Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
LINKS ,
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. 1 . . C ONTENTS . 2 . . L ECTURE 1 Mathematical Preliminaries Homogeneous Transformation . 3 . . L ECTURE 2 Elements of a robot Joints Elements of a robot Links . 4 . . L ECTURE 3 Examples of D-H Parameters & Link Transformation Matrices . 5 . . L ECTURE 4 Elements of a robot Actuators & Transmission . 6 . . L ECTURE 5 Elements of a robot Sensors . 7 . . A DDITIONAL M ATERIAL Problems, References, and Suggested Reading
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O UTLINE
. 1 . . C ONTENTS . 2 . . L ECTURE 1 Mathematical Preliminaries Homogeneous Transformation . L ECTURE 2 3 .. Elements of a robot Joints Elements of a robot Links . L ECTURE 3 4 .. Examples of D-H Parameters & Link Transformation Matrices .. L ECTURE 4 5 . Elements of a robot Actuators & Transmission . L ECTURE 5 6 .. Elements of a robot Sensors . A DDITIONAL M ATERIAL 7 .. Problems, References, and Suggested Reading
. . . . . .
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Position of a point of interest such as centre of mass/gravity. Right-handed coordinate system specied by
Origin OA . Set of 3 mutually orthogonal axis Unitvectors XA , YA and ZA are along the index nger, the middle nger and the thumb of the right-hand, respectively. Label to keep track {A}.
OA
YA
Rigid Body A XA
p = px XA + py YA + pz ZA = (px , py , pz )T
. . . .
(1)
. .
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p YB
Attach coordinate system, {B}, to rigid body B. Origin of {B} coincident with origin of {A} (see Figure 2). Obtain description of {B} with respect to {A}.
OA ,OB
YA
Rigid Body B XA XB
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(2)
ZB
Dene 3 3 rotation matrix A [R] with rij , i, j = 1, 2, 3 as B its elements. Columns of A [R] are A XB , A YB , and A ZB . B A [R] completely describes all three coordinate axis of {B} B with respect to {A}. A [R] gives orientation of rigid body B in {A}. B
. . . . .
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p = A [R]B p B
(3)
The columns of the rotation matrix are unit vectors, orthogonal to one another A X A X =A Y A Y =A Z A Z = 1, and B B B B B B A X A Y =A Y A Z =A Z A X = 0 B B B B B B
The determinant of the rotation matrix is +11 . TA A B [R] B [R] = [U], where [U] is a 3 3 identity matrix.
Three eigenvalues of A [R] are +1, e , where = 1, B and = cos1 ( r11 +r222+r33 1 ). The eigenvector corresponding to +1 is k = (1/2 sin )[r32 r23 , r13 r31 , r21 r12 ]T , = {0, n }, where n is a natural number. For = {0, 2n }, there is no rotation and = 2(n 1) needs to handled specially!
1 det(A [R]) = +1 B
A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C )
= A [R] . B
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(4)
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(5)
p YB
OA , OB k XA , XB YA
Rigid Body B
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(6)
(7)
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S UCCESSIVE ROTATIONS
Two successive rotations:
.... .. ...
1 2 3
Initially B is coincident with {A}. First rotation relative to {A}. After rst rotation {A} {B1 }. Second rotation relative to {B1 }. After second rotation {B1 } {B}.
Resultant rotation: A [R] = A [R] B1 [R] Note order B B1 B of matrix multiplication. Resultant of n rotations A [R] = A [R] B1 [R] ... Bn1 [R] B B1 B2 B Matrix multiplication is non commutative in general A [R] B1 [R] = B1 [R] A [R] B1 B1 B B Order of rotation is important!
. . . . . .
XA XB1 XB
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Rotations about axes xed in space 12 possible combinations for 3 and 2 distinct axes. Minimal representation of orientation of rigid body Only three parameters (angles) and no constraints. Three angles also called Euler angles.
. . . . . .
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1 0 0 Rotation about X A1 [R] = [R(X, 1 )] = 0 cos 1 sin 1 B 0 sin 1 cos 1 0 sin 2 cos 2 B1 0 1 0 Rotation about Y B2 [R] = [R(Y, 2 )] = sin 2 0 cos 2
XA , XB1 XB2 XA , XB1 {A}, {B1 } {B2 } 1 ZB1 ZB2 ZB1 OA , OB ZA YA YB1 OA , OB 2 YB1 , YB2 ZA YA YB YB1 OA , OB XB {B} ZB , ZB2 3 ZB1 ZA XB2 {B2 } {B1 } XA , XB1 {A}, {B1 }
{A}
YA
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cos 3 sin 3 0 B2 sin 3 cos 3 0 B [R] = [R(Z, 3 )] = 0 0 1 Resultant rotation A [R] = A1 [R] B1 [R] B2 [R] = B B B2 B c2 c3 c2 s3 s2 s1 s2 c3 + s3 c1 s1 s2 s3 + c3 c1 s1 c2 c1 s2 c3 + s3 s1 c1 s2 s3 + c3 s1 c1 c2 Note: ci , si denote cos i and sin i , respectively.
A [R] B A [R] B
gives orientation of {B} given XYZ angles. will be dierent if order of rotations is dierent.
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YB1 , YB2
YB
A [R] B
c1 s1 0 c2 0 s2 s1 c1 0 0 1 0 s2 0 c2 0 1 0 c1 c2 c3 s1 s3 c1 c2 s3 s1 c3 s1 c2 c3 + c1 s3 s1 c2 s3 + c1 c3 s2 c3 s2 s3
.
c3 s3 0 c1 s2 s1 s2 c2
.
s3 c3 0
0 0 1
(8)
. . . .
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OTHER R EPRESENTATIONS
Euler parameters (see Kane et al., 1983, McCarthy, 1990): 4 parameters derived from k = (kx , ky , kz )T and angle
3 parameters = k sin /2 fourth parameter 4 = cos /2 One constraint 1 2 + 2 2 + 3 2 + 4 2 = 1
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Can convert from one representation to any other for regular cases! . . . .
A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C ) ROBOTICS : A DVANCED C ONCEPTS & A NALYSIS
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Rigid Body B
p YB
{A} and {B}, OA and OB not coincident Orientation of {B} with respect to {A} A [R] B
Ap
OB
A A
OB
=A OB + A [R]B p B
AO
OA XA XB
YA
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O UTLINE
. 1 . . C ONTENTS . 2 . . L ECTURE 1 Mathematical Preliminaries Homogeneous Transformation . L ECTURE 2 3 .. Elements of a robot Joints Elements of a robot Links . L ECTURE 3 4 .. Examples of D-H Parameters & Link Transformation Matrices .. L ECTURE 4 5 . Elements of a robot Actuators & Transmission . L ECTURE 5 6 .. Elements of a robot Sensors . A DDITIONAL M ATERIAL 7 .. Problems, References, and Suggested Reading
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4 4 T RANSFORMATION M ATRIX
Combined translation and orientation A P = A [T ]B P B and B P are 4 1 homogeneous coordinates (see Additional Material) constructed by concatenating a 1 to A p and B p A P = [A p | 1]T and B P = [B p | 1]T
AP
4 4 homogeneous transformation matrix A [T ] is formed as B ( ) A [R] AO B A B (9) B [T ] = 0 0 0 1 In computer graphics and computer vision Last row is used for perspective and scaling and not [0 0 0 1]. Upper left 3 3 matrix is identity matrix Pure translation. Top right 3 1 vector is zero Pure rotation.
. . . . . .
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Two successive transformations {A} {B1 } {B} gives = A1 [T ] B1 [T ]. B B ) ( A [R]B1 [R] A [R]B1 O + A O B B1 A [T ] = B1 B1 B B 0 0 0 1 n successive transformations A [T ] = A [T ] B1 [T ] ... Bn1 [T ] B B1 B2 B
A [T ] B
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P ROPERTIES OF A [T ] (C ONTD .) B
A [R]. B
Eigenvectors for +1 is k No other eigenvector! A [T ] represents the general motion of a rigid body in 3D B space 6 parameters must be present. General motion of rigid body as a twist Rotation about a line and translation along the line.
Direction of the line: (kx , ky , kz )T 2 independent parameters. Rotation about the line: angle 1 independent parameter. Location of the line in 3 : (k, Y k) where Y=
([U]A [R] )A OB B 2(1cos )
T
More details about twists, eigenvalues and eigenvectors (see Sangamesh Deepak and Ghosal, 2006). . . . .
A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C ) ROBOTICS : A DVANCED C ONCEPTS & A NALYSIS
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S UMMARY
A rigid body B in 3D space has 6 DOF with respect to another rigid body A: 3 for position & 3 for orientation. Denition of a right-handed coordinate system {A} X, Z and origin OA . Y, Rigid body B conceptually identical to a coordinate system {B}. Position of rigid body Position of a point of interest on rigid body with respect to coordinate system {A} 3 Cartesian coordinates: A p = (px , py , pz )T . Orientation described in many ways: 1) by 3 3 rotation matrix A [R], 2) ( , k) or angle-axis form, 3) 3 Euler B angles, 4) Euler parameters & quaternions. Algorithms available to convert one representation to another. 4 4 homogeneous transformation matrix, A [T ], represent B position and orientation in a compact manner. Properties of A [T ] can be related to a. screw. . . . . B
A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C ) ROBOTICS : A DVANCED C ONCEPTS & A NALYSIS NPTEL, 2010
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O UTLINE
. 1 . . C ONTENTS . 2 . . L ECTURE 1 Mathematical Preliminaries Homogeneous Transformation . L ECTURE 2 3 .. Elements of a robot Joints Elements of a robot Links . L ECTURE 3 4 .. Examples of D-H Parameters & Link Transformation Matrices .. L ECTURE 4 5 . Elements of a robot Actuators & Transmission . L ECTURE 5 6 .. Elements of a robot Sensors . A DDITIONAL M ATERIAL 7 .. Problems, References, and Suggested Reading
. . . . . .
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J OINTS I NTRODUCTION
A joint connects two or more links. A joint imposes constraints on the links it connects.
2 free rigid bodies have 6 + 6 degrees of freedom. Hinge joint connecting two free rigid bodies 6 + 1 degrees of freedom. Hinge joint imposes 5 constraints, i.e., hinge joint allows 1 relative (rotary) degree of freedom.
Degree of freedom of a joint in 3D space: 6 m where m is the number of constraint imposed. Serial manipulators All joints actuated One-degree-of-freedom joints used. Parallel and hybrid manipulators Some joints passive Multi-degree-of-freedom joints can be used.
. . . . . .
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T YPES OF J OINTS
DOF
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BY
{i}
Rigid Body i 1
i Oi
i
with respect to {i 1}, by angle i 0 [R] = 0 [R] i1 [R(k, )] i i i1 i Three independent equations in the matrix equation above; i is unknown 2 constraints in the 3 equations.
0
{i 1}
i1
Oi1
Rigid Body i
Oi
Li
Rotary Joint
Oi1
{0}
For a common point P on the rotation axis along line Li 0 p =0 O 0 i1 p =0 O + 0 [R]i p 3 constraints i1 + i1 [R] i i . . . . . present.
A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C ) ROBOTICS : A DVANCED C ONCEPTS & A NALYSIS NPTEL, 2010
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A
k {i} i Oi
i
{i 1}
i1
p
R
Oi
Li Oi1
{L}
Two constraints in = = L [R]R [R] i R since i is an unknown variable. Three constraints in L p =L O L i1 p =L D +R O + R [R]i p i1 + i1 [R] i i
. . . .
L [R] i
L [R] i1 [R(k, )] i i1 i
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BY
k
Oi p
{i 1}
i1
Oi1
Rigid Body i
0 0 0
Oi
Li
Prismatic Joint
Oi1
{0}
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BY
Spherical(S) or ball and socket joint allows three rotations. S joint can be represented as 3 intersecting rotary(R) joints.
{i 1}
i1
Rigid Body i
0 0
Oi1
Oi
Spherical Joint
{0}
3 constraints:
A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C )
0p
=0
Oi1 + 0 [R]i1 p i1
.
=0 Oi + 0 [R]i p i
. . . . .
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BY
Common in many parallel manipulators. Equivalent to two intersecting rotary (R) joints Two degrees of freedom 4 constraints. For a common point P at the intersection of two rotation axes 0 p =0 Oi1 + 0 [R]i1 p =0 Oi + 0 [R]i p 3 i1 i constraints. 0 [R] = 0 [R] i1 [R(k , )][R(k , )] Only 1 1 2 1 2
i i1 i
i i
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Sj
The SS pair appear in many parallel manipulators. Distance between two spherical joint is constant.
L
{i}
i
Si
S-S Pair
R
Sj
Oi
Si
{L}
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O UTLINE
. 1 . . C ONTENTS . 2 . . L ECTURE 1 Mathematical Preliminaries Homogeneous Transformation . L ECTURE 2 3 .. Elements of a robot Joints Elements of a robot Links . L ECTURE 3 4 .. Examples of D-H Parameters & Link Transformation Matrices .. L ECTURE 4 5 . Elements of a robot Actuators & Transmission . L ECTURE 5 6 .. Elements of a robot Sensors . A DDITIONAL M ATERIAL 7 .. Problems, References, and Suggested Reading
. . . . . .
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L INKS I NTRODUCTION
A link A is a rigid body in 3D space Can be described by a coordinate system {A}. A rigid body in 3 has 6 degrees of freedom 3 rotation + 3 translation 6 parameters (see Lecture 1) For links connected by rotary (R) and prismatic (P), possible to use 4 parameters Denavit-Hartenberg (D-H)parameters (see Denavit & Hartenberg, 1955). 4 parameters since lines related to rotary(R) and prismatic (P) joint axis are used. For multi-degree-of-freedom joints Use equivalent number of one-degree-of-freedom joints.
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Coordinate system {i} is attached to the link i. Origin of {i} lies on the joint axis i Link i is after joint i. after for serial manipulators Numbers increasing from xed {0} Link 1 {1} . . . Free end {n}. after for parallel manipulators Not so straight-forward due to one or more loops.
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Link i + 1 Link i 1
di Li+1 Xi1 Li
Y0 X0
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For coordinate system {i}: Zi is along the joint axis i, Xi is along the common perpendicular between Zi and Zi+1 , and the origin of {i}, Oi , is the point of intersection of the line along Xi and line along Zi (see Figure 14).
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Distance between joints axis i 1 and i & measured along Xi 1 (see Figure 14). Always a positive quantity. Measured along Zi from Xi 1 to Xi Can be < 0. Joint i rotary di constant. Joint i prismatic di is joint variable (see Figure 14).
Link oset di
Rotation angle i
Angle between Xi 1 and Xi measured about Zi using right-hand rule Between 0 and radians. Joint i is prismatic i is constant. Joint i rotary i is joint variable (see Figure 14).
. . . .
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Consecutive joints axis intersecting ai1 = 0 and X normal to plane. First link {1}: choice of Z0 and thereby X1 is arbitrary.
R joint Choose {0} and {1} coincident & i 1 = ai 1 = 0, di = 0. P joint Choose {0} and {1} parallel & i 1 = ai 1 = i = 0.
R joint Origins of {n} and {n + 1} are chosen coincident & dn = 0 and n = 0 when Xn1 aligns with Xn . n is chosen such that n = 0 & origin On is P joint X chosen at the intersection of Xn1 and Zn when dn = 0.
. . . . .
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Recall i1 Xi1 = (1, 0, 0)T . The vector i1 Zi is the last i1 T 3. column of i [R] and is (0, si 1 , ci 1 ) The 4 4 transformation matrix relating {i} with respect to {i 1} is ci si 0 ai1 s c i1 i i 1 ci ci 1 si 1 si 1 di (10) i [T ] = s s ci 1 ci 1 di i i 1 ci si 1 0 0 0 1
3 The symbols s i 1 , ci 1 denote sin(i1 ) and cos(i1 ), respectively. Please see Notations in Module 0. . . .
A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C ) ROBOTICS : A DVANCED C ONCEPTS & A NALYSIS
. . .
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link i. Position and orientation of link i determined by i1 and ai1 . Note: subscript i 1 in the twist angle and length! The mix of subscripts are a consequences of the D-H convention used! Link i with respect to {0} 0 [T ] = 0 [T ] 1 [T ] ... 1 2 i
i1 i [T ]
The positioin and orientation of any link can be obtained with respect any other link by suitable use of 4 4 link transformation matrices.
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S UMMARY
Two elements of robots Links and joints. Joints allow relative motion between connected links Joints impose constraints.
Serial robots mainly use one-degree-of-freedom rotary (R) and prismatic (P) actuated joints. Parallel and hybrid robots use passive multi-degree-of-freedom joints and actuated one-degree-of-freedom joints.
One degree-o-freedom R and P joints represented by lines along joint axis Z is along joint axis. Formulation of constraints imposed by various kinds of joints. Link is a rigid body in 3D space Represented by 4 Denavit-Hartenberg (D-H) parameters. Convention to derive D-H parameters and for special cases. 4 4 link transformation matrix in terms of D-H parameters.
. . . . .
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O UTLINE
. 1 . . C ONTENTS . 2 . . L ECTURE 1 Mathematical Preliminaries Homogeneous Transformation . L ECTURE 2 3 .. Elements of a robot Joints Elements of a robot Links . L ECTURE 3 4 .. Examples of D-H Parameters & Link Transformation Matrices .. L ECTURE 4 5 . Elements of a robot Actuators & Transmission . L ECTURE 5 6 .. Elements of a robot Sensors . A DDITIONAL M ATERIAL 7 .. Problems, References, and Suggested Reading
. . . . . .
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S ERIAL M ANIPULATORS
Steps to obtain D-H parameters for a n link serial manipulator (see Lecture 2 for details)
Label joint axis from 1 (xed) to n free end. Assign Zi to joint axis i, i = 1, 2, ..., n. Obtain mutual perpendiculars between lines along Zi 1 i Xi 1 . and Z Origin Oi 1 on joint axis i 1. Handle special cases a) consecutive joint axes parallel and perpendicular, b) rst and last link Obtain 4 D-H parameters for link i, i 1 , ai 1 , di and i .
i1 i [T ]
Obtain link transform for link i with respect to xed coordinate system {0}, 0 [T ], by matrix multiplication. i Obtain, if required, ij [T ] by appropriate matrix operations.
. . . . . .
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P LANAR 3R A SSIGNMENT
SYSTEMS
M ANIPULATOR
OF
COORDINATE
X3 , XT ool
All 3 rotary joint axis Zi parallel and pointing out. {0} Z0 is pointing out, X0 and Y0 pointing to the right and top, respectively. Origin O0 is coincident with O1 shown in gure.
{T ool} YT ool
Link 3 l3
X2 3
Y0 Y1
O1
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P LANAR 3R A SSIGNMENT
SYSTEMS
M ANIPULATOR
OF
COORDINATE
For {1} origin O1 and Z1 are coincident with O0 and Z0 . X1 and Y1 are coincident with X0 and Y0 when 1 is zero. X1 is along the mutual perpendicular between Z1 and Z2 . X2 is along the mutual perpendicular between Z2 and Z3 . For {3}, X3 is aligned to X2 when 3 = 0. O2 is located at the intersection of the mutual perpendicular along X2 and Z2 . O3 is chosen such that d3 is zero. The origins and the axes of {1}, {2}, and {3} are shown in Figure 15.
. . . . . .
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is obtained as
3 Tool [T ]
To obtain 0 [T ] multiply 0 [T ] 1 [T ] 2 [T ] 1 2 3 3 c123 s123 0 l1 c1 + l2 c12 c123 0 l1 s1 + l2 s12 0 [T ] = s123 3 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 [T ] 3 To obtain Tool [T ], multiply 3 Tool [T ] c123 s123 0 l1 c1 + l2 c12 + l3 c123 s123 c123 0 l1 s1 + l2 s12 + l3 s123 0 Tool [T ] = 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1
4 The
A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C ) ROBOTICS : A DVANCED C ONCEPTS & A NALYSIS
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 and get4
l3 0 0 1
symbols s12 , c123 denote sin(1 + 2 ) and cos(1 + 2 + 3 ), . . . respectively. Please see Notations in Module 0. .
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X2 Y2
Z1 {1} Y1 O3 X1 a2 Y3 d3 X3 Z3 {3}
O1 , O2
O4
O3
Y4 {4} X4
Z4
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i1
0 /2 0 /2 /2 /2
ai1 0 0 a2 a3 0 0
di 0 0 d3 d4 0 0
i 1 2 3 4 5 6
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a3 d4 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
. . .
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a3 d4 0 1 matrix once
. . . .
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SCARA M ANIPULATOR
Z2 Z1 { 2} { 1} 1 2
X1 d3 { 3} O 0, O1 O2 Z3 { 4}
Very popular for robotic assembly Capability of desired compliance and rigidity in selected directions. Three rotary(R) joint and one prismatic (P) joint. A 4 DOF manipulator.
O3, O4
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SCARA
M ANIPULATOR :
D-H
PARAMETERS
{0} and {1} have same origin & origins of {3} and {4} chosen at the base of the parallel jaw gripper. Directions of Z3 chosen pointing upward (see Figure 17). Note: Actual SCARA manipulator has ball-screw at the third joint We assume P joint. D-H Table for SCARA robot i i1 ai1 1 0 0 2 0 a1 3 0 a2 4 0 0 di 0 0 d3 0
i 1 2 0 4
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SCARA
M ANIPULATOR
L INK
TRANSFORMS
Using equation (10) and the D-H table, link transforms can be obtained as c1 s1 0 0 c2 s2 0 a1 s c1 0 0 1 c2 0 0 0 [T ] = s1 , [T ] = 2 1 0 0 0 1 0 2 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 a2 c4 s4 0 0 s4 c4 0 0 0 3 2 [T ] = 0 1 0 , 3 4 [T ] = 0 0 0 1 d3 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 The transformation matrix 0 ] is [T 4 c124 s124 0 a1 c1 + a2 c12 c124 0 a1 s1 + a2 s12 0 [T ] = 0 [T ]1 [T ]2 [T ] 3 [T ] = s124 4 1 2 3 4 0 0 1 d3 0 0 0 1
. . . . . .
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PARALLEL M ANIPULATORS
Extend idea of D-H parameters to a closed-loop mechanism/parallel manipulator. Key idea Break a parallel manipulator into serial manipulators. Obtain D-H parameters for serial manipulators.
Several ways to break Choose one that leads to simple serial manipulators
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Link 2 l2
YL {L} l1 Link 1
2 Link 3 l3
Break 4-bar mechanism into two serial manipulators. Break at joint 3 A 2R planar manipulator + a 1R manipulator
XL
l0 OR XR
OL
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4- BAR
M ECHANISM
D-H
PARAMETERS
i 1
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Spatial 3- DOF parallel manipulator. Top (moving) platform & (xed) bottom platform are equilateral triangles. Figure 19 shows the home position and Z need not pass through top platform centre always. Three legs Each leg is of R-P-S conguration. Three P joints actuated. First proposed by Lee and Shah (1988) as a parallel wrist.
. . . . . .
S1 l3 l1 2
l2
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E XAMPLE :
D-H
i1 ai1 di i 0 0 0 1 /2 0 l1 0 D-H parameter for all R-P-S leg same except the reference coordinate system. {L1 }, {L2 }, and {L3 } are at the three rotary joints R1 , R2 , and R3 , respectively. {Base} is located at the centre of the base platform & Base [T ], i = 1, 2, 3, are constant and known. Li Note: The angle 1 shown in gure is same as /2 1 .
i 1 2
. . . . . .
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T HREE
DOF
s1 c1 0 0
E XAMPLE :
0 0 1 0 0 0 , 0 1
L INK
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 l1 0 1
TRANSFORMATION MATRICES
c1 s1 L1 1 [T ] = 0 0
2 [T ] S1
1 1 [T ] = 0 2 0 0
is an identity matrix {S1 } is located at the centre of the spherical joint and parallel to {2}.
Base [T ] S1
= Base [T ]L1 [T ]1 [T ]2 1 [T ] 2 1 L1 S
Location of spherical joint S1 with respect to {Base} from = (b l1 cos 1 , 0, l1 sin 1 )T , b is the from the origin of {Base} (see gure 19). Location of S2 and S3 Base S = ( b + 1 l cos , 3b 3l2 cos , l sin )T 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
3 3b 2
Base S
= ( b + 1 l3 cos 3 , 2 2
3l3 2
.
cos 3 , l3 sin 3 )T
. . . . .
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S IX
Moving platform connected to xed base by three chains. Each chain is R-R-R & S joint at top. Model of a three-ngered hand (Salisbury, 1982) gripping an object with point contact and no-slip. Each nger modeled with R-R-R joints and point of contact modeled as S joint.
. . . . .
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S IX
FORMS
DOF
E XAMPLE :
AND LINK
PARAMETERS
D-H TRANS -
i 1 1 1 D-H parameter does not contain last link length l13 . D-H parameters for three ngers with respect to {Fi }, i = 1, 2, 3 identical. Can obtain transformation matrix Fii [T ] by matrix p multiplication.
di 0 0 0
. . . . . .
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S IX
DOF
L INK
Position vector of spherical joint i cos i (li1 + li2 cos i + li3 cos(i + i )) Fi p = sin (l + l cos + l cos( + )) i i1 i2 i i3 i i i li2 sin i + li3 sin(i + i ) With respect to {Base}, the locations of {Fi }, i = 1, 2, 3, are known and constant (see Figure (20)) Base b = (0, d , h)T Base b = (0, d , h)T Base b = (0, 0, 0)T 1 2 3 Orientation of {Fi }, i = 1, 2, 3, with respect to {Base} are also known - {F1 } and {F2 } are parallel to {Base} and {F3 } is rotated by about the Y (not shown in gure!). The transformation matrices Base [T ] is pi Base [T ]0 [T ]1 [T ]2 [T ]3 [T ] Last transformation includes p1 1 2 3 F1 l13 .
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S IX
DOF
L INK
Extract the position vector Base p1 from the last column of Base [T ] Base p =Base b +F1 p = 1 1 1 F1 cos 1 (l11 + l12 cos 1 + l13 cos(1 + 1 )) d + sin 1 (l11 + l12 cos 1 + l13 cos(1 + 1 )) h + l12 sin 1 + l13 sin(1 + 1 ) Similarly for second leg cos 2 (l21 + l22 cos 2 + l23 cos(2 + 2 )) Base p = d + sin (l + l cos + l cos( + )) 2 21 22 2 23 2 2 2 h + l22 sin 2 + l23 sin(2 + 2 ) = cos 3 (l31 + l32 cos 3 + l33 cos(3 + 3 )) [R(Y, )] sin 3 (l31 + l32 cos 3 + l33 cos(3 + 3 )) l32 sin 3 + l33 sin(3 + 3 )
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Base p 3
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S UMMARY
D-H parameters obtained for serial manipulators Planar 3R, PUMA 560, SCARA To obtain D-H parameters for parallel manipulators
Break parallel manipulator into serial manipulators. Obtain D-H parameters for each serial chain. Examples of 4-bar mechanism, 3-degree-of-freedom and 6-degree-of-freedom parallel manipulators.
Can extract position vectors of point of interest & orientation of links from link transforms. Kinematic analysis, using the concepts presented here, discussed in Module 3 and Module 4.
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O UTLINE
. 1 . . C ONTENTS . 2 . . L ECTURE 1 Mathematical Preliminaries Homogeneous Transformation . L ECTURE 2 3 .. Elements of a robot Joints Elements of a robot Links . L ECTURE 3 4 .. Examples of D-H Parameters & Link Transformation Matrices .. L ECTURE 4 5 . Elements of a robot Actuators & Transmission . L ECTURE 5 6 .. Elements of a robot Sensors . A DDITIONAL M ATERIAL 7 .. Problems, References, and Suggested Reading
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Actuators are required to move joints, provide power and do work. Serial robot actuators must be of low weight Actuators of distal links need to be moved by actuators near the base. Parallel robots Often actuators are at the base. Actuators drive a joint through a transmission device Three commonly used types of actuators:
Hydraulic Pneumatic Electric motors
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Source: http://www.hocdelam.org/vn/category/ho-tro/robotandcontrol/
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ACTUATORS H YDRAULIC
FOR
ROBOTS
Early industrial robots were driven by hydraulic actuators. Pump supplies high-pressure uid (typically oil) to a linear cylinders, rotary vane actuator or a hydraulic motor at the joint! Large force capabilities. Large power-weight ratio The pump, electric motor driving the pump, accumulator etc. stationary and not considered in the weight calculation! Control is by means of on/o solenoid valves or servo-valves controlled electronically. The entire system consisting of Electric motor, pump, accumulator, cylinders etc. is bulky and often expensive Limited to big robots.
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ACTUATORS P NEUMATIC
FOR
ROBOTS
Similar to hydraulic actuators but working uid is air. Similar to hydraulic actuators, air is supplied from a compressor to cylinders and ow of air is controlled by solenoid or servo controlled valves. Less force and power capabilities. Less expensive than hydraulic drives. Chosen where electric drives are discouraged or for safety or environmental reasons such as in pharmaceutical and food packaging industries. Closed-loop servo-controlled manipulators have been developed for many applications.
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&
Air used in pneumatic actuators is clean and safe. Oil in hydraulic actuator can be a health and re hazard especially if there is a leakage. Pneumatic actuators are typically light-weight, portable and faster. Air is compressible (oil is incompressible) and hence pneumatic actuators are harder to control. Hydraulic actuators have the largest force/power density compared to any actuator. With compressors, accumulators and other components, the space requirement is larger than electric actuators.
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ROBOTS
Electric or electromagnetic actuators are widely used in robots. Readily available in wide variety of shape, sizes, power and torque range. Very easily mounted and/or connected with transmission elements such as gears, belts and timing chains. Amenable to modern day digital control. Main types of electric actuators:
Stepper motors Permanent magnet DC servo-motor Brushless motors
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S TEPPER M OTORS
http://www.societyofrobots.com/member_tutorials/node/28
Permanent Magnet (PM) Stepper Motors Similar to VR but rotor is radially magnetized. Hybrid Stepper Motors Combines best features of VR and PM stepper motors.
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S TEPPER M OTORS
Typically stepper motors have two phases. Four stepping modes
Wave drive Only one phase/winding is on/energized Torque output is smaller. Full step drive Both phases are on at the same time Rated performance. Half step drive Combine wave and full-step drive Angular movement half of rst two. Micro-stepping Current is varying continuously Smaller than 1.8 or 0.9 degree step size, lower torque.
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DC S ERVO M OTORS
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M ODEL
OF
Ra
A
La
DC
PERMANENT
Rotor is a permanent magnet. Stator Armature coil with resistance Ra and inductance La .
MAGNET MOTOR
ia Va Motor m
Rotation speed of motor Figure 24: Model of a permanent magnet DC m servo-motor Mechanical part. Torque developed Tm = Kt ia Kt is constant. Back-emf V = Kg Kg is constant. m Motor dynamics can be modeled as rst-order ODE La i + Ra ia + Kg = Va a m
. . . . . Mechatronic model Mechanical + Electrical/Electronics .
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H Bridge: Four switches using MOSFETS and diodes Input A and B and the diagonal transistors can be used to change direction. Input A Input B Motor Function
Transistor TR1 & TR4 0 1 0 1 Transistor TR2 & TR4 0 0 1 1 Motor OFF Forward direction Reverse direction Not Allowed
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Transmissions can (if needed) also convert rotary to linear motion and vice-versa. Transmissions also transfer motion to dierent joints and to dierent directions.
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O UTLINE
. 1 . . C ONTENTS . 2 . . L ECTURE 1 Mathematical Preliminaries Homogeneous Transformation . L ECTURE 2 3 .. Elements of a robot Joints Elements of a robot Links . L ECTURE 3 4 .. Examples of D-H Parameters & Link Transformation Matrices .. L ECTURE 4 5 . Elements of a robot Actuators & Transmission . L ECTURE 5 6 .. Elements of a robot Sensors . A DDITIONAL M ATERIAL 7 .. Problems, References, and Suggested Reading
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I NTRODUCTION
A robot without sensors is like a human being without eyes, ears, sense of touch, etc.
Sensor-less robots require costly/time consuming programming. Can perform only in playback mode. No change in their environment, tooling and work piece can be accounted for.
Sensors allow less accurate modeling and control. Sensors enable robots to perform complex and increased variety of tasks reliably thereby reducing cost.
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I NTRODUCTION (C ONTD .)
Dynamical system
Changes with time Governed by dierential equations. For a given input there is a well dened output. Linear dynamical system Modeled by linear ordinary dierential equations Can be analysed using Laplace transforms and transfer function5 .
Two kinds of system Open-loop and closed-loop or feedback control systems. Importance of sensors in modeling and control shown in next few slides.
5 Other
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Time domain linear function f (t) converted to sdomain using Laplace transforms: F (s) = L {f (t)} = 0 f (t)e st dt Time derivatives become polynomials in s. Transfer function Ratio of output to input in sdomain. Open-loop system No feedback: Input R(s) System G (s) Output Y (s) (see Figure above) Y (S) G (s) For error G (s) in the modeling of the plant Y (s) = G (s) x% error in G (s) results in x% error in Y (s)
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Y (s) =
Since 1 + D(s)G (s) >> 1 x% error in G (s) results in ( ) 1 much smaller error of 1+D(s)G (s) x% in Y (s).
With sensors and feedback, less complex and expensive controllers and/or models of system can be used for more robust performance. . . . . .
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Sensors must have low noise and be good for eectiveness. Consider a noisy sensor (see Figure above). Output of system Y (s) = D(s)G (s) (R(s)N(s)); ChosenD(s)G (s) >> 1 1 + D(s)G (s)
Note that output is proportional to corrupted (R(s) N(s)) input, hence output error can never be reduced!
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S ENSORS IN ROBOTS
Sensor is a device to make a measurement of a physical variable of interest and convert it into electrical signal. Desirable features in sensors are
High accuracy. High precision. Linear response. Large operating range. Low response time. Easy to calibrate. Reliable and rugged. Low cost Ease of operation
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Force/torque sensors.
At joint actuators for control. At wrist to measure components of force/moment being applied on environment. At end-eector to measure applied force on gripped object.
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Non-contacting sensors: Detect variations in optical, acoustic or electromagnetic radiations or change in position/orientation.
Proximity: Inductive, Capacitive, Optical and Ultrasoni.c Range: Capacitive and Magnetic, Camera, Sonar, Laser range nder, Structured light. Colour sensors. Speed/Motion: Doppler radar/sound, Camera, Accelerometer, Gyroscope. Identication: Camera, RFID, Laser ranging, Ultrasound. Localisation: Compass, Odometer, GPS.
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S ENSORS IN ROBOTS
How to compute resolution of a sensor? Example: Optical encoder to measure joint rotation
Optical encoders and resolvers Desired accuracy e One must be able to measure a minimum angle e/L. e Number of bits/revolution required: Compute 2 /( L ), express as a binary number and round-o to the next higher power of 2. e Example: L = 1m, e 0.5mm = L = 5x104 , e 2 /( L ) 10000 213 = 8192, 214 = 16384 14 bit encoder needed. . . . . . If L is A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C )small, 12 Rbits are usually enough. OBOTICS : A DVANCED C ONCEPTS & A NALYSIS NPTEL, 2010
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O PTICAL E NCODER
One of the most important and widely used internal sensor. Consists of an etched encoding disk with photo-diodes and LEDS. Disk made from
Glass, for high-resolution applications (11 to >16 bits). Plastic (Mylar) or metal, for applications requiring more rugged construction (resolution of 8 to 10 bits).
As disk rotates, light is alternately allowed to reach photo-diode, resulting in digital output similar to a square . . . . . wave.
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O PTICAL E NCODER
Typically 3 signals available Channel A, B and I; A and B are phase shifted by 90 degrees and I is called as the index pulse obtained every full rotation of disk. Signals read by a microprocessor/counter. Output of counter includes rotation and direction. Output can be absolute or relative joint rotation. Can be used for estimating velocity.
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Performance specications to ensure that the wrist motions generated by the force/torque sensors do not aect the position accuracy of the manipulator:
High stiness to ensure quick dampening of the disturbing forces which permits accurate readings during short time intervals. Compact design to ensure easy movement of the manipulator. Need to be placed close to end-eector/tool. Linear relation between applied force/torque and strain gauge readings. Made from single block of metal No hysteresis.
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F = [RF ]W
r13 0 0 0 0 r63
0 0 r34 r44 0 0
0 r25 0 0 0 r65
0 0 r36 0 r56 0
r17 0 0 0 0 r67
0 0 r38 r48 0 0
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Simple LED-Photo-diode pair used to detect presence/absence of object to be grasped Micro-switch to detect touch.
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Slip sensor to detect if grasped object is slipping. Free moving dimpled ball Deects a thin rod on the axis of a conductive disk Evenly spaced electrical contacts placed under disk Object slips past the ball, moving rod and disk Electrical signal from contact to detect slip. Direction of slip determined from sequence of contacts.
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Skin like membrane to feel the shape of the grasped object Also used to measure force/torque required to grasp object Change in resistance/capacitance due to local deformation from applied force
Figure 36: Robot hand with tactile array
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E XTERNAL (C ONTD .)
S ENSORS
TACTILE
Send current in one set, measure current in other set Magnitude of current change in resistance due to deformation Magnitude of current change in capacitance
Fluid lled membrane Array of Hall-eect sensors MEMS Silicon micro-machined with doped strain-gauge . . . . . exure
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Detect presence of an object near a robot or manipulator Works at very short ranges (<15-20 mm) Frequently used in stationary and mobile robots to avoid obstacles and for safety during operation Four main types of proximity sensors
Inductive proximity sensors Capacitive proximity sensor Ultrasonic proximity sensor Optical proximity sensors
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Electronic proximity sensor based on change of inductance. Detects metallic objects without touching them. Consists of a wound coil, located next to a permanent magnet, packaged in a simple housing.
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Ferromagnetic material enters or leaves the magnetic eld Flux lines of the permanent magnet change their position. Change in ux Induces a current pulse with amplitude and shape proportional to rate of change in ux.
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Coils output voltage waveform For proximity sensing. Useful where access is a challenge. Applications Metal detectors, Trac light changing, Automated industrial processes. Limited to ferromagnetic materials.
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E FFECT
Hall eect relates the voltage between two points in a conducting or semiconducting material subjected to a strong magnetic eld across the material. When a semi-conductor magnet device is brought in close proximity of a ferromagnetic material
the the the the magnetic eld at the sensor weakens due to bending of eld lines through the material, Lorentz forces are reduced, and voltage across the semiconductor is reduced.
The drop in the voltage is used to sense the proximity. Applications: Ignition timings in IC engines, tachometers and anti-lock braking systems, and brushless DC electric motors.
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Similar to inductive, but uses electrostatic eld. Can sense metallic as well as non-metallic materials. Sensing element is a capacitor composed of a sensitive electrode and a reference electrode.
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Objects entry in electrostatic eld of electrodes changes capacitance. Oscillations start once capacitance exceeds a predened threshold. Triggers output circuit to change between on and o. When object moves away, oscillators amplitude decreases, changing output back to original state. Larger size and dielectric constant of target, means larger capacitance and easier detection. Useful in level detection through a barrier.
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R ANGE S ENSORS
Measure distance of objects at larger distances. Uses electromagnetic or electrostatic or acoustic radiation Looks for changes in the eld or return signal. Highly reliable with long functional life and no mechanical parts. Four main kinds of range sensing techniques in robots
Triangulation. Structured lighting approach. Time of ight range nders. Vision .
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Changing B and , one can get D for all visible portions of object.
Very little computation required. Very slow as one point is done at a time.
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Light or electromagnetic radiation more useful for large (kilometers) distances. Light not very suitable in robotic applications as c is large.
To measure range with 0.25 inch accuracy, one needs to measure very small time intervals 50 ps.
Suitable for acoustic (ultrasonic) radiation, since c 330 m/s. Can only detect distance of one point in its view Scan required for object.
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( ) 360 2
typically small Impractical for robot application Modulate laser light with a waveform of much higher wavelength. Example: modulating frequency=10 MHz = c = 30m f and D up to 15m can be measured. Advantages of continuous light technique
Yields intensity as well range information, Requires very little computation, Lasers do not suer from specular reection, and Expensive, not so robust and require higher power.
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V ISION S ENSORS
Most powerful and complex form of sensing, analogous to human eyes. Comprising of one or more video cameras with integrated signal processing and imaging electronics. Includes interfaces for programming and data output, and a variety of measurement and inspection functions. Also referred to as machine or computer vision. Computations required are very large compared to any other form of sensing. Computer vision can be sub-divided into six main areas: 1) Sensing, 2) Pre-processing, 3) Segmentation, 4) Description, 5) Recognition and 6) Interpretation.
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V ISION S ENSORS
Three levels of processing. Low level vision
Primitive in nature, requires no intelligence on the part of the vision functions. Sensing and pre-processing can be considered as low level vision functions.
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V ISION S ENSORS
Smaller number of robotic applications Primarily due to computational complexity and low speed. Vision system can
Determine distances of objects. Determine geometrical shape and size of objects. Determine optical (color, brightness) properties of objects in an environment. Can be used for navigation (map making), obstacle avoidance, Cartesian position and velocity feedback, locating parts, and many other uses. Can learn about environment. Acquire knowledge and intelligence.
Vision systems extensively used in autonomous navigation in mobile robots (Mars rovers). Use of vision systems increasing rapidly as technology improves!
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In-plane acceleration causes the proof mass to move relative to the plates changing the capacitance. Change in capacitance converted to a voltage signal. Can sense dynamic and static acceleration.. . . .
A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C ) ROBOTICS : A DVANCED C ONCEPTS & A NALYSIS
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MOEMS S ENSORS
MOEMS stands for Micro-opto-electromechanical systems. Silica based MEMS sensors, though very eective, cannot be used in high temperature and pressure conditions, due to the limiting mechanical and electrical properties of silica. For harsh environmental conditions, MEMS sensors are built out of robust materials such as (Si, SiC) and are integrated with optical signal detection technique forming MOEMS. MOEMS sensors are highly resistant to electromagnetic interference (EMI) and radio frequency interference (RFI). Eliminate the need for on-board electronics.
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S MART S ENSORS
Smart Sensor A single device combining data collection and information output. As per IEEE 1451.2, a smart sensor is: a transducer that provides functions beyond those necessary for generating a correct representation of a sensed or control quantity. Integration of transducer + applications + networking. Evolving concept Often sensors not complying with IEEE denition are also called smart sensors! . . . . .
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Smart sensors are capable of a) self identication and diagnosis, b) Time and location awareness for time and position stamping, c) Conform to standard data communications and control protocols for interoperability. Other features of smart sensors a)remote diagnostics, b) improved reliability, and c) better signal to noise ratio.
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I NTELLIGENT S ENSORS
For advanced robotic devices, large amount of sensory information slows down the controller. Intelligent sensors take some load o the controller by
Taking some predened action based on the input received. Eciently and precisely measuring the parameters, enhancing or interrupting them.
Intelligent sensors: An adaptation of smart sensors with embedded algorithms for detection of noise, instrumentation anomalies and sensor anomalies. Enabling technology for ISHM (Integrated Systems Health Management) used in spaceships by NASA.
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Intelligence
Charting a shortest route. Recognizing moving objects. Distinguish sounds and recognize faces and gestures.
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Large varieties of sensors exist for large variety of measurement tasks. More than one sensor is typically used in a robot. Vision system is the most powerful and complex sensor. New and modern sensor technologies are becoming mature and are nding their way into robots.
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O UTLINE
. 1 . . C ONTENTS . 2 . . L ECTURE 1 Mathematical Preliminaries Homogeneous Transformation . L ECTURE 2 3 .. Elements of a robot Joints Elements of a robot Links . L ECTURE 3 4 .. Examples of D-H Parameters & Link Transformation Matrices .. L ECTURE 4 5 . Elements of a robot Actuators & Transmission . L ECTURE 5 6 .. Elements of a robot Sensors . A DDITIONAL M ATERIAL 7 .. Problems, References, and Suggested Reading
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A DDITIONAL MATERIAL
Exercise Problems References & Suggested Reading Homogeneous coordinates, lines & screws
Please see Known Bugs in Module 0, slide #10 for viewing links. To view above links
Copy link and paste in a New Window/Tab by right click. Close new Window/Tab after viewing.
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