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Sampling and Pulse Code

Modulation
Chapter 6
Dr. Yun Q. Shi
Dept of Electrical & Computer Engineering
New Jersey Institute of Technology
shi@njit.edu
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Sampling Theorem
A Signal is said to be band-limited if
g (t), its spectrum (FT) G()
G () = 0 as | | > 2B
Sampling Theorem:
The signal can be reconstructed from its samples taken
uniformly at a rate
R > 2B.
That is, the minimum sampling frequency is
fs = 2B [Ts = 1/2B] (Ts: sampling interval)
fs: Nyguist rate for g(t)
Ts: Nyguist interval for g(t)
Ts = 1/fs
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Signal Reconstruction:
Interpolation
1. Zero-order hold circuit (LPF)
Figure 6.2 ! "Simple interpolation using
zero-order hold circuit (LPF)
Frequency response of the LPF:
(6.8)
Interpolation filter impulse response h(t):
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
.
|

\
|
=
B
c
B
T
c T H
s
s
4
sin
2
1
2
sin ) (

) ( ) ( * ) ( t g t h t g =
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Signal Reconstruction:
Interpolation
2. Ideal interpolation (sinc function)
Figure 6.3 ! "Ideal interpolation
10 . 6 .
)] 2 [ sin ) (
)] ( 2 [ sin ) (
) ( ) ( ) (
Eq
k Bt c kT g
kT t B c kT g
kT t h kT g t g
k
s
k
s s
k
s s

=
=
=

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Maximum Information Rate:
Statement
Two pieces of information per second per
Hertz bandwidth.
That is, a maximum of 2B independent pieces
of information per second can be transmitted
error-freely, over a noise-less channel of
bandwidth B Hz.
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Maximum Information Rate:
Justification
Noise free
A channel of bandwidth B Hz can transmit a signal
of bandwidth B Hz error-freely.
Sampling Theorem:
A signal of bandwidth B can be reconstructed from
its Nyguist samples at a rate of 2B Hz.
The signal can be reconstructed by 2B independent
pieces of information per second (lower bound).
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Pulse Modulation
PAM Pulse Amplitude Modulation
PWM Pulse Width Modulation
PPM Pulse Position Modulation
PCM Pulse Code Modulation
By far, the most popular among
pulse modulation.
Figure 6.8 shown next
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Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM)
One advantage of using pulse modulation:
It permits the simultaneous transmission of
several signals on a time-sharing basis.
Interweaving several signals along time
domain.
Figure 6.9
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Quantization:
Discretization of magnitude of a signal
Input-output characteristic of a uniform
midtread quantizer (Figure 2.4, Shi & Sun)
Input-output characteristic of a uniform midrise
quantizer (Figure 2.5, Shi & Sun, 1999)
Y
i
= Q(x) if x belongs to (d
i
, d
i+1
)
d
i
: decision levels
i : index of intervals
y
i
: reconstruction level (quantizing level)
: step size
=
+ i i
d d
1
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Quantization
1. Except for possibly the right-most and left-
most intervals, all intervals (hence, decision
levels) along the x-axis are uniformly spaced
(same interval length).
2. Except for possibly the outer intervals, the
reconstruction levels are also uniformly
spaced. Each inner reconstruction level is the
arithmetic average of the two decision levels
of the corresponding interval along x-axis.
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Quantization Distortion
Quant. noise, quant. error,
Mean-square quant. error
N: number of intervals
f
x
(x): pdf
.
q
e
) (x Q x e
q
=

=
+
=
N
i
d
d
x q
i
i
dx x f x Q x MSE
1
2
1
) ( )) ( (
( )
2
2
: ) (
q
e x Q x
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Quantization Distortion
Assume that f
x
(x) is uniformly distributed
Variance of input x:

q
d
d
q
MSE
dx
N
x Q x N MSE
i
12
1
)) ( (
2
2
2
2
q q
MSE =
( )
12
2
2

=
N
x

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Quantization Distortion
Signal-to-noise ratio, SNR
ms
If
then
2
10
2
2
10
log 10 log 10 N SNR
q
x
ms
= =

n
N 2 =
ndb n SNR
n
ms
02 . 6 2 log 20 2 log 20
10 10
= = =
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Quantization Distortion
Meaning:
If we use the Natural Binary Code to code the
reconstruction levels of a uniform quantizer with a
uniformly distributed input source, then every
increased bit in the coding brings out a 6.02 dB
increase in the SNR
ms
.
That is, whenever the step size of the uniform
quantizer decreases by a half, the decreases
four times.
q
MSE
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Transmission Bandwidth
Consider
a binary PCM, (uniform quantization + NBC),
There are N quantization levels, N = 2
n
.
Using n binary digits (bits) to encode each quant.
level.
A signal m(t): band-limited to B Hz requiring a
minimum of 2B samples per second.
a total of 2n B bits/sec (bps)

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Transmission Bandwidth
Because:
A unit bandwidth (1 Hz) can transmit a maximum of two
pieces of information per second,
Need a minimum channel bandwidth B
T
Hz.
Hz
Theoretical minimum transmission channel bandwidth
required to transmit the PCM signal.
Example 6.2
nB B
T
=