ABSTRACT

ELECTRICAL APPARATUS CONTROLLING USING MOBILE PHONE

Home makers are the backbone of Indian families. They do a lot of home work since morning to night. All the electronic devices required may be present at homes to perform various tasks like washing the clothes, watering the plants etc. But even after, a person should be available to operate the devices to perform the tasks. This project eliminates all such and provides a better solution using the wireless communication DTMF. All the electronic devices which are to be operated should be connected to the main controlling unit. The controlling unit contains the microcontroller and the modem. A modem provides the communication interface. It transports device protocols transparently over the network through a serial interface. A DTMF modem is a wireless modem that works with a DTMF wireless network. A wireless modem behaves like a dial-up modem. The main difference between them is that a dial-up modem sends and receives data through a fixed telephone line while a wireless modem sends and receives data through radio waves. The DTMF modem will be interfaced to the microcontroller section through serial port interface. If the user wants to operate any appliances, he/she has to send predefined message to the DTMF modem. The controller section will have the switch controls of the devices. The user has to press the predefined number to the modem whenever he wants to change the status of any of the appliances. Thus, the homemakers can easily carry on with their works while watching their favourite daily programmes. This project uses regulated 5V, 500mA & 12V, 500mA power supply. 7805 and 7812 three terminal voltage regulators are used for voltage regulation. Bridge type full wave rectifier is used to rectify the ac out put of secondary of 230/12V step down transformer.

BLOCK DIAGRAM

HARDWARE COMPONENTS: Micro controller(8051) DTMF Modem Max232 Power supply LCD Relay

SOFTWARE TOOLS: Keil micro vision Embedded C

TABLE OF CONTENTS TITLE 1.INTRODUCTION 1.1 INTRODUCTION 2. AT89C51 MICROCONTROLLER 2.1 DISCRIPTION 2.2 FEATURES 2.3 BLOCK DIAGRAM 2.4 PIN CONFIGURATION 2.5 PIN DESCRIPTION 3. POWER SUPPLY,MAX 232,LCD DISPLAY,RELAY,BUZZER 3.1 POWER SUPPLY
3.1.1 INTRODUCTION

3.1.2 TRANSFORMER 3.1.3 RECTIFIER 3.1.4 SMOOTHING 3.1.5 REGULATOR 3.2 MAX 232

3.3 LCD DISPLAY 3.4 RELAY 3.5 BUZZER

Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

1.INTRODUCTION
The first question that needs to be asked, is "What exactly is an embedded computer?" To be fair, however, it is much easier to answer the question of what an embedded computer is not, than to try and describe all the many things that an embedded computer can be. An embedded computer is frequently a computer that is implemented for a particular purpose. In contrast, an average PC computer usually serves a number of purposes: checking email, surfing the internet, listening to music, word processing, etc... However, embedded systems usually only have a single task, or a very small number of related tasks that they are programmed to perform. Every home has several examples of embedded computers. Any appliance that has a digital clock, for instance, has a small embedded microcontroller that performs no other task than to display the clock. Modern cars have embedded computers onboard that control such things as ignition timing and anti-lock brakes using input from a number of different sensors. Embedded computers rarely have a generic interface, however. Even if embedded systems have a keypad and an LCD display, they are rarely capable of using many different types of input or output. An example of an embedded system with I/O capability is a security alarm with an LCD status display, and a keypad for entering a password. In general, an Embedded System: Is a system built to perform its duty, completely or partially independent of human intervention. Is specially designed to perform a few tasks in the most efficient way.

 Interacts with physical elements in our environment, viz. controlling and driving a motor, sensing temperature, etc. An embedded system can be defined as a control system or computer system designed to perform a specific task. Common examples of embedded systems include MP3 players, navigation systems on aircraft and intruder alarm systems. An embedded system can also be defined as a single purpose computer. Embedded systems are playing important roles in our lives every day, even though they might not necessarily be visible. Some of the embedded systems we use every day control the menu system on television, the timer in a microwave oven, a cellphone, an MP3 player or any other device with some amount of intelligence built-in. In fact, recent poll data shows that embedded computer systems currently outnumber humans in the USA. Embedded systems is a rapidly growing industry where growth opportunities are numerous. The uses of embedded systems are virtually limitless, because every day new products are introduced to the market that utilize embedded computers in novel ways. In recent years, hardware such as microprocessors, microcontrollers, and FPGA chips have become much cheaper. So when implementing a new form of control, it's wiser to just buy the generic chip and write your own custom software for it. Producing a custom-made chip to handle a particular task or set of tasks costs far more time and money. Many embedded computers even come with extensive libraries, so that "writing your own software" becomes a very trivial task indeed. From an implementation viewpoint, there is a major difference between a computer and an embedded system. Embedded systems are often required to provide Real-Time response. A Real-Time system is defined as a system whose correctness depends on the timeliness of its response. Examples of such systems are flight control systems of an aircraft, sensor systems in nuclear reactors and power plants. For these systems, delay in response is a fatal error. A more relaxed version of Real-Time Systems, is the one where timely response with small delays is acceptable. Example of such a system would be the Scheduling Display System on the railway platforms. In technical terminology, Real-Time Systems can be classMost embedded systems are time critical applications meaning that the embedded system is working in an environment where timing is very important: the results of an operation are only relevant if they take place in a specific time frame. An autopilot in an aircraft is a time critical embedded system. If the

autopilot detects that the plane for some reason is going into a stall then it should take steps to correct this within milliseconds or there would be catastrophic results.

CHAPTER 2

MICROCONTROLLER
2.1 Description

The AT89C51 is a low-power, high-performance CMOS 8-bit microcomputer with 4 Kbytes of Flash Programmable and Erasable Read Only Memory (PEROM). The device is manufactured using Atmels high density nonvolatile memory technology and is compatible with the industry standard MCS-51 instruction set and pinout.The on-chip Flash allows the program memory to be reprogrammed in-system or by a conventional nonvolatile memory programmer. By combining a versatile 8-bit CPU with Flash on a monolithic chip, the Atmel AT89C51 is a powerful microcomputer which provides a highly flexible and cost effective solution to many embedded control applications.The AT89C51 provides the following standard features: 4Kbytes of Flash, 128 bytes of RAM, 32 I/O lines, two 16-bit timer/counters, a five vector two-level interrupt architecture, a full duplex serial port, on-chip oscillator and clock circuitry. In addition, the AT89C51 is designed with static logic for operation down to zero frequency and supports two software selectable power saving modes. The Idle Mode stops the CPU while allowing the RAM, timer/counters,

2.2 FEATURES
Compatible with MCS-51 Products 4K Bytes of In-System Reprogrammable Flash Memory Endurance: 1,000 Write/Erase Cycles Fully Static Operation: 0 Hz to 24 MHz Three-Level Program Memory Lock 128 x 8-Bit Internal RAM 32 Programmable I/O Lines Two 16-Bit Timer/Counters Six Interrupt Sources Programmable Serial Channel

 Low Power Idle and Power Down Modes

2.4 PIN CONFIGURATION

Chapter 3

POWER SUPPLY, REGULATOR,MAX232

Power Supplies
INTRODUCTION Types of Power Supply
There are many types of power supply. Most are designed to convert high voltage AC mains electricity to a suitable low voltage supply for electronics circuits and other devices. A power supply can by broken down into a series of blocks, each of which performs a particular function. For example a 5V regulated supply:

Each of the blocks is described in more detail below:

Transformer - steps down high voltage AC mains to low voltage AC. Rectifier - converts AC to DC, but the DC output is varying. Smoothing - smooths the DC from varying greatly to a small ripple. Regulator - eliminates ripple by setting DC output to a fixed voltage.

Dual Supplies:Some electronic circuits require a power supply with positive and negative outputs as well as zero volts (0V). This is called a 'dual supply' because it is like two ordinary supplies connected together as shown in the diagram. Dual supplies have three outputs, for example a 9V supply has +9V, 0V and -9V outputs.

Transformer only:-

The low voltage AC output is suitable for lamps, heaters and special AC motors. It is not suitable for electronic circuits unless they include a rectifier and a smoothing capacitor.

Transformer + Rectifier:-

The varying DC output is suitable for lamps, heaters and standard motors. It is not suitable for electronic circuits unless they include a smoothing capacitor.

Transformer + Rectifier + Smoothing

The smooth DC output has a small ripple. It is suitable for most electronic circuits.

Transformer + Rectifier + Smoothing + Regulator:-

The regulated DC output is very smooth with no ripple. It is suitable for all electronic circuits.

3.1 .2TRANSFORMER:Transformers convert AC electricity from one voltage to another with little loss of power. Transformers work only with AC and this is one of the reasons why mains electricity is AC. Step-up transformers increase voltage, step-down transformers reduce voltage. Most power supplies use a step-down transformer to reduce the dangerously high mains voltage (230V in UK) to a safer low voltage. The input coil is called the primary and the output coil is called the secondary. There is no electrical connection between the two coils, instead they are linked by an alternating magnetic field created in the soft-iron core of the transformer. The two lines in the middle of the circuit symbol represent the core. Transformers waste very little power so the power out is (almost) equal to the power in. Note that as voltage is stepped down current is stepped up. The ratio of the number of turns on each coil, called the turns ratio, determines the ratio of the voltages. A stepdown transformer has a large number of turns on its primary (input) coil which is connected to the high voltage mains supply, and a small number of turns on its secondary Transformer Transformer circuit symbol

(output) coil to give a low output voltage. turns ratio = Vp Np = Vs Ns

and

power out = power in Vs Is = Vp Ip

Vs = secondary (output) voltage Ns = number of turns on secondary coil Is = secondary (output) current

Vp = primary (input) voltage Np = number of turns on primary coil Ip = primary (input) current

3.1.2 RECTIFIER
There are several ways of connecting diodes to make a rectifier to convert AC to DC. The bridge rectifier is the most important and it produces full-wave varying DC. A full-wave rectifier can also be made from just two diodes if a centre-tap transformer is used, but this method is rarely used now that diodes are cheaper. A single diode can be used as a rectifier but it only uses the positive (+) parts of the AC wave to produce half-wave varying DC.

Bridge rectifier:A bridge rectifier can be made using four individual diodes, but it is also available in special packages containing the four diodes required. It is called a full-wave rectifier because it uses all the AC wave (both positive and negative sections). 1.4V is used up in the bridge rectifier because each diode uses 0.7V when conducting and there are always two diodes conducting, as shown in the diagram below. Bridge rectifiers are rated by the maximum current they can pass and the maximum reverse voltage they can withstand (this must be at least three times the supply RMS voltage so the rectifier can withstand the peak voltages). Please see the Diodes page for more details, including pictures of bridge rectifiers.

Bridge rectifier
Alternate pairs of diodes conduct, changing over the connections so the alternating directions of AC are converted to the one direction of DC.

Output: full-wave varying DC

(using all the AC wave)

Single diode rectifier

A single diode can be used as a rectifier but this produces half-wave varying DC which has gaps when the AC is negative. It is hard to smooth this sufficiently well to supply electronic circuits unless they require a very small current so the smoothing capacitor does not significantly discharge during the gaps. Please see the Diodes page for some examples of rectifier diodes.

Single diode rectifier

Output: half-wave varying DC

(using only half the AC wave)

3.1.3 SMOTHING
Smoothing is performed by a large value electrolytic capacitor connected across the DC supply to act as a reservoir, supplying current to the output when the varying DC voltage from the rectifier is falling. The diagram shows the unsmoothed varying DC (dotted line) and the smoothed DC (solid line). The capacitor charges quickly near the peak of the varying DC, and the discharges as it supplies current to the output.

Note that smoothing significantly increases the average DC voltage to almost the peak value (1.4 RMS value). For example 6V RMS AC is rectified to full wave DC of about 4.6V RMS (1.4V is lost in the bridge rectifier), with smoothing this increases to almost the peak value giving 1.4 4.6 = 6.4V smooth DC. Smoothing is not perfect due to the capacitor voltage falling a little as it discharges, giving a small ripple voltage. For many circuits a ripple which is 10% of the supply voltage is satisfactory and the equation below gives the required value for the smoothing capacitor. A larger capacitor will give less ripple. The capacitor value must be doubled when smoothing halfwave DC. Smoothing capacitor for 10% ripple, C = 5 Io

Vs f
C = smoothing capacitance in farads (F) Io = output current from the supply in amps (A) Vs = supply voltage in volts (V), this is the peak value of the unsmoothed DC f = frequency of the AC supply in hertz (Hz), 50Hz in the UK

3.1.4 REGULATOR
Voltage regulator ICs are available with fixed (typically 5, 12 and 15V) or variable output voltages. They are also rated by the maximum current they can pass. Negative voltage regulators are available, mainly for use in dual supplies. Most regulators include some automatic protection from excessive current ('overload protection') and overheating ('thermal protection'). Voltage regulator Many of the fixed voltage regulator ICs have 3 leads and look like power transistors, such as the 7805 +5V 1A regulator shown on the right. They include a hole for attaching a heatsink if necessary.

Zener diode regulator:For low current power supplies a simple voltage regulator can be made with a resistor and a zener diode connected in reverse as shown in the diagram. Zener diodes are rated by their breakdown voltage Vz and maximum power Pz (typically 400mW or 1.3W). The resistor limits the current (like an LED resistor). The current through the resistor is constant, so when there is no output current all the current flows through the zener diode and its power rating Pz must be large enough to withstand this. Choosing a zener diode and resistor: 1. The zener voltage Vz is the output voltage required 2. The input voltage Vs must be a few volts greater than Vz
(this is to allow for small fluctuations in Vs due to ripple)

zener diode a = anode, k = cathode

3. 4. 5. 6.

The maximum current Imax is the output current required plus 10% The zener power Pz is determined by the maximum current: Pz > Vz Imax The resistor resistance: R = (Vs - Vz) / Imax The resistor power rating: P > (Vs - Vz) Imax

5V, 12V Regulated Power supply

5V, 12V Regulated Power supply Regulated power supplies are commonly used in engineering projects. Power supply is food of any circuit. I would like to share 5V, 12V regulated power supply circuits which can be used for Embedded or Micro controller projects. +5V SUPPLY UNIT The circuit diagram of +5V is shown in the figure. +5V supply is obtained from the +5V supply unit for microcontroller and digital ICs. Initially 230 V AC supply is reduced to (0-9V) with the help of a step down transformer having a capacity of 500mA. Since the input voltage to the regulator IC should be more than its output voltage, transformer secondary voltage is 9V. This low voltage is rectified with the help of bridge rectifier. The ripples are minimized with the help of capacitor filter to get a smooth DC supply. The rating of the chosen capacitor filter is 1000F. The regulated DC voltage is obtained by using a regulator IC 7805. In the case of IC 7805, the unregulated DC voltage is applied to Pin 1, and the output is taken at Pin 3 and Pin 2 is grounded. Another capacitor filter of rating 10F is connected at the output of regulator IC to eliminate the voltage oscillations at the output due to the large voltage oscillations at the input of the regulator.

+12V SUPPLY UNIT The 12 V supply required by the OP amps is provided by the 12V supply circuit arrangement. The circuit diagram of 12V power supply unit is shown in figure. Initially 230 V AC supply is reduced to (15V-0-15V) with the help of a step down transformer having a capacity of 1A and the center tap of the transformer is grounded. This low voltage is rectified with the help off bridge rectifier. Since the input voltage to the regulator IC should be more than its output voltage, transformer secondary voltage is 15V-0-15V.The ripples are minimized with the help of capacitor filter to get a smooth DC supply. The rating of the chosen capacitor filter is 1000F. The regulated DC output voltage is obtained by using regulator ICs. For regulated +12V DC supply, IC 7812 is used and for regulated -12V DC supply, IC 7912 is used. In the case of IC 7812 the unregulated DC voltage is applied to Pin 1, and the output is taken at Pin 3 and Pin 2 is grounded. In the case of 7912 ,the unregulated DC voltage is applied to Pin 2, the output is taken at Pin 3 and Pin 1 is grounded. The pair of capacitors of 10F is connected at the output as shown in figure to eliminate the voltage oscillations at the output due to the large voltage oscillations at the input of the regulator.

3.2 MAX 232

The MAX232 is an integrated circuit that converts signals from an RS-232 serial port to signals suitable for use in TTL compatible digital logic circuits. The MAX232 is a dual driver/receiver and typically converts the RX, TX, CTS and RTS signals. The drivers provide RS-232 voltage level outputs (approx. 7.5 V) from a single + 5 V supply via on-chip charge pumps and external capacitors. This makes it useful for implementing RS-232 in devices that otherwise do not need any voltages outside the 0 V to + 5 V range, as power supply design does not need to be made more complicated just for driving the RS-232 in this case. The receivers reduce RS-232 inputs (which may be as high as 25 V), to standard 5 V TTL levels. These receivers have a typical threshold of 1.3 V, and a typical hysteresis of 0.5 V. The later MAX232A is backwards compatible with the original MAX232 but may operate at higher baud rates and can use smaller external capacitors 0.1 F in place of the 1.0 F capacitors used with the original device The newer MAX3232 is also backwards compatible, but operates at a broader voltage range, from 3 to 5.5 V. Pin to pin compatible: ICL232, ST232, ADM232, HIN232. Voltage levels It is helpful to understand what occurs to the voltage levels. When a MAX232 IC receives a TTL level to convert, it changes a TTL Logic 0 to between +3 and +15 V, and changes TTL Logic 1 to between -3 to -15 V, and vice versa for converting from RS232 to TTL. This can be confusing when you realize that the RS232 Data Transmission voltages at a certain logic state are opposite from the RS232 Control Line voltages at the same logic state. To clarify the matter, see the table below. For more information see RS-232 Voltage Levels. RS232 Line Type & Logic Level RS232 Voltage TTL Voltage to/from MAX232 Data Transmission (Rx/Tx) Logic 0 +3 V to +15 V 0 V Data Transmission (Rx/Tx) Logic 1 -3 V to -15 V 5 V Control Signals (RTS/CTS/DTR/DSR) Logic 0 -3 V to -15 V 5 V Control Signals (RTS/CTS/DTR/DSR) Logic 1 +3 V to +15 V 0 V

PIN DIAGRAM:-

Features:

1. Operates With Single 5-V Power Supply 2.LinBiCMOSE Process Technology 3.Two Drivers and Two Receivers 4.30-V Input Levels 5.Low Supply Current . 8 mA Typical

6.Meets or Exceeds TIA/EIA-232-F and ITU Recommendation V.28 7.Designed to be Interchangeable With Maxim MAX232 8.Applications TIA/EIA-232-F Battery-Powered Systems Terminals Modems Computers 9.ESD Protection Exceeds 2000 V Per MIL-STD-883, Method 3015 10.Package Options Include Plastic Small-Outline (D, DW) Packages and Standard Plastic (N) DIPs Cicuit connections: A standard serial interfacing for PC, RS232C, requires negative logic, i.e., logic '1' is -3V to -12V and logic '0' is +3V to +12V. To convert a TTL logic, say, TxD and RxD pins of the uC chips, thus need a converter chip. A MAX232 chip has long been using in many uC boards. It provides 2-channel RS232C port and requires external 10uF pacitors. Carefully check the polarity of capacitor when soldering the board. A DS275 however, no need external capacitor and smaller. Either circuit can be used without any problems.

3.3 LCD DISPLAY

A liquid crystal display (LCD) is a thin, flat display device made up of any number of color or monochrome pixels arrayed in front of a light source or reflector. Each pixel consists of a column of liquid crystal molecules suspended between two transparent electrodes, and two polarizing filters, the axes of polarity of which are perpendicular to each other. Without the liquid crystals between them, light passing through one would be blocked by the other. The liquid crystal twists the polarization of light entering one filter to allow it to pass through the other.

A program must interact with the outside world using input and output devices that communicate directly with a human being. One of the most common devices attached to an controller is an LCD display. Some of the most common LCDs connected to the contollers are 16X1, 16x2 and 20x2

available. Line lengt displays. This means 16 characters per line by 1 line 16 characters per line by 2 lines and 20 characters per line by 2 lines, respectively.

Shapes and S

Many microcontroller devices use 'smart LCD' displays to output visual information. LCD displays designed around LCD NT-C1611 module, are inexpensive, easy to use, and it is even possible to produce a readout using the 5X7 dots plus cursor of the display. They have a standard ASCII set of characters and mathematical symbols. For an 8-bit data bus, the display requires a +5V supply plus 10 I/O lines (RS RW D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0). For a 4-bit data bus it only requires the supply lines plus 6 extra lines(RS RW D7 D6 D5 D4). When the LCD display is not enabled, data lines are tri-state and they do not interfere with the operation of the microcontroller. PIN DESCRIPTION:

Most LCDs with 1 controller has 14 Pins and LCDs with 2 controller has 16 Pins (two pins are extra in both for back-light LED connections).

Fig: pin diagram of 1x16 lines lcd

CONTROL LINES: EN: Line is called "Enable." This control line is used to tell the LCD that you are sending it data. To send data to the LCD, your program should make sure this line is low (0) and then set the other two control lines and/or put data on the data bus. When the other lines are completely ready, bring EN high (1) and wait for the minimum amount of time required by the LCD datasheet (this varies from LCD to LCD), and end by bringing it low (0) again.

RS: Line is the "Register Select" line. When RS is low (0), the data is to be treated as a command or special instruction (such as clear screen, position cursor, etc.). When RS is high (1), the data being sent is text data which sould be displayed on the screen. For example, to display the letter "T" on the screen you would set RS high. RW: Line is the "Read/Write" control line. When RW is low (0), the information on the data bus is being written to the LCD. When RW is high (1), the program is effectively querying (or reading) the LCD. Only one instruction ("Get LCD status") is a read command. All others are write commands, so RW will almost always be low. Finally, the data bus consists of 4 or 8 lines (depending on the mode of operation selected by the user). In the case of an 8-bit data bus, the lines are referred to as DB0, DB1, DB2, DB3, DB4, DB5, DB6, and DB7. Logic status on control lines: E - 0 Access to LCD disabled - 1 Access to LCD enabled
R/W - 0 Writing data to LCD - 1 Reading data from LCD RS - 0 Instructions 1 Character

Writing data to the LCD: 1) Set R/W bit to low 2) Set RS bit to logic 0 or 1 (instruction or character)

3) Set data to data lines (if it is writing) 4) Set E line to high 5) Set E line to low

Read data from data lines (if it is reading)on LCD:

1) Set R/W bit to high 2) Set RS bit to logic 0 or 1 (instruction or character) 3) Set data to data lines (if it is writing) 4) Set E line to high 5) Set E line to low

Entering Text:

First, a little tip: it is manually a lot easier to enter characters and commands in hexadecimal rather than binary (although, of course, you will need to translate commands from binary couple of subminiature hexadecimal rotary switches is a simple matter, although a little bit into hex so that you know which bits you are setting). Replacing the d.i.l. switch pack with a of re-wiring is necessary. The switches must be the type where On = 0, so that when they are turned to the zero position, all four outputs are shorted to the common pin, and in position F, all four outputs are open circuit. All the available characters that are built into the module are shown in Table 3. Studying the table, you will see that codes associated with the characters are quoted in binary and hexadecimal, most significant bits (left-hand four bits) across the top, and least significant bits (right-hand four bits) down the left. Most of the characters conform to the ASCII standard, although the Japanese and Greek

characters (and a few other things) are obvious exceptions. Since these intelligent modules were designed in the Land of the Rising Sun, it seems only fair that their Katakana phonetic symbols should also be incorporated. The more extensive Kanji character set, which the Japanese share with the Chinese, consisting of several thousand different characters, is not included! Using the switches, of whatever type, and referring to Table 3, enter a few characters onto the display, both letters and numbers. The RS switch (S10) must be up (logic 1) when sending the characters, and switch E (S9) must be pressed for each of them. Thus the operational order is: set RS high, enter character, trigger E, leave RS high, enter another character, trigger E, and so on. The first 16 codes in Table 3, 00000000 to 00001111, ($00 to $0F) refer to the CGRAM. This is the Character Generator RAM (random access memory), which can be used to hold user-defined graphics characters. This is where these modules really start to show their potential, offering such capabilities as bar graphs, flashing symbols, even animated characters. Before the user-defined characters are set up, these codes will just bring up strange looking symbols.

Codes 00010000 to 00011111 ($10 to $1F) are not used and just display blank characters. ASCII codes proper start at 00100000 ($20) and end with 01111111 ($7F). Codes 10000000 to 10011111 ($80 to $9F) are not used, and 10100000 to 11011111 ($A0 to $DF) are the Japanese characters.

Initialization by Instructions:

If the power conditions for the normal operation of the internal reset circuit are not satisfied, then executing a series of instructions must initialize LCD unit. The procedure for this initialization process is as above show.

3.4 RELAY
Introduction:

A relay is an electrical switch that opens and closes under the control of another electrical circuit. In the original form, the switch is operated by an electromagnet to open or close one or many sets of contacts. A relay is able to control an output circuit of higher power than the input circuit, it can be considered to be, in a broad sense, a form of an electrical amplifier.

Relays are usuallly SPDT (single pole double through switch)or DPDT (double pole double through switch) but they can have many more sets of switch contacts, for example relays with 4 sets of changeover contacts are readily available.

Basic operation of a relay: An electric current through a conductor will produce a magnetic field at right angles to the direction of electron flow. If that conductor is wrapped into a coil shape, the magnetic field produced will be oriented along the length of the coil. The greater the current, the greater the strength of the magnetic field, all other factors being equal.

Inductors react against changes in current because of the energy stored in this magnetic field. When we construct a transformer from two inductor coils around a common iron core, we use this field to transfer energy from one coil to the other. However, there are simpler and more direct uses for electromagnetic fields than the applications we've seen with inductors and transformers. The magnetic field produced by a coil of current-carrying wire can be used to exert a mechanical force on any magnetic object, just as we can use a permanent magnet to attract

magnetic objects, except that this magnet (formed by the coil) can be turned on or off by switching the current on or off through the coil. If we place a magnetic object near such a coil for the purpose of making that object move when we energize the coil with electric current, we have what is called a solenoid. The movable magnetic object is called an armature, and most armatures can be moved with either direct current (DC) or alternating current (AC) energizing the coil. The polarity of the magnetic field is irrelevant for the purpose of attracting an iron armature. Solenoids can be used to electrically open door latches, open or shut valves, move robotic limbs, and even actuate electric switch mechanisms and is used to actuate a set of switch contacts

Relays can be categorized according to the magnetic system and operation:

Neutral Relays: This is the most elementary type of relay. The neutral relays have a magnetic coil, which operates the relay at a specified current, regardless of the polarity of the voltage applied. Biased Relays: Biased relays have a permanent magnet above the armature. The relay operates if the current through the coil winding establishes a magneto-motive force that opposes the flux by the permanent magnet. If the fluxes are in the same direction, the relay will not operate, even for a greater current through the coil. Polarized Relays: Like the biased relays, the polarized relays operate only when the current through the coil in one direction. But there the principle is different. The relay coil has a diode connected in series with it. This blocks the current in the reverse direction. The major difference between biased relays and polarized relays is that the former allows the current to pass through in the reverse direction, but does the not operate the relay and the later blocks the current in reverse direction. You can imagine how critical these properties when relays are connected in series to form logic circuits.

Magnetic Stick Relays or Perm polarized Relays: These relays have a magnetic circuit with high permanence. Two coils, one to operate (pick up) and one to release (drop) are present. The relay is activated by a current in the operate coil. On the interruption of the current the armature remains in picked up position by the residual magnetism. The relay is released by a current through the release coil. Slow Release Relays: These relays have a capacitor connected in parallel to their coil. When the operating current is interrupted the release of relay is delayed by the stored charge in the capacitor. The relay releases as the capacitor discharges through the coil. Relays for AC: These are neutral relays and picked up for a.c. current through their coil. These are very fast in action and used on power circuits of the point motors, where high current flows through the contacts. A normal relay would be slow and make sparks which in turn may weld the contacts together. All relays have two operating values (voltages), one pick-up and the other other drop away. The pick-up value is higher than the drop away value. Applications:

To control a high-voltage circuit with a low-voltage signal, as in some types of modems or audio amplifiers,

To control a high-current circuit with a low-current signal, as in the starter solenoid of an automobile,

To detect and isolate faults on transmission and distribution lines by opening and closing circuit breakers (protection relays),

To isolate the controlling circuit from the controlled circuit when the two are at different potentials, for example when controlling a mains-powered device from a low-voltage switch. The latter is often applied to control office lighting as the low voltage wires are easily installed in

partitions, which may be often moved as needs change. They may also be controlled by room occupancy detectors in an effort to conserve energy,

To perform logic functions. For example, the boolean AND function is realised by connecting NO relay contacts in series, the OR function by connecting NO contacts in parallel. The change-over or Form C contacts perform the XOR (exclusive or) function. Similar functions for NAND and NOR are accomplished using NC contacts. The Ladder programming language is often used for designing relay logic networks.
o

Early computing. Before vacuum tubes and transistors, relays were used as logical elements in digital computers. See ARRA (computer), Harvard Mark II, Zuse Z2, and Zuse Z3.

Safety-critical logic. Because relays are much more resistant than semiconductors to nuclear radiation, they are widely used in safety-critical logic, such as the control panels of radioactive waste-handling machinery.

To perform time delay functions. Relays can be modified to delay opening or delay closing a set of contacts. A very short (a fraction of a second) delay would use a copper disk between the armature and moving blade assembly. Current flowing in the disk maintains magnetic field for a short time, lengthening release time. For a slightly longer (up to a minute) delay, a dashpot is used. A dashpot is a piston filled with fluid that is allowed to escape slowly. The time period can be varied by increasing or decreasing the flow rate. For longer time periods, a mechanical clockwork timer is installed

3.5 BUZZER
A buzzer or beeper is a signaling device, usually electronic, typically used in automobiles, household appliances such as a microwave oven, or game shows. It most commonly consists of a number of switches or sensors connected to a control unit that determines if and which button was pushed or a preset time has lapsed, and usually illuminates a light on the appropriate button or control panel, and sounds a warning in the form of a continuous or intermittent buzzing or beeping sound. Initially this device was based on an electromechanical system which was identical to an electric bell without the metal gong . Often these units were anchored to a wall or ceiling and used the ceiling or wall as a sounding board.

Another implementation with some AC-connected devices was to implement a circuit to make the AC current into a noise loud enough to drive a loudspeaker and hook this circuit up to a cheap 8-ohm speaker. Nowadays, it is more popular to use a ceramic-based piezoelectric sounder like a Son alert which makes a high-pitched tone. Usually these were hooked up to "driver" circuits which varied the pitch of the sound or pulsed the sound on and off. In game shows it is also known as a "lockout system," because when one person signals ("buzzes in"), all others are locked out from signaling. Several game shows have large buzzer buttons which are identified as "plungers". The word "buzzer" comes from the rasping noise that buzzers made when they were electromechanical devices, operated from stepped-down AC line voltage at 50 or 60 cycles. Other sounds commonly used to indicate that a button has been pressed are a ring or a beep.