Materials Express

Copyright 2011 by American Scientic Publishers All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America

2158-5849/2011/1/010/008
doi:10.1166/mex.2011.1002

www.aspbs.com/mex

Two-Dimensional Crystals: Beyond Graphene

A. H. Castro Neto1
1 2

and K. Novoselov2

Graphene Research Centre, National University of Singapore, 2 Science Drive 3, Singapore 117542 School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PL, UK

7. Atomically Thin, Transparent, Tunable FETs . . . . . . . . . . . .

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8. Economic Payoff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Human progress and development has always been Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 marked by breakthroughs in the control of mateReferences and Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 rials. Since pre-historic times, through the stone, bronze, and iron ages, humans have exploited their environment for materials that can be either used 1. MATERIALS SCIENCE GOES 2D directly or can be modied for their benet, to make Smart advanced materials that are exible (for transpartheir life more comfortable, productive, or to give ent wearable electronics), adaptable (that change structure them military advantage. One age replaces another depending on exterior conditions), multifunctional (that when the material that is the basis for its sustainDelivered by Ingenta tuned by application of electric elds, magnetic can be to: ability runs its course and is replaced by another Guest User pressure, and strain), and at the same time green elds, material which presents more qualities. Multi-tasking, IP : 210.212.120.60not waste energy, are low power consuming, and (that do speed, versatility, and exibility are at the heart of Tue, class of 2011 05:53:36friendly), are the ultimate dreams of material 27 Dec ecologically modern technology. In recent years a new scientists and engineers. Such materials hold the key to materials that can fulll these needs have emerged: the next generation of devices with deep incursion into two-dimensional (2D) crystals. Graphene is probably new markets (see Fig. 1). The isolation of graphene1 and the most famous example, but there are numerother two-dimensional (2D) crystals2 in 2004 has nally ous other examples with amazing electronic and brought materials with the promise of such properties to structural properties. In this paper we look into the light. More importantly, the recent breakthrough in their possible routes for exploration of this new eld that industrial scale fabrication3 is paving the way towards a presents new venues in basic science as well as in new era in the microelectronic industry.4 A shift in such applications. a key economic sector can provide unprecedented opporKeywords: Graphene, Two-Dimensional Crystals, tunities in transforming the high tech industry. This is Electronic Properties. a strategic area that any economically developed country cannot shy away from including in its high technology portfolio given its potential impact in several fundamental areas: energy, defense, communications, electronics, artiCONTENTS cial intelligence and information technology. The development of a large family of advanced materials, which do not 1. Materials Science Goes 2D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 exist in nature (and certainly are not yet available on the 2. Growing, Nurturing, and Taming 2D Crystals . . . . . . . . . . . 12 3. Finding Our Way Around in the High Tech Jungle . . . . . . . . 13 market), with functionalities that can have a real economic 4. Ultra-Strong Nano-Composite Materials with Controlled impact is key for future technologies. Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Progress in 2D crystal growth will create a new 5. Electro-Mechanical Devices for Ultra-Fast Electronics . . . . . . 14 paradigm of materials on demand by rst identifying 6. Novel Photovoltaics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 and then constructing the key building blocks of multifunctionality. There are three key strategies in this eld, Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed. namely, S1: growth; S2: functionalization; and S3: multiEmails: phycastr@nus.edu.sg; konstantin.novoselov@manchester.ac.uk stacking (see Fig. 2). The preparation of the elementary On leave from Boston University, USA.

Perspective

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Two-Dimensional Crystals: Beyond Graphene

Neto and Novoselov

Materials Express
future applications. Furthermore, each one of these strategies will generate different materials with different cost and commercial value, leading to a rich environment for basic science and applications. Technological progress is determined, to a great extent, by the developments in material science. The most surprising breakthroughs are attained when a new type of material or new combinations of old materials, with reduced dimensionality and functionality, is created. Well known examples are, for instance, the transition from three-dimensional (3D) semiconductors based on Ge and Si to heterostructures that are, nowadays, the leading platform for the microelectronic industry. Other examples are quantum wells formed at GaAs/AlGaAs semiconductor interfaces for high electron mobility transistors (HEMT),5 magnetic thin lm multilayers for magnetic hard disc read heads6 and solar cells made out of 2D organic light emitting diodes (OLED).7 The ultimate goal of modern materials science is the development of materials on demand for novel complex architectures and structures with precisely tailored properties for emerging technological applications. It seems clear that graphene is going to play an important role in a series of technological applications, from transparent conducting electrodes to high speed electronics. The major reason why it took only 6 years for the transition from the laboratory bench-top to the industrial

Fig. 1.

Some of the multiple applications of 2D crystals.

blocks (various 2D crystals), their modication (by chemistry, mechanical means, etc.) and subsequent combination to create materials with predened properties can generate a library of materials that will allow for combinatorial material production (in analogy to combinatorial chemistry). The large variety of starting blocks, modication methods, and combination options guarantees not only a huge range of materials possible, but also their multi-functionality, which will be of crucial importance for

Perspective

Delivered by Ingenta to: Guest User IP : 210.212.120.60 in Physics in 1994 from University of Illinois Antonio H. Castro Neto received his Ph.D. Tue, 27 Dec 2011 one year at Urbana-Champaign. For the next 05:53:36he was a postdoctoral fellow at the Institute
for Theoretical Physics at the University of California at Santa Barbara. In 1995 he became Assistant Professor at University of California at Riverside. In 2000 he moved to Boston University as Professor of Physics where he is currently the director of the Quantum Condensed Matter Theory Visitors Program. In 2003, Professor Castro Neto was elected a fellow of the American Physical Society. He was Divisional Associate Editor for the Physical Review Letters, and is the Editor for Reviews of Modern Physics Colloquia, and co-editor for EPL (Europhysics Letters). He was awarded the 11th Ross J. Martin by the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, the University of California Regent Fellowship, the Alfred P. Sloan Research Fellowship, and the Miller Professorship by the University of California at Berkeley. Professor Castro Neto has authored more than 180 papers and given hundreds of seminars worldwide. His research has spanned a broad range of topics in condensed matter theory ranging from electronic transport in DNA and decoherence in open quantum systems, to superconductivity and quantum magnetism in cuprates and heavy-fermion alloys. More recently, Prof. Castro Neto has been one of the leading theorists in the study of graphene, a two-dimensional allotrope of carbon, who is being considered by many as the next generation material for micro-electronics. Konstantin Novoselov received his masters degree from the Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology, and Ph.D. from the University of Nijmegen, the Netherlands. In 2001 he moved to the University of Manchester, UK with his doctoral advisor Prof. Andre Geim. Novoselov has published more than 60 peer-reviewed research papers on topics like mesoscopic superconductivity (Hall magnetometry), sub-atomic movements of magnetic domain walls, the invention of gecko tape, and graphene. Dr. Novoselov is a recipient of Europhysics Prize (2008) for isolating a single free-standing atomic layer of carbon (graphene) and Knights Commander of the Order of the Netherlands Lion (2010), besides Nobel Prize in Physics (2010) jointly with Andre Geim, for groundbreaking discovery of graphene and elucidating its remarkable electronic properties.
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Materials Express

Two-Dimensional Crystals: Beyond Graphene

Neto and Novoselov

Fig. 2. Key strategies for the eld of 2D crystals: S1: Growth, S2: functionalization, and S3: combinatorial multi-stacking. The various outcomes appear at the bottom of each process.

Perspective

production and realistic applications is because graphene used to produce the rst prototypes of graphene-based touch-screens. It is conceivable to extend this process to offers really unique properties of which the most striking form layered structures such that one can transfer CVD is the 2D nature. Many applications, already in place, have grown graphene sheets to other atomically thin lms supbeen waiting for a material like this for years. Hence, when ported on exible, transparent polymer substrate. graphene became available, a whole community of scien-by Ingenta to: Delivered The tists and technologists reacted immediately. The same can User electronic and structural properties of these raw 2D Guest crystals can be modied by methods such as chemical be said about other 2D crystals: when they become: availIP 210.212.120.60 functionalization,9 and strain engineering10 in order to creable, they will open doors for a plethora ofTue, 27 Dec 2011 05:53:36 possibilities. ate articial 2D materials with new functionalities. Each one of these methods has its pros and cons. Chemical func2. GROWING, NURTURING, AND TAMING tionalization has the advantage that one has a direct effect 2D CRYSTALS on the properties of carbon. However, this method usually introduces disorder in the system that can be detrimental With the fast developments in materials science in the to the electronic properties. Strain engineering does not last few years, it is possible to create various raw twointroduce disorder but it is harder to control given that one dimensional (2D) crystals by micro-mechanical (or chemhas to nd ways to stretch, strain, or shear 2D materials ical) exfoliation and/or articial growth by chemical in a controllable way. vapor deposition (CVD) and molecular beam epitaxy In the case of graphene, for instance, chemical sub(MBE). Moreover, there are methods for the high vacuum stitution of C by B or N can lead to a semimetal plasma beam deposition of crystals at low temperature (graphene)11 to semiconductor (BN)12 transition, opening (<650 C), which is compatible with the MBE deposidoors for band gap engineering of the material. Moreover, tion system (examples are graphene, h-BN, boron carbonihydrogenation13 and uorination14 can be used for chemitride, BCN, on nickel-coated substrate using borazine or cal modication of various 2D materials. Depending on the borazine/methane as the chemical precursor8 ). application one can use either single-sided or double-sided Equally important for the manufacturing of 2D crysfunctionalization. Some processes (like hydrogenation, for tals as a bulk commodity is the establishment of large instance) can be done on CVD or MBE grown materials scale transfer facilities, e.g., transfer on thin glass sheets directly in a growth chamber. For example, it has been and (transparent) exible polymer substrates. It is possidemonstrated that a plasma beam deposition can be used ble to set-up CVD furnaces for producing large sheets for preparing monolayer graphene using graphane (i.e., (>30" sheets) of 2D crystals on catalyst foils such as Cu hydrogenated graphene13 ) as an intermediate compound.15 and Ni and a basic research type roll-to-roll transfer facilThe two-dimensional sheet-like nature of graphene is ity which allows to transfer such large sheets of 2D crysinherently compatible with organic composites because its tals from the metal substrate to a exible substrate for large aromatic framework allows cooperative interactions scale applications.3 4 This approach has been successfully with conjugated polymers. In addition, the work function
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Two-Dimensional Crystals: Beyond Graphene

Neto and Novoselov

Materials Express
materials by controlled multi-stacking of 2D platforms, either raw or functionalized. Depending on the application one can use one of the following methods: (i) making ceramics from suspension of two or more 2D materials; (ii) direct CVD growth of monolayers of various materials on top of each other; (iii) layer-by-layer transfer of grown 2D crystals to form sandwich structure.

In terms of realistic applications, this type of approach has clear strategic advantages since one can use different starting points for different strategies (see Fig. 2). For example, certain strategies are well-known and have been already applied to a certain class of materials, as is the Fig. 3. Stretching graphene on top of a soft substrate using an AFM. case of the growth of graphene by sublimation of SiC26 or CVD on metal surfaces. In such cases, material sciof graphene (4.5 eV) enables ohmic hole injection into entists and engineers are able to use these strategies and most organic materials with comparable HOMO energy 16 explore their commercialization from the very beginning. levels. P-N junction type material may be developed Each strategy will produce its own portfolio of products. from graphene-organic hybrids. Extending from a host of Moreover, it will be possible to apply similar strategies desirable electrical properties, the universal absorbance of 17 to new materials (say, creation of sandwiches of graphene graphene improves the broadband absorption properties with BN to achieve higher electronic mobility). Theorists of polymer composite lm used as optical elements in 18 19 can predict the possible outcomes of a strategy and pass it When graphene is combined with organic optolasers. later to experimental physicists and chemists for developelectronic materials, it can give rise to enhanced non-linear ment. Such approach, unlike many others, guarantees the optical limiting properties due to photo-induced charge smooth transfer. Moreover, using graphene as a scaffold and chem-by Ingentaacquisition of knowledge, and the continuous proDelivered to: duction of materials and devices (unlike other approaches, ically compatibility, one can use self-assembly of conduct- User Guest which result, if ever, in a commercially valuable technoling polymers20 to create new soft crystal structures:at the IP 210.212.120.60 ogy only at the nanoscale with new functionalities. Tue, 27 Dec 2011 05:53:36 very end of the process). Using these strategies, one can create articial materiMetal-insulator transitions can be obtained by uniaxals with multiple functionalities that will allow their use ial strain in graphene along the correct crystallographic in novel multi-tasking (mechanical, optical and electronic) direction21 for strains elds in the excess of 20% (albeit applications, as, for instance, smart composites and coattoo close to the structural instability of the graphene sheet). ings for exible electronic and photovoltaics or photonic On the other hand, local uniaxial strain can produce transdevices for integrated optoelectronic circuits. Among those port gaps at much smaller values of strain, opening doors materials that can have deep incursion in modern technolfor new concepts in device development which are not ogy we highlight: based on a homogenous change of the structure but the (1) Smart ultra-strong nano-composite materials with creation of internal interfaces in the material.10 controlled properties; Three major methods can be used for strain engineering: (2) Electro-mechanical devices for ultra-fast electronics; global strain can be produced either by placing graphene (3) Materials with predetermined band-gap and work on stretchable substrate and stretching;22 it is possible to functions for the next generation photovoltaic (solar-cells) explore the lattice mismatch between different 2D crystals to create expanded/contracted lattices in sandwiched applications; structures;23 in order to produce local strain24 one can use (4) Atomically thin transparent gate tunable conducting graphene on soft substrate and AFM lithography to strain electrodes and eld effect transistors. the material locally (see Fig. 3). In this way one can creWe stress that the real advantage of the approach ate devices that are based on the unique properties of the described here is that one is able to create materials with novel 2D crystals such as valleytronics applications.25 predened properties, which can perform several func-

Perspective

3. FINDING OUR WAY AROUND IN THE HIGH TECH JUNGLE

The ultimate goal of a technology based on 2D crystals should be the creation of articial three-dimensional (3D)
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tions (mechanically, electronically and optically) simultaneously. Such materials (let alone devices based on them) are not available yet. However, as more and more functionality is added to modern portable electronic, we already see a huge demand for such multi-functional, multi-task, materials.
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Materials Express
4. ULTRA-STRONG NANO-COMPOSITE MATERIALS WITH CONTROLLED PROPERTIES

Two-Dimensional Crystals: Beyond Graphene

Neto and Novoselov

Composite materials are omnipresent in technology and many existing applications rely on light weight, conductive (or insulating), and strong composites. The performance of such materials is, however, fundamentally limited by the interaction between the ller and the matrix. Hence, out of great number of possible combinations, only a few really work. Moreover, having a complex structure, such materials are subject to unpredictable failure. It has been 5. ELECTRO-MECHANICAL DEVICES FOR recently demonstrated that graphene can improve mechanULTRA-FAST ELECTRONICS ical, chemical and electrical properties of composite mateOne of the pillars of solid state physics is that the band rials dramatically. Graphene is only one atom thick yet the structure of 3D materials is set by their geometry and strongest material known to us. As it has been shown, one chemistry. Although this concept is the force behind modcan produce graphene of suitable dimensions and in large ern electronics and technology, it also has its limitations: quantities very cheaply. it is very difcult to modify and manipulate (to generate Chemical and micro-mechanical cleavage and articial a new functionality one has to create a new crystal); the growth can be used to obtain 2D crystals (graphene, BN, structure might be not stable (for instance, one can have MoS2 , etc.) to be used as llers in composite materials. electro-migration) or can be strongly modied by external, Using materials, other than graphene, allows one to expand environmental, conditions (such as radiation damage); the the functionality of such composites. One can make them same chemistry that is used to achieve the desired elecoptically active in various parts of the optical spectra by tronic structure (for instance, by doping) might cause detriusing chemically modied graphene or materials with varmental effects on other parameters (such as the decrease of ious band gaps. By creating semiconductor-metal and/or the mobility due to scattering by dopants). In contrast, 2D semiconductor-semimetal interfaces, either in the form of Delivered materials open a new venue for engineering of the elecdispersed hetero-junctions or layered junctions, efcientby Ingenta to: Guest tronic light collection and charge transfer across the interface can User properties. It has been demonstrated, theoretically IP : The and experimentally, that the electronic structure of 2D be achievedgiving rise to the photovoltaic effect.210.212.120.60 Tue, 27strong 2011 05:53:36be considerably modied by strain, shear, and material can applications of such materials include structurally Dec bending. Moreover, one achieves much better control on plastics for construction engineering, which have particular those parameters in 2D as compared to 3D systems. This optical characteristics (color, certain optical transparency is a completely new, powerful paradigm which never (or window, polarizing effects, photovoltaic properties, etc.). only very limited) has been explored before: strong modiSuch composite materials or coatings can be conductive cation of the electronic structure by strain engineering.10 or insulating or ever have transistor properties (conducIt has been shown theoretically that uniaxial and biaxial tivity and optical properties depends on environment, like strain, applied along different crystallographic directions, external gating, presence of certain gases, humidity, pH, can tune reversibly graphene from metallic to insulatillumination, etc.). ing and can change the optical properties of graphene. It has also been shown that graphenes Raman spectrum More complicated strain patterns can also be used to prois extremely sensitive to applied strain and that strain transduce gaps at smaller strain levels.27 Recent experiments fer between the matrix and the graphene is very efcient.21 of graphene grown on Platinum have shown that graphene Hence it would be possible to create composite materials nanobubbles that are under compressive strain can support where accumulated stress could be monitored by contactsemiconducting behavior with electronic gaps of the order less, non-invasive, optical methods. Such techniques can of a fraction of an electron volt.23 Given that there is a onebe of crucial importance in certain areas of engineerto-one correspondence between structure and electronics, ing where catastrophic material failure is a major issue computer modeling of these properties can play a fundaand where permanent monitoring of the performance of mental role in the development of new, strain engineered a material is crucial (avionics, electrical grids, medicine, materials for electronics applications. etc.). Band structure is also strongly inuenced by stackSurface functionalization can be used to ne-tune the ing. A well-known example is graphite, depending on the interaction between the ller and the matrix. For instance, stacking order (Bernal versus rhombohedral versus hexagit has been shown that hydrophobic graphene can be onal versus turbostratic) its electronic properties can be turned hydrophilic by hydrogenation.13 It is possible to rather different.28 The modication of the electronic band apply similar strategies to other 2D materials to produce high-performance composites with a wide range of structure of twisted bilayer graphene29 is clearly reected
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functionalities. It is well accepted that carbon-based llers improve the performance of many composite materials dramatically. However, only a small fraction of possible matrices can bound effectively to carbon bers, nanotubes and graphene, thus limiting the number of possible applications. By functionalizing graphene and other 2D crystals (which is possible without sacricing their performance) one can make them work with a much wider range of matrices, increasing the range of their applicability.

Perspective

Mater. Express, Vol. 1, 2011

Two-Dimensional Crystals: Beyond Graphene

Neto and Novoselov

Materials Express

in its Raman spectrum through an electronphonon cougraphene (the total efciency is low). However, efcient pling and its optical conductivity.30 Furthermore, intercalasolar-cells devices can be produced if graphene operates tion of layers of different atoms can change completely the with other 2D materials. electronic states. For instance, graphite intercalated with An example of such hybrid system would be network alkali metals become superconducting.31 By introducing (periodic array) of p-n junctions in monolayers of 2D different 2D materials, with different properties, into a 3D materials in planar geometry. This would induce the whole matrix, one is able to modify the nal electronic properties. surface to participate in light-to-current conversion. One A completely new eld of exploration is the study of can use either substitution doping during growth (for multi-stacked materials under strain. Given that the elastic instance, B- and N-doping for C) or adatoms to create such properties of the 2D layers can be rather different because a net of p-n junctions. In order to increase the efciency, of the atomic bonding (say, graphene in comparison to multi-stacked materials can be used. BN), the nal elastic properties of the 3D super-structure Another parallel strategy would be to separate electron can be engineered as well. The electronic properties of and hole pairs into the neighboring layers of multi-layer such engineered 3D structures will also be affected by structures. This can be achieved either by applying the strain leading to new possibilities in terms of electronic external electric eld or by selective doping of the two layfunctionalities. Theoretically, this can be studied by comers (one n-type, another p-type). Selective doping can be puter modeling in 3D super-cells geometries. implemented either during growth by substitutional doping Here we would like to make an analogy with the or by doping with adatoms. Besides obvious applications celebrated spintronics.32 Devices which deal with spin, like solar cells,35 one could use such devices as position rather than charge, are extremely successful and allow sensitive photodetectors, photo-voltage generating matrifor novel modes of operation. However, the choice of ces with pixels which are controlled by a gate. These matematerials is very limited to ferromagnets. Strain engineerrials can be used in applications which allow and require ing in 2D materials on the other hand, would allow for combination of transparent electrodes and light harvesting. valleytronicswhere devices operate with valley degree It has been shown that strain generates an electrostatic of freedom of quasiparticles, rather than spin or charge. potential,36 which leads to the formation of local p-n juncBecause of large choice of materials available and a postions. One can use this concept to create an array of p-n sibility for very precise control of strain, such devicesby Ingenta to: junctions. This is a novel strategy would allow to use Delivered could be much more versatile and allow for much more User one material to form p-n junctions. We expect it to Guest only advanced, complex electronic architecture. be much IP : 210.212.120.60 more stable than conventional organic solar-cells In order to build such systems one can use CVD meth- 2011 05:53:36 Tue, 27 Dec which traditionally use interfaces between different mateods to grow novel 2D materials which can have interesting rials. Also, the conversion level will depend on the strain electronics (for instance, Heusler alloys based on Ti). One level, which might be used as new generation active phocan also grow multi-stacked materials (like graphene-BNtovoltaic strain gauges. graphene) for high-performance transistor applications. Stacks of various 2D crystals (either the same materiMobility in free-standing graphene or graphene on inert als with different doping or completely different materials) substrates can be as high as 106 cm2 /Vs, which is very can be used to form multi-layers. One can use layers of promising for high-frequency transistor applications.33 insulating material (such as BN) to separate the conductive By arranging different 2D materials into stacks one layers for more efcient electronhole separation (to create would be able to achieve new, composite, materials with weak tunneling barriers). One of the advantages of such novel electronic, mechanical and optical properties. We materials is the atomically sharp interfaces, which would would like to stress that such materials could be designed allow one to reduce scattering and improve the quantum to be multifunctional, performing several tasks simultaneyield of such devices. ously (like harvesting light to feed electronic circuits made from the same material, for instance). The typical mecha7. ATOMICALLY THIN, TRANSPARENT, nisms for the modication of the electronic bands in such TUNABLE FETs stacks are based on changing the symmetry of the structure and opening gaps in the electronic spectrum. It has been demonstrated that graphene absorbs only 2.3%

Perspective

6. NOVEL PHOTOVOLTAICS
It has been demonstrated that, due to long mean-free path and high Fermi velocity, graphene can serve as an excellent light-to-current converter with quantum efciency reaching close to 100%.34 Its use for solar-cells applications is however limited, due to the low absorption of
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of light in a wide range of visible spectra.17 This number is even lower for chemically modied graphene and for some other 2D materials. Combined with the excellent conductivity properties, these materials are extremely promising for transparent conductive coating applications. One can use local chemical modication to dene conductive and non-conductive areas to create atomically thin lm transistors. Another approach can be based on the
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Two-Dimensional Crystals: Beyond Graphene

Neto and Novoselov

combination of graphene with other 2D sheets such as BN. cost, multi-functionality, and new markets. We believe that The importance of BN as a substrate and gate dielectric for 2D material systems will rst be viable for niche applicagraphene based FETs has been recently demonstrated.31 tions and from there slowly nd their way to mass market The atness of BN as well as its chemically inert nature consumer electronics applications and beyond. Here the leads to an at least one order of magnitude increase in key to new functionalities will be their mechanical and carrier mobility. optical properties, which in contrast to electronic properThe ability to realize crystalline BN/graphene layer ties have not even remotely competing alternatives in existheterostructures is also of great interest for the estabing semiconducting materials such as Si or for that matter lishment of graphene as an efcient transparent conductITO. We have already discussed earlier the potential of ing electrode material (such as indium tin oxide, ITO), composite materials. since the sheet resistance of graphene will be signiAnother example of immediate economic impact will be cantly reduced when transferred on h-BN-coated glass. the replacement of ITO. For this it is worthwhile to look This approach can be important for a whole range of transat the steep increase in ITO price from US$ 60100 per kg parent electrode application including the incorporation of only a few years back to now well beyond US$ graphene/BN/glass into solar cell platforms for enhanced 1,000 per kg. Even without its mechanical properties, power conversion efciency. The target is to attain power graphene is a low cost alternative which is highly desirable conversion efciency that will be competitive with that of and will transform the transparent electrode material marITO-based solar devices. h-BN can also be a chemically ket in the very near future. If we add to this the expected tunable platform in terms of its stoichiometry, thus lendexplosion in demand for exible electronics we have a ing itself to band gap engineering where the incorporation text-book-case where a new material leads to a completely of carbon in the BN matrix can form the hybrid BCN new market. Equally important, this material will play a with reduced band gap. Graphene/BN or graphene/BCN key role in a whole range of other applications. heterostructure interfaces can be exploited for interfacial Similar considerations hold for each strategy discussed charge segregation, trapping and light emission. here and will lead to a product that can be commercialTwo types of approaches can be used to create ized. Furthermore, since each strategy is independent from transparent conductive coating: chemical exfoliation and each other one is guaranteed to have products as soon as epitaxial growth of graphene and other conductive materi-by Ingenta to: the production starts. The key point is that, as the degree Delivered als. Chemical exfoliation method is rather well developed User Guest of sophistication in material preparation increases and one and can be used for applications straight away. IP : 210.212.120.60 in complexity, so does the risk and the payoff. The same moves up method can be used in other conducting layered27 Dec 2011 05:53:36 crystals can be readily produced, chemiTue, materi- While raw 2D als. In this way it is possible to develop an infrastructure cal functionalization, especially with stoichiometric preciwhich would allow for large-area production of graphene, sion, depends on delicate balances of energy. Moreover, doped graphene and other materials. strain engineering is a eld that, while already proven Uniaxial strain breaks the symmetry of the lattice and to work experimentally, it is still in its infancy. Finally, produces rotation of the planes of polarization.37 This multi-stacking of functionalized materials was never tested effect is enhanced in an applied magnetic eld. Applicabefore (multi-stacking of raw 2D crystals has already been tion of strain will thus allow for the production of tunable done to a certain extent, but this is also a new eld). Thus, polarizers in a broad band of optical frequencies. By multhe whole eld of 2D crystals is an open territory (or tistacking such crystals one would be able to obtain matea dense jungle, depending on your point of view). Pararials where optical properties are dependent on mechanical phrasing Isaac Newton we can say that we are still in the strain and stress and which can be used for a number of infancy of this eld of 2D crystals and diverting ourselves photonics applications. with graphene, a material that looks more interesting than One can use chemical modication to dene conducordinary, whilst a great eld of 2D crystals lay all undistive and non-conductive areas for our atomically thin lm covered before us. transistors. In this way one can prepare the basic elements to create active displays which would be able to perform Acknowledgments: We would like to thank Andre a number of tasks (for instance, combining LCD display Geim and our colleagues at NUS, especially Yuan Ping with touch screens and some basic logic devices). Feng, Kian Ping Loh, Barbaros zyilmaz, Vitor Pereira, and Andrew Wee, for many enlightening discussions.

Perspective

8. ECONOMIC PAYOFF
While a direct challenge to the existing technology is unrealistic, three key considerations are likely to pave the way for a gradual introduction of graphene and other 2D crystals as a material of choice for future device applications:
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References and Notes

1. K. S. Novoselov, A. K. Geim, S. V. Morozov, D. Jiang, Y. Zhang, S. V. Dubonos, I. V. Grigorieva, and A. A. Firsov, Science 306, 666 (2004).

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Two-Dimensional Crystals: Beyond Graphene

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Materials Express

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Perspective

Received: 17 February 2011. Accepted: 25 February 2011.

Mater. Express, Vol. 1, 2011

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