical database of facts, an ILP system will derive
a hypothesised logic program which entails all the positive and none of the
negative examples.

Schema: positive examples + negative examples +

background knowledge => hypothesis.

Inductive logic programming is particularly useful in bioinformatics and
natural language processing. The term Inductive Logic Programming was
first introduced in a paper by Stephen Muggleton in 1991.

37. List some of the statistical learning methods available.

Bayesian networks, neural networks and kernel machines

38. What is a MAP hypothesis?

In science, the predictions are based on a single most probable hypothesis
that is an h
i
that maximises the P(h
i
| d). This is called maximum a
posteriori or MAP hypothesis.
CS 1351 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
QUESTION BANK



39. What are the drawbacks of EM algorithm?
It uses much less parameters for learning. Yet learning is harder because,
values of hidden variables are unknown. Also it is an unsupervised
clustering method which is more complicated to perform.


40. What is meant by a neural network?
It is a mathematical model of neurons(it is a cell in the brain) devised by
McCulloch and Pitts(1943).


41. Define activation function.
It is used by each node to combine the separate influences received on its
input links into an overall influence.


42. Define threshold function.
It is through this function one simple activation function simply passes the
sum of the input values to determine the nodes output.


43. Define threshold value
It is used by the nodes threshold function to determine the output of each
node is either 0 or 1 depending on whether the sum of the inputs is below or
above this threshold value.


44. True/False
a. Neural networks can be set up to output only 0/1 values.
b. Decision trees with k internal nodes can express any Boolean function of
k Boolean attributes.
c. The human brain can be described, to a first approximation, as a very
large multi-layer feed-forward neural network.
d. Any decision tree with Boolean attributes can be converted into an
equivalent feed-forward neural network.

Answer:
a. TRUE
b. FALSE

CS 1351 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
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c. False; a feed-forward network has no internal state and hence no
memory.
d. True; a neural net with enough hidden nodes can represent any
Boolean function.
45. What is DLL(decision List Learning)?
It consists of a series of tests each of which is a conjunction of literals. If a
test succeeds when applied to an example description, the decision list specifies
the value to be returned. If the test fails, processing continues with the next test
in the list.
46. Define reinforcement learning.
Here the learner use the observed rewards to learn an optimal policy for the
environment.
47. What is Q-Learning?
The agent learns the action-value function or the Q-function giving the
expected utility of taking a given action in a given state.
48. Distinguish between Active and Passive reinforcement learning.
Read Section 21.2,3 in your text book.




Big Questions


1. Explain the concept of learning using decision trees. (16)
2. List few applications of neural networks. (6)
3. What is meant by knowledge in learning? (6)
4. Explain the role of knowledge in learning with suitable examples. (16)
5. How to represent experience using learning techniques? (6)
6. Describe the steps involved in EBL Explanation Based Learning method.
(8)
7. Explain Inductive Logic Programming using the FOIL algorithm for the
kinship domain. (12)
8. Describe inductive learning with inverse deduction. (6)
9. Explain the concept of learning using relevance information. (16)
10. Explain the perceptron gradient decent learning algorithm. (7)
11. Give the advantages of Back-propagation algorithm for learning in
multilayer neural network. (10)
12. Write the uses of kernel machines. (4)
13. Describe both passive & active reinforcement learning in detail. (16)
14. Explain Temporal Difference Learning.(8)
15. Explain Q-learning in detail.(8)
16. Draw the decision tree that represents the disjunction of five literals.
Here we know that, the interpretation of truth value of the disjunction of
five literals will be evaluating to true when any of the input is true. Thus
draw a linear tree with the true branches pointing to true leaves and the
last false branch pointing to false.













CS 1351 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
QUESTION BANK



UNIT V
1. What are the component steps of communication?
Intention
Generation
Synthesis
Perception
Analysis
Parsing
Semantic interpretation
Pragmatic interpretation
Disambiguation
Incorporation.


2. What do you understand by probabilistic language models?
It defines a probability distribution over a set of strings. Example models
are bigram and trigram language models which are used in speech
recognition. A unigram model assigns a probability P(w) to each word in
the lexicon. The models assumes that words are chosen independently, so
the probability of a string is just the product of the probability of its words
given by [
i
P(w).


3. Define lexicon.
It is defined as the list of allowable words.


4. List the major modules of a natural language interpretation system
Morphological analysis
Syntactic analysis
Semantic analysis
Discourse/text analysis


5. What is grammar induction?
It can learn a grammar from examples, although there are limitations on
how well the grammar will generalize.


6. Define disambiguation.
Disambiguation is a question of diagnosis. The speakers intent to
communicate is an unobserved cause of the words in the utterance, and the

CS 1351 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
QUESTION BANK



hearers job is to work backwards from the words and from the knowledge
of the situation to recover the most likely intent of the speaker.
Argmax Likelyhood(intent|words, situation),
Intent
Where Likelyhood can either be probability or any numeric measure of
preference.(Pg. 820)


7. What is meant by agreement in augmented grammar?
In the case of sentence I smell a stench a new sentence can be formed by
replacing I with me which is another pronoun. But in this sentence, the
me does not agree with the verb smell in the subjective case. Where as it
fits with the same smell as in the objective case. Thus the grammar
requires an agreement while generating sentences.
This causes the development of augmented grammars called definite clause
grammar or DCG.


8. How does having a grammar aid communication?
A grammar is the convention for structuring symbol strings prior to
placing in correspondence with meanings. It also allows different
combinatorial number of meanings from linear number of symbols.


9. What are the advantages of IR system?
It can pose a query on a large document on the statistics of words, spelling
correction, verification of grammar etc..


10. Define information extraction.
It is the process of creating database entries by skimming a text and looking
for occurrences of a particular class of objects or event and for relationships
among those objects and events.


11. True/False
(a) The truth of any English sentence can be determined given a grammar and
given semantic definitions for all the words.
(b) True/False: Context-free grammars fail to capture English grammar
because the meaning of an English sentence may depend on the context of
the utterance.



CS 1351 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
QUESTION BANK

Answer
(a) False---meaning can depend on context, and some sentences are
ambiguous.
(b) False: context in CFG refers to the syntactic context of a non-terminal.


12. What is meant by machine translation?
Machine translation is the automatic translation of text from one natural
language to another. The process has proven to be useful for a number of
tasks.
13. What is the role of discourse analysis in NLP?
(v) General Knowledge about the world
(vi) GK about the structure of coherent discourse
(vii) GK about syntax and semantics
(viii) Specific knowledge about the situation
(ix) Specific knowledge about the beliefs of the characters
(x) Specific knowledge about the beliefs of the speaker.
14. What is information retrieval? What are the parameters used for estimating
the performance of information retrieval?
It is the task of finding documents that are relevant to a users need for
information. The parameters are precision, recall, ROC curve(receiver
operating characteristic), reciprocal rank, time to answer.
15. What is interlingua?
It is a representational language that makes all the distinctions necessary for a
set of languages.


Big Questions
1. Consider the following grammar and lexicon:
Grammar
S -> NP VP
NP -> Noun
NP -> NP PP
NP -> NP "and" NP
VP -> Verb
VP -> Verb NP
VP -> VP PP
VP -> VP "and" VP
PP -> Prep NP


CS 1351 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
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Lexicon
bikes -- Noun, Verb
fields -- Noun, Verb
fishes -- Noun, Verb
in -- Prep
John -- Noun
streams -- Noun, Verb
through -- Prep
Show all possible parse trees for "John fishes in streams and bikes through
fields."



CS 1351 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
QUESTION BANK






S ---> NP ---> Noun ---> "John"
|
|-> VP ---> VP ---> VP ---> Verb ---> "fishes"
| |
| |-> PP ---> Prep ---> "in"
| |
| |-> NP ---> NP ---> Noun ---> "streams"
| |
| |-> "and"
| |
| |-> NP ---> Noun ---> "bikes"
|
|-> PP ---> Prep ---> "through"
|
|-> NP ---> Noun ---> "fields"




S ---> NP ---> Noun ---> "John"
|
|-> VP ---> VP ---> Verb ---> "fishes"
|
|-> PP ---> Prep ---> "in"
|
|-> NP ---> NP ---> NP ---> Noun ---> "streams"
| |
| |-> "and"
| |
| |-> NP ---> Noun ---> "bikes"
|
|-> PP ---> Prep ---> "through"
|
|-> NP ---> Noun ---> "fields"


S ---> NP ---> Noun ---> "John"
|
|-> VP ---> VP ---> VP ---> Verb ---> "fishes"
| | |
| | |-> PP ---> Prep ---> "in"
| | |
| | |-> NP ---> NP ---> Noun ---> "streams"
| |
| |-> "and"
| |
| |-> VP ---> Verb ---> "bikes"
|
|-> PP ---> Prep ---> "through"
|
|-> NP ---> Noun ---> "fields"




CS 1351 ARTIFICIAL
INTELLIGENCE
QUESTION BANK
Big Questions.
1. Explain the fundamentals of knowledge.
2. Discuss practical applications in natural language processing
3. Describe the types of communication agents.
4. Explain discourse understanding in detail.
5. Explain machine translation in detail. Describe how the learning
probabilities are incorporated in it.
6. Explain augmented grammar in detail
7. Describe all the practical applications of information retrieval in detail.
8. Describe in detail semantic interpretation.
9. Explain formal grammar for a subset of English.
10. Language and statistical learning
A probabilistic context-free grammar (PCFG) is a context-free grammar
augmented with a probability value on each rule, so that the PCFG specifies
a probability distribution over all allowable strings in the language.
Specifically, the rules for each non-terminal are annotated with probabilities
that sum to 1; these define how likely it is that each rule is applied to expand
that nonterminal; and all such rule choices are made independently.
For example, the following is a simple PCFG for noun phrases:
0.6 : NP Det AdjString Noun
0.4 : NP Det NounNounCompound
0.5 : AdjString Adj AdjString
0.5 : AdjString A
1.0 : NounNounCompound Noun Noun
0.8 : Det the
0.2 : Det a
0.5 : Adj small
0.5 : Adj green
0.6 : Noun village
0.4 : Noun green
where A denotes the empty string.
(a) What is the longest NP that can be generated by this grammar?
(i) three words (ii) four words (iii) infinitely many words
(b) Which of the following have a nonzero probability of being generated as
complete NPs?
(i) a small green village (ii) a green green green (iii) a small village green
(c) What is the probability of generating ``the green green''?

11. Explain the steps involved in syntactic analysis of a given sentence, God
gives and forgives in English language.
12 Write in details about probabilistic language models. (10)
13. Explain how information retrieval can be done in real time scenario. (6)
14. explain about augmented garammar and semantic interpretation. (10)