Inverter

Power Electronics and
Drives: Dr. Zainal Salam,

FKE, UTM Skudai, JB
1
DC to AC Conversion
(INVERTER)
General concept
Basic principles/concepts
Single-phase inverter
Square wave
Notching
PWM
Harmonics
Modulation
Three-phase inverter
FKE, UTM Skudai, JB
2
DC to AC Converter
(Inverter)
DEFINITION: Converts DC to AC power
by switching the DC input voltage (or
current) in a pre-determined sequence so as
to generate AC voltage (or current) output.
TYPICAL APPLICATIONS:
UPS, Industrial drives, Traction, HVDC
General block diagram
I
DC
I
ac
+
V
DC
V
ac
+

FKE, UTM Skudai, JB
3
Types of inverter
Voltage Source Inverter (VSI)
Current Source Inverter (CSI)
"DC LINK"
I
ac
+
V
DC
Load Voltage
+
L
I
LOAD
Load Current
I
DC
+
V
DC
C
FKE, UTM Skudai, JB
4
Voltage source inverter (VSI)
with variable DC link
DC link voltage is varied by a DC-to DC converter
or controlled rectifier.
Generate square wave output voltage.
Output voltage amplitude is varied as DC link is
varied.
Frequency of output voltage is varied by changing
the frequency of the square wave pulses.
DC LINK
+
-
V
s
V
o
+
-
C
+
-
V
in
CHOPPER
(Variable DC output)
INVERTER
(Switch are turned ON/OFF
with square-wave patterns)
FKE, UTM Skudai, JB
5
Variable DC link inverter (2)
Advantages:
simple waveform generation
Reliable
Disadvantages:
Extra conversion stage
Poor harmonics
T
1
T
2
t
V
dc1
V
dc2 Higher input voltage
Higher frequency
Lower input voltage
Lower frequency
FKE, UTM Skudai, JB
6
VSI with fixed DC link
DC voltage is held constant.
Output voltage amplitude and frequency
are varied simultaneously using PWM
technique.
Good harmonic control, but at the expense
of complex waveform generation
INVERTER
+
V
in
(fixed)
V
o
+
C
Switch turned ON and OFF
with PWM pattern
FKE, UTM Skudai, JB
7
Current Source Inverter (CSI)
Input (DC) current is choppedto obtain
AC output current.
Need large L.
Less popular compared to VSI
+
-
V
in
R
L
I
O
L I
DC
I
ac
-I
ac
Io
t
CHOPPER
CSI
Current waveform
FKE, UTM Skudai, JB
8
Power flow consideration
Assume load is drawing lagging Power
Factor.:
(+) i
o
and (+) v
o
: (+) power flow (1)
(-) i
o
and (-) v
o
: (+) power flow (3)
(+) i
o
and (-) v
o
: (-) power flow (2)
(-) i
o
and (+) v
o
: (-) power flow (4)
Positive power flow indicates power
transfer from input (V
dc
.I
dc
) to load.
+
-
+
-
i
o
t
(4) (1) (2) (3)
Vo
v i,
dc
V
o
V
dc
I
o
I
FKE, UTM Skudai, JB
9
4-quadrant operation
Negative power flow
indicates that the
power is fed back
from load to source.
Hence, inverter must
have 4 quadrant
capability to cater
for all possible load
types.
Practically, this can
be achieved by
placing an anti-
parallel diode across
each switching
device.
(1)
INVERTER
(4)
RECTIFIER
(2)
RECTIFIER
(3)
INVERTER
i
o
v
o
LOAD
T1
T2
4-QUADRANT
OPERATION
ANTI-PARELELL
DIODES
FKE, UTM Skudai, JB
10
Operation of simple square-
wave inverter (1)
To illustrate the concept of AC waveform
generation
V
DC
T1
T4
T3
T2
+ V
O
-
D1
D2
D3
D4
SQUARE-WAVE
INVERTERS
S1 S3
S2 S4
EQUAVALENT
CIRCUIT
I
O
FKE, UTM Skudai, JB
11
Operation of simple square-
wave inverter (2)
V
DC
S1
S4
S3
+ v
O

V
DC
S1
S4
S3
S2
+ v
O

V
DC
v
O
t
1
t
2
t
S1,S2 ON; S3,S4 OFF for t
1
< t < t
2
t
2
t
3
v
O
-V
DC
t
S3,S4 ON ; S1,S2 OFF for t
2
< t < t
3
S2
FKE, UTM Skudai, JB
12
Waveforms and harmonics of
square-wave inverter
FUNDAMENTAL
3
RD
HARMONIC
5
RD
HARMONIC
DC V 4
V
dc
-V
dc
V
1
3
1 V
5
1 V
INVERTER
OUTPUT
FKE, UTM Skudai, JB
13
Filtering (1)
Output of the inverter is chopped AC
voltage with zero DC component.In some
applications such as UPS, high purity sine
wave output is required.
An LC section low-pass filter is normally
fitted at the inverter output to reduce the
high frequency harmonics.
In some applications such as AC motor
drive, filtering is not required.
v
O 1
+
LOAD
L
C
v
O 2
(LOW PASS) FILTER
+
v
O 1 v
O 2
FKE, UTM Skudai, JB
14
Notes on low-pass filters
In square wave inverters, maximum output voltage
is achievable. However there in NO control in
harmonics and output voltage magnitude.
The harmonics are always at three, five, seven etc
times the fundamental frequency.
Hence the cut-off frequency of the low pass filter is
somewhat fixed. The filter size is dictated by the
VA ratings of the inverter.
To reduce filter size, the PWM switching scheme
can be utilised.
In this technique, the harmonics are pushed to
higher frequencies. Thus the cut-off frequency of
the filter is increased. Hence the filter components
(I.e. L and C) sizes are reduced.
The trade off for this flexibility is complexity in
the switching waveforms.
FKE, UTM Skudai, JB
15
Notchingof square wave
Vdc
Vdc
Vdc
Vdc
Notched Square Wave
Fundamental Component
Notching results in controllable output
voltage magnitude (compare Figures
above).
Limited degree of harmonics control is
possible
FKE, UTM Skudai, JB
16
Pulse-width modulation
(PWM)
A better square wave notching is shown
below - this is known as PWM technique.
Both amplitude and frequency can be
controlled independently. Very flexible.
1
1
pwm waveform
desired
sinusoid
SINUSOIDAL PULSE-WITDH MODULATED
APPROXIMATION TO SINE WAVE
FKE, UTM Skudai, JB
17
PWM- output voltage and
frequency control
FKE, UTM Skudai, JB
18
Output voltage harmonics
Why need to consider harmonics?
Waveform quality must match TNB supply.
Power Quality issue.
In some applications, harmonics cause
degradation of equipment. Equipment need to
be de-rated.
Total Harmonic Distortion (THD):
( ) ( ) ( )
frequency. harmonic at impedance the is
: current harmonic with voltage harmonic the
replacing by obtained be can THD Current
number. harmonics the is where
, 1
2
2
, 1
2
, 1
2
2
,
n
n
n
n
RMS
n
RMS RMS
RMS
n
RMS n
Z
Z
V
I
n
V
V V
V
V
THD

FKE, UTM Skudai, JB
19
Fourier Series
Study of harmonics requires understanding
of wave shapes. Fourier Series is a tool to
analyse wave shapes.
( )
( )
( )
t
n b n a a v f
d n v f b
d n v f a
d v f a
n
n n o
n
n
o

+ +
where
sin cos
2
1
) (
Fourier Inverse
sin ) (
1
cos ) (
1
) (
1
Series Fourier
1
2
0
2
0
2
0
FKE, UTM Skudai, JB
20
Harmonics of square-wave (1)
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
1
]
1
1
]
1
1
]
1
2
0
2
0
2
0
sin sin
0 cos cos
0
1
d n d n
V
b
d n d n
V
a
d V d V a
dc
n
dc
n
dc dc o
V
dc
-V
dc
=t
2
FKE, UTM Skudai, JB
21
Harmonics of square wave (2)
( ) ( ) [ ]
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
n
V
b
n
b
n
n
n
V
n n
n
V
n n n
n
V
n n
n
V
b
dc
n
n
dc
dc
dc
dc
n
4
1 cos odd, is n when
0
1 cos even, is n when
) cos 1 (
2
) cos 1 ( ) cos 1 (
) cos 2 (cos ) cos 0 (cos
cos cos
Solving,
2
0

+
+
+
FKE, UTM Skudai, JB
22
Spectra of square wave
1 3 5 7
9 11
Normalised
Fundamental
3rd (0.33)
5th (0.2)
7th (0.14)
9th (0.11)
11th (0.09)
1st
n
Spectra (harmonics) characteristics:
Harmonic decreases as n increases. It decreases
with a factor of (1/n).
Even harmonics are absent
Nearest harmonics is the 3rd. If fundamental is
50Hz, then nearest harmonic is 150Hz.
Due to the small separation between the
fundamental an harmonics, output low-pass
filter design can be quite difficult.
FKE, UTM Skudai, JB
23
Quasi-square wave (QSW)
( ) [ ]
( ) ( ) [ ]
( ) ( )

n n
n n n n
n n n
n n
n
V
n
n
V
d n V b
a
dc
dc
dc n
n
cos cos
sin sin cos cos
cos cos
Expanding,
cos cos
2
cos
2
sin
1
2
symmetry, wave - half to Due

. 0 that Note
+

1
]
1
2

V
dc
-V
dc
FKE, UTM Skudai, JB
24
Harmonics control
( ) [ ]
( )[ ]
( )
( )
n
n
b
b
V
b
n
n
V
b
b
n n
n
V
n n n
n
V
b
o
dc
dc
n
n
dc
dc
n
o
3
1
1
90
: if eliminated be will harmonic general,
In waveform. the from eliminated is harmonic
third or the , 0 then , 30 if example For
, adjusting by controlled be also can Harmonics
by varying controlled is , , l fundamenta The
cos
4
: is l fundamenta the of amplitude , particular In
cos
4
odd, is n If
, 0 even, is n If
cos 1 cos
2
cos cos cos
2

FKE, UTM Skudai, JB
25
Half-bridge inverter (1)
V
o
R
L
+
V
C1
V
C2
+
-
+
-
S
1
S
2
V
dc
2
Vdc
2
Vdc
S1 ON
S2 OFF
S1 OFF
S2 ON
t
0
G
Also known as the inverter leg.
Basic building block for full bridge, three
phase and higher order inverters.
G is the centre point.
Both capacitors have the same value.
Thus the DC link is equally spiltinto
two.
FKE, UTM Skudai, JB
26
Half-bridge inverter (2)
The top and bottom switch has to be
complementary, i.e. If the top switch is
closed (on), the bottom must be off, and
vice-versa.
In practical, a dead time as shown below is
required to avoid shoot-through faults.
t
d
t
d
"Dead time' = t
d
S
1
signal
(gate)
S
2
signal
(gate)
S1
S2
+

V
dc
R
L
G
"Shoot through fault" .
I
short
is very large
I
short
FKE, UTM Skudai, JB
27
Single-phase, full-bridge (1)
Full bridge (single phase) is built from two
half-bridge leg.
The switching in the second leg is delayed
by 180 degrees from the first leg.
S1
S4
S3
S2
+
-
G
+
2
dc
V
2
dc
V
-
2
dc
V
2
dc
V
dc
V
2
dc
V
2
dc
V
dc
V
2
2
2
t
t
t
RG
V
G R
V
'
o
V
G R o
V V V
RG
'

groumd" virtual " is G
LEG R LEG R'
R R'
-
o
V +
dc
V
+
-
FKE, UTM Skudai, JB
28
Each leg (Red, Yellow, Blue) is delayed by
120 degrees.
A three-phase inverter with star connected
load is shown below
Z
Y
Z
R
Z
B
G
R Y B
i
R
i
Y
i
B
i
a
i
b
+V
dc
N
S1
S4 S6
S3 S5
S2
+
+

V
dc
/2
V
dc
/2
FKE, UTM Skudai, JB
29
Square-wave inverter
waveforms
1
3
2,4
2
3,5
4
3
5
4,6
4
1,5
6
5
1
2,6
6
1,3
2
V
AD
V
B0
V
C0
V
AB
V
APH
(a) Three phase pole switching waveforms
(b) Line voltage waveform
(c) Phase voltage waveform (six-step)
60
0
120
0
Interval
Positive device(s) on
Negative devise(s) on
2V
DC
/3
V
DC
/3
-V
DC
/3
-2V
DC
/3
V
DC
-V
DC
V
DC
/2
-V
DC
/2
t
t
t
t
t
Quasi-square wave operation voltage waveforms
FKE, UTM Skudai, JB
30
waveform relationship
V
RG
, V
YG
, V
BG
are known as pole
switching waveform or inverter phase
voltage.
V
RY
, V
RB
, V
YB
are known as line to line
voltage or simply line voltage.
For a three-phase star-connected load, the
load phase voltage with respect to the N
(star-point) potential is known as V
RN
,V
YN
,
V
BN
. It is also popularly termed as six-
step waveform
FKE, UTM Skudai, JB
31
MODULATION: Pulse Width
Modulation (PWM)
Modulating Waveform Carrier waveform
1
M
1 +
1
0
2
dc
V
2
dc
V
0
0
t
1
t
2
t
3
t
4
t
5
t
Triangulation method (Natural sampling)
Amplitudes of the triangular wave (carrier) and
sine wave (modulating) are compared to obtain
PWM waveform. Simple analogue comparator
can be used.
Basically an analogue method. Its digital
version, known as REGULAR sampling is
widely used in industry.
FKE, UTM Skudai, JB
32
PWM types
Natural (sinusoidal) sampling (as shown
on previous slide)
Problems with analogue circuitry, e.g. Drift,
sensitivity etc.
Regular sampling
simplified version of natural sampling that
results in simple digital implementation
Optimised PWM
PWM waveform are constructed based on
certain performance criteria, e.g. THD.
Harmonic elimination/minimisation PWM
PWM waveforms are constructed to eliminate
some undesirable harmonics from the output
waveform spectra.
Highly mathematical in nature
Space-vector modulation (SVM)
A simple technique based on volt-second that is
normally used with three-phase inverter motor-
drive
FKE, UTM Skudai, JB
33
Natural/Regular sampling
( )
(1,2,3...) integer an is and
signal modulating the of frequency the is where
M
: at located normally are harmonics
The . frequency" harmonic " the to related is M
veform carrier wa the of Amplitude
waveform modulating the of Frequency
M
) ( M RATIO MODULATION
ly. respective voltage, (DC) input and voltage
output the of l fundamenta are , where
M
: holds ip relationsh linear the 1, M 0 If
versa. vice and high is output wave sine the
then high, is M If magnitude. tage output vol
wave) (sine l fundamenta the to related is M
veform carrier wa the of Amplitude
waveform modulating the of Amplitude
M
: M INDEX MODULATION
R
R
R
R
1
I 1
I
I
I
I
I
k
f
f k f
p
V V
V V
m
m
in
in
< <

FKE, UTM Skudai, JB
34
Asymmetric and symmetric
regular sampling
T
sample
point
t M
m
sin
1
1 +
1
4
T
4
3T
4
5T
4
2
dc
V
2
dc
V
0
t
1
t
2
t
3
t
t
asymmetric
sampling
symmetric
sampling
t
Generating of PWM waveform regular sampling
FKE, UTM Skudai, JB
35
Bipolar and unipolar PWM
switching scheme
In many books, the term bipolar and
unipolar PWM switching are often
mentioned.
The difference is in the way the sinusoidal
(modulating) waveform is compared with
the triangular.
In general, unipolar switching scheme
produces better harmonics. But it is more
difficult to implement.
In this class only bipolar PWM is
considered.
FKE, UTM Skudai, JB
36
Bipolar PWM switching
k 1
k 2
2
carrier
waveform
modulating
waveform
pulse
kth
2
FKE, UTM Skudai, JB
37
Pulse width relationships
k 1
k 2
2
carrier
waveform
modulating
waveform
pulse
kth
2
FKE, UTM Skudai, JB
38
Characterisation of PWM
pulses for bipolar switching
pulse PWM kth The
k 1
k 2
2
S
V +
2
S
V

FKE, UTM Skudai, JB
39
Determination of switching
angles for kth PWM pulse (1)
2 2
1 1
second, - volt the Equating
p s
p s
A A
A A
v Vmsin ( )
A
p2
A
p1
2
dc
V +
2
dc
V
A
S2
A
S1
FKE, UTM Skudai, JB
40
PWM Switching angles (2)
[ ]
) sin( sin 2

cos ) 2 cos( sin
sinusoid, by the supplied second - volt The
where ;
2
Similarly,
where
2 2
2
) 2 (
2
: as given is pulse PWM the of
cycle half each during voltage average The
2
1
2
2 2 2
1
1
1
1
1 1
1
o k o m
k o k m m s
o
o k
k
dc
k k
o
o k
k
s
k
o
o k dc
o
k o k dc
k
V
V d V A
V
V
V V
V
V
k
o k

,
_
,
_
,
_
,
_
,
_
,
_
,
_
,
_

FKE, UTM Skudai, JB
41
Switching angles (3)
) sin(
) 2 (
) sin( 2 2
2
edge leading for the Hence,
;
strategy, modulation the derive To
2
2
; 2
2
, waveforms PWM the of seconds - volt The
) sin( 2
Similarly,
) sin( 2
, small for sin
Since,
1
1
2 2 1 1
21 2 1 1
2
1
o k
dc
m
k
o k m o o
dc
k
s p s p
o
dc
k p o
dc
k p
o k m o s
o k m o s
o o o
V
V
V
V
A A A A
V
A
V
A
V A
V A

,
_
,
_
,
_

FKE, UTM Skudai, JB
42
PWM switching angles (4)
[ ]
[ ] ) sin( 1
and
) sin( 1
width, - pulse for the solve to ng Substituti
) sin(
: derived be can
edge trailing the method, similar Using
) sin(
Thus,
1. to 0 from It varies depth. or index
modulation as known is
2
ratio, voltage The
2
1
1
1
2
1
o k I o k
o k I o k
o
o k
k
o k I k
o k I k
dc
m
I
M
M
M
M
) (V
V
M

+ +
+

FKE, UTM Skudai, JB
43
PWM Pulse width
[ ]
k I o k
k k
k k
M

sin 1
, Modulation Symmetric For
different. are and i.e , Modulation
Asymmetric for valid is equation above The
: edge Trailing

: edge Leading
: is pulse kth the of angles switching the Thus
k 2k 1k
2k 1k
1
1
+

+

FKE, UTM Skudai, JB
44
Example
For the PWM shown below, calculate the switching
angles for all the pulses.
V 5 . 1
V 2
2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t6 t7 t8 t9 t10 t11 t12
t13
t14
t15
t16
t17
t18
2
1
carrier
waveform
modulating
waveform
FKE, UTM Skudai, JB
45
Harmonics of bipolar PWM
{
} ) 2 ( cos ) ( cos
) ( cos ) ( cos
) ( cos ) 2 ( cos
: to reduced be can Which
sin
2
2
sin
2
2
sin
2
2
sin ) (
1
2
: as computed be can pulse PWM
(kth) each of content harmonic symmetry,
wave - half is waveform PWM the Assuming
2
1 2
1
2
2
0
2
2
1
1
o k k k
k k k k
k k o k
dc
nk
dc
dc
dc
T
nk
n n
n n
n n
n
V
b
d n
V
d n
V
d n
V
d n v f b
o k
k k
k k
k k
k k
o k

+ + +
+ +

'
,
_
'
,
_
'
,
_
,
_
+
+
+

FKE, UTM Skudai, JB
46
Harmonics of PWM
[
]

equation. this of n computatio
the shows page next on the slide The
: i.e. period, one over pulses
for the of sum isthe waveform PWM
for the coefficent Fourier ly.The productive
simplified be cannot equation This
2 cos cos 2
) 2 ( cos ) ( cos
2
Yeilding,
1
1 1
+

p
k
nk n
nk
o k
k k k k
dc
nk
b b
p b
n n
n n
n
V
b


FKE, UTM Skudai, JB
47
PWM Spectra
p
p 2 p 3 p 4
0 . 1 M
8 . 0 M
6 . 0 M
4 . 0 M
2 . 0 M
Amplitude
Fundamental
0
2 . 0
4 . 0
6 . 0
8 . 0
0 . 1
NORMALISED HARMONIC AMPLITUDES FOR
SINUSOIDAL PULSE-WITDH MODULATION
Depth of
Modulation
FKE, UTM Skudai, JB
48
PWM spectra observations
The amplitude of the fundamental decreases or
increases linearly in proportion to the depth of
modulation (modulation index). The relation ship is
given as: V
1
= M
I
V
in
The harmonics appear in clusters with main
components at frequencies of :
f = kp(f
m
); k=1,2,3....
where f
m
is the frequency of the modulation (sine)
waveform. This also equal to the multiple of the
carrier frequencies. There also exist side-bands
around the main harmonic frequencies.
The amplitude of the harmonic changes with M
I
. Its
incidence (location on spectra) is not.
When p>10, or so, the harmonics can be normalised
as shown in the Figure. For lower values of p, the
side-bands clusters overlap, and the normalised
results no longer apply.
FKE, UTM Skudai, JB
49
Three-phase harmonics:
Effect of odd triplens
For three-phase inverters, there is
significant advantage if p is chosen to be:
odd and multiple of three (triplens) (e.g.
3,9,15,21, 27..)
the waveform and harmonics and shown on the
next two slides. Notice the difference?
By observing the waveform, it can be seen
that with odd p, the line voltage shape
looks more sinusoidal.
The even harmonics are all absent in the
phase voltage (pole switching waveform).
This is due to the p chosen to be odd.
FKE, UTM Skudai, JB
50
Spectra observations
Note the absence of harmonics no. 21, 63
in the inverter line voltage. This is due to p
which is multiple of three.
In overall, the spectra of the line voltage is
more clean. This implies that the THD is
less and the line voltage is more sinusoidal.
It is important to recall that it is the line
voltage that is of the most interest.
Also can be noted from the spectra that the
phase voltage amplitude is 0.8
(normalised). This is because the
modulation index is 0.8. The line voltage
amplitude is square root three of phase
voltage due to the three-phase relationship.
FKE, UTM Skudai, JB
51
Waveform: effect of triplens
2
dc
V
2
dc
V
2
dc
V
2
dc
V
2
dc
V
2
dc
V
2
dc
V
2
dc
V
dc
V
dc
V
dc
V
dc
V
2
RG
V
RG
V
RY
V
RY
V
YG
V
YG
V
6 . 0 , 8 M p
6 . 0 , 9 = = M p
ILLUSTRATION OF BENEFITS OF USING A FREQUENCY RATIO
THAT IS A MULTIPLE OF THREE IN A THREE PHASE INVERTER
FKE, UTM Skudai, JB
52
Harmonics: effect of
triplens
0
2 . 0
4 . 0
6 . 0
8 . 0
0 . 1
2 . 1
4 . 1
6 . 1
8 . 1
Amplitude
voltage) line to (Line 3 8 . 0
Fundamental
41 43
39
37
45
47
23 19
21 63
61
59
57
65
67
69 77
79
81
83 85
87
89
91
19 23
43
47
41
37
61
59
65
67
83
79
85
89
COMPARISON OF INVERTER PHASE VOLTAGE (A) & INVERTER LINE VOLTAGE
(B) HARMONIC (P=21, M=0.8)
A
B
Harmonic Order
FKE, UTM Skudai, JB
53
Comments on PWM scheme
It is desirable to push p to as large as
possible.
The main impetus for that when p is high,
then the harmonics will be at higher
frequencies because frequencies of
harmonics are related to: f = kp(f
m
), where
f
m
is the frequency of the modulating
signal.
Although the voltage THD improvement is
not significant, but the current THD will
improve greatly because the load normally
has some current filtering effect.
In any case, if a low pass filter is to be
fitted at the inverter output to improve the
voltage THD, higher harmonic frequencies
is desirable because it makes smaller filter
component.

Inverter

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Power Electronics and

Drives: Dr. Zainal Salam,

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