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Appendix D Supersonic Air-Intake


D.1 Compression Characteristics of Diffusers D.1.1 Principles of a Diffuser

Air-intakes are important components of aero-propulsion engines such as turbojet, ramjet, and ducted rocket engines. The airflow velocity induced into the engines through air-intakes is converted as effectively as possible into static pressure in order to obtain a high momentum change. Diffusers are the main components of these air-intakes. The physical shape of the diffuser is fundamentally the same as that of a nozzle composed of convergent and/or divergent sections. The fundamental design principle of air-intakes is based on the aerodynamics of a shock wave.[16] When a subsonic airflow is induced into a divergent nozzle, the flow velocity is reduced and the static pressure is increased. As shown in Fig. D-1, the air-intake used for a subsonic flow is composed of a subsonic diffuser, i. e., a divergent nozzle. On the other hand, when the airflow is supersonic, the airflow velocity is reduced and the static pressure is increased in the convergent part of a supersonic diffuser. After passing through the throat of the nozzle, the airflow velocity increases and the static pressure increases once more in the divergent part. A normal shock wave is formed downstream of the divergent part; the flow velocity is suddenly decreased and the pressure is increased. The supersonic air-intake is composed of a convergent-divergent nozzle. It must be noted that a normal shock wave is not formed in the convergent nozzle because such a shock wave would be unstable therein. Fig. D-2 shows the shock-wave formation at a supersonic diffuser composed of a divergent nozzle. Three types of shock wave are formed at three different back-pressures downstream of the diffuser. When the back-pressure is higher than the design pressure, a normal shock wave is set up in front of the divergent nozzle and the flow velocity becomes a subsonic flow, as shown in Fig. D-2 (a). Since the streamline bends outwards downstream of the shock wave, some air is spilled over from the air-intake. The cross-sectional area upstream of the duct becomes smaller than the cross-sectional area of the air-intake, and so the efficiency of the diffuser is reduced. The subsonic flow velocity is further reduced and the pressure is increased in the divergent part of the diffuser.
Propellants and Explosives. Naminosuke Kubota Copyright 2007 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim ISBN: 978-3-527-31424-9

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Appendix D Supersonic Air-Intake


Figure D-1. Pressure and flow velocity in a subsonic diffuser and a supersonic diffuser.

Figure D-2. Normal shock-wave formation of a supersonic diffuser at different back-pressures: (a) high back-pressure, (b) optimum backpressure, and (c) low back-pressure.

D.1 Compression Characteristics of Diffusers

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When the back-pressure in the diffuser is optimized, a normal shock wave is set up at the lip of the diffuser and the pressure behind the shock wave is increased. No air spill-over occurs at the lip of the diffuser and the airflow velocity is as shown in Fig. D-2 (b). The pressure in the diffuser increases and the airflow velocity decreases along the flow direction. When the back-pressure is lower than the design pressure, a normal shock wave is swallowed inside of the diffuser, as shown in Fig. D-2 (c). Since the flow velocity in front of the normal shock wave in the diffuser is increased along the flow direction, the strength of the normal shock wave inside of the diffuser becomes higher than that in the case of the diffuser at the optimized back-pressure shown in Fig. D-2 (b). Thus, the pressure behind the shock wave is lowered due to the increased entropy.
D.1.2 Pressure Recovery

When a convergent-divergent nozzle is used in a ducted rocket, the convergent part reduces the flow velocity from supersonic flow to sonic flow at the nozzle throat and then the divergent part increases it once more from sonic flow to supersonic flow. When the supersonic flow in the divergent part generates a normal shock wave, the airflow becomes subsonic and the pressure increases. When a supersonic flow is reduced to a subsonic flow through isentropic compression, the pressure and the enthalpy of the airflow are increased from pa to p0a and from ha to h0a, respectively, as shown in Fig. D-3. However, when the supersonic flow is reduced to a subsonic flow by shock-wave compression, the pressure and the enthalpy are increased from pa to p02 and from ha to h02, respectively. Though the enthalpy increase is the same for both compressions, i. e., h0a = h02, the pressure increase by the shock wave is less than that of the isentropic compression, i. e., p02 p0a. The total pressure of p02/p0 a is represented by p02/p0a = (p02/pa)(pa/p0a) (D.1)

Figure D-3. Pressure recovery with isentropic and non-isentropic changes.

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Appendix D Supersonic Air-Intake

and p0a/pa is represented by p0a/pa = {1 + ( 1)M2/2}/(1) The recovery factor, p, is defined by p = p02/p0a (D.3) (D.2)

Substituting Eqs. (D.1) and (D.2) into Eq. (D.3), one obtains the pressure recovery factor as p = {1 + ( 1)M2/2}/(1) (p02/pa) (D.4)

If the flow process is an isentropic change, the total pressure p0 a remains unchanged throughout the nozzle flow. However, the process of the generation of a shock wave in the divergent part increases the entropy and the total pressure becomes p02. It is evident that the inlet performance increases as p02 approaches poa. When the compression process in the diffuser involves heat loss, the total enthalpy decreases from h0a to h02. The enthalpy recovery factor, d, is defined as d = (h02 ha)/(h0a ha) (D.5)

The specific heat ratio of the air, , is considered to remain unchanged during the compression process in the diffuser, d = (T02 Ta)/(T0a Ta) (D.6)

and the pressure and temperature changes during the compression process are given by T02/Ta = (p02/pa)(1)/ The temperature ratio of T0a/Ta is given by T0a/Ta = 1 + ( 1)M2/2 (D.8) (D.7)

Substituting Eqs. (D.7) and (D.8) into Eq. (D.6), one obtains the enthalpy recovery factor as d = {(p02/pa)(1)/ 1}/( 1)M2/2 (D.9)

The results of the analysis indicate that the pressure recovery factor is increased by the combination of several oblique shock waves and one weak normal shock wave in order to minimize the entropy increase at the air-intake.

D.2 Air-Intake System


Figure D-4. Compression by the formation of three oblique shock waves with three ramps.

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D.2 Air-Intake System D.2.1 External Compression System

An external compression system used as a supersonic air-intake forms several oblique shock waves at its exterior and one normal shock wave at its lip. As a result of the formation of these oblique shock waves, the increase in entropy is reduced. For example, an oblique shock wave formed by the first ramp with an angle of 15, as shown in Fig. D-4, decreases the Mach number from M1 = 3.5 to M2 = 2.59, and the stagnation pressure ratio of p02/p01 becomes 0.848. The second ramp with an angle of 15 decreases the Mach number from M2 = 2.59 to M3 = 1.93, and the stagnation pressure ratio of p03/p02 is 0.932. The third ramp with an angle of 15 decreases the Mach number from M3 = 1.93 to M4 = 0.59, and p04/p03 = 0.754. The total stagnation pressure ratio between regions 1 and 4 is then obtained as: p04/p01 = (p02/p01)(p03/p02)(p04/p03) = 0.596 If the compression stems from one normal shock wave, M4 = 0.45, p04/p01 = 0.213, p4/p1 = 14.13, and T4/T1 = 3.32. It is evident that the pressure recovery factor obtained by the combination of oblique shock waves is significantly higher than that obtained by one normal shock wave.
D.2.2 Internal Compression System

An internal compression system forms several oblique shock waves and one normal shock wave inside the duct of the air-intake. The first oblique shock wave is formed at the lip of the air-intake and the following oblique shock waves are formed further downstream; the normal shock wave renders the flow velocity subsonic, as shown in the case of the supersonic diffuser in Fig. D-1. The pressure recovery factor and the changes in Mach number, pressure ratio, and temperature ratio are the same as in the case of the external compression system. Either external or internal air-intake systems are chosen for use in ramjets and

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Appendix D Supersonic Air-Intake

ducted rockets, or combined systems are used to maximize the pressure recovery factor.
D.2.3 Air-Intake Design

Fig. D-5 shows an external compression air-intake designed for optimized use at Mach number 2.0. Fig. D-6 shows a set of computed airflows of an external compression air-intake designed for use at Mach number 2.0: (a) critical flow, (b) subcritical flow, and (c) supercritical flow. The pressures at the bottom wall and the upper wall along the duct flow are also shown. Two oblique shock waves formed at two ramps are seen at the tip of the upper surface of the duct at the critical flow shown in Fig. D-6 (a). The reflected oblique shock wave forms a normal shock wave at the bottom wall of the throat of the internal duct. The pressure becomes 0.65 MPa, which is the designed pressure. In the case of the subcritical flow shown in Fig. D-6 (b), the shock-wave angle is increased and the pressure downstream of the duct becomes 0.54 MPa. However, some of the airflow behind the oblique shock wave is spilled over towards the external airflow. Thus, the total airflow rate becomes 68 % of the designed airflow rate. In the case of the supercritical flow shown in Fig. D-6 (c), the shock-wave angle is decreased and the pressure downstream of the duct becomes 0.15 MPa, at which the flow velocity is still supersonic. Fig. D-7 shows experimental and computed results for the pressure distribution from the tip along the bottom wall of the air-intake shown in Fig. D-5. The pressure is increased and decreased repeatedly due to the formation of three shock waves. The pressure downstream of the duct is effectively recovered from 0.1 MPa for the supersonic flow to 0.77 MPa for the subsonic flow.

Figure D-5. External compression air-intake designed for use at Mach 2.0.

D.2 Air-Intake System

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Figure D-6. Comparison of experimental and theoretical airflows under three types of operational conditions for the air-intake shown in Fig. D-5: (a) critical flow, (b) subcritical flow, and (c) supercritical flow.

Figure D-7. Experimental and computed airflow data for the air-intake shown in Fig. D-5.

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Appendix D Supersonic Air-Intake

References
1 Shapiro, A. H., The Dynamics and Ther4 Zucrow, M. J., and Hoffman, J. D., Gas

modynamics of Compressible Fluid Flow, The Ronald Press Company, New York, 1953. 2 Liepman, H. W., and Roshko, A., Elements of Gas Dynamics, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1957. 3 Kuethe, A. M., and Schetzer, J. D., Foundations of Aerodynamics, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1967.

Dynamics, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1976. 5 Kubota, N., and Kuwahara, T., Ramjet Propulsion, Nikkan Kogyo Press, Tokyo, 1997. 6 Kubota, N., Foundations of Supersonic Flow, Sankaido, Tokyo, 2003.

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