The Drive to be Beautiful 1 The Drive to be Beautiful: Living in a Fitness-Crazed World Where Thin is in

In Greek mythology, Paris was called to a wedding to judge who among the three goddesses, Aphrodite, Hera, and Athena, was the fairest. But suddenly Eris, the goddess of discord, appeared and started trouble by throwing a golden apple inscribed with For the Fairest. The wedding was disrupted and a huge war later ensued, which led Paris to abduct Helen of Troy. The gods were unable to make a decision, and Paris' task was not easy. Hera offered him wealth and power, and Athena promised honor and glory, but the ultimate bribe came from Aphrodite. She promised Helen, the most beautiful woman on earth, to Paris. He eventually ended this beauty contest in favor of Aphrodite. Beauty seems to be valued much by most people. It is believed that beauty carries with it happiness and success. It is a common notion that beauty exists in things and people that are good such that the physically attractive human beings are perceived to be good both physically and on a deeper level. They are believed to possess positive traits and personality characteristics. There are two prevailing dimensions of beauty, namely: bodily beauty and inner beauty. The difference between the two is that the former involves the deep pleasurable experience of ones own body and the latter involves the persons character, spiritual quality, intelligence, and morals or values (Critique of Judgment, n.d.). Thus, bodily beauty is a visual impression while inner beauty can be defined as a persons personality as a whole. A crucial current issue is that becoming thin means having the aesthetically pleasing body. Aesthetic in the sense that some theorists have seen it as dispensable, and an obstacle to the perception of more detailed aesthetic values such as being sublime, harmonious, graceful, dainty, winsome, and elegant. The pursuit to achieve such ideal may involve eating healthy food, getting enough sleep, having a daily walk, and even those strategies which threatens the health such as skipping meals or taking diet pills which might have bad side effects. Yet these behaviors might be contradictory since eating healthy food might result to a healthy body but not being physically fit, or doing sports might result to a muscular body but not thin. This study focuses on bodily beauty specifically that of womens conceptions of it. For women, appearance is a central evaluative dimension. They are critical of their appearance maybe because the more attractive a woman can become, she is more likely desired by men. Also, women play an active role in the media industry, which endorses a type of beauty that is very difficult to achieve, thereby encouraging them to buy beauty products promoting youth and attractiveness. Furthermore, the drive to be

The Drive to be Beautiful 2 beautiful has several consequences and the failures experienced in their pursuit may cause them to engage in self damaging behaviors at the expense of health. The study also investigates the ideal body figure desired by most women. And if it is consistent with the current standards of body figure imposed by the media. Likewise, the researchers also try to find out the specific characteristics of a particular body part preferred by women. Literature Review According to Symons (1995), beauty is in the adaptations of the beholder which means that perception of what is beautiful have been moulded by millions of years of evolution. Humans growing interest with appearance is not limited to Modern Western culture. Every period of history has had its own ideals of what is deemed to be beautiful and not. And every society has its own idiosyncrasies of the ideal physical attributes (Fox, 1997). Concrete forms were seen as expressions of divine ideas during the rise of Neo-platonism in the sixteenth century. As a consequence, the body was seen as an expression of the soul which leads to a higher appreciation of beauty and a change in the ideal. As intelligence and force were divine gifts of the male body, beauty was the divine gift of the female body. And there was a transformation of what a female beauty should be from being dangerous to being divine, and from ethereal follows large and opulent beauties. During the eighteenth century this majestic type was superseded by a more slender and younger ideal for women, while the former maternal type was defamed to the status of peasant beauty. The slender early Victorian woman, slim and graceful, was followed by the voluptuous and sensual mid Victorian woman and the Edwardian woman of the late nineteenth century. Where the Victorians stressed a curvaceous hourglass figure, with a full bosom, small waist, and wide hips, the Edwardian woman was taller, weighed more, and had a larger bosom, but somewhat slimmer hips (Unknown Author, n.d.). It was also during this time that beautiful meant wearing a corset. Preference for women with the serpentine figure: slender with smaller breasts, slimmer hips, and long legs came shortly before World War I. During the 1920s, women with a boyish and youthful appearance were considered desirable. From this, the preference shifted to the sensual and voluptuous ideal in the 1930s. Since the 1960s and up to the present, the preference for thin women prevails (Unknown Author, n.d.). In our present society today, youth along with slimness is encouraged with increasing regularity as an essential gauge of beauty (Beauty and Body Image in the Media, n.d.). Evolutionary theory of beauty (Beach and Ford, 1951) posits that youth is linked with fertility. The younger a woman is, the higher is her reproductive value and thus

The Drive to be Beautiful 3 becomes more desirable. As Johnston (n.d., as cited by Lemley, 2000) puts it, Our feelings of beauty are exceptionally well tuned to the age of maximum fertility. With this, standards of beauty have become more stringent and have become harder to attain. A possible explanation for the changing ideals of women could be attributed to the changes in the roles they play in society: from mother and caretaker of the house and home, to the independent young women of the 1920s, to the active professional and disciplined women (Unknown Author, n.d.). For Sigmund Freud, the alteration of sexual attraction from the primary sexual characteristics (reproductive organs) to the secondary sexual characteristics (e.g. women's more rounded forms and breasts; men's facial hair and deeper voices) could be the root cause of fascination in bodily beauty. Robert Brain however, proposed an anthropological explanation for the human interest in beauty. For him, human beings want to set themselves apart from non-humans, so they therefore make alterations to their bodies, a feat that animals are not capable of doing. Admiration turns these alterations into marks of beauty (Unknown Author, n.d.). Bodily beauty is defined as the deeply pleasurable experience of someone else's or one's own body. It can be perceived through any of the five senses and may be involved with parts of the body, the whole body, or movements. Typically, however, beauty of the body refers to the visual impression of someone's body as a whole (Unknown Author, n.d.). In addition, our body image is the mental picture we have of our physical bodies; it is shaped by how we think and feel about our bodies. Unfortunately, our pictures, thoughts and feelings may have little to do with our actual appearance as it may be altered by our image of what they should be (Brown, n.d.). Questions have been raised about the origin of our perception of beauty. Many argue that beauty is a psychological mechanism; others say that it is learned as a result of cultural transmission and ones exposure to varied social forces like the media (Mens Long-tern Mating Strategies, n.d.). A study conducted by Judith Langlois and her colleagues (Langlois, Roggman, & Reiser-Danner, 1990 as cited in Mens Long-term Mating Strategies, n.d.) showed that our standards of attractiveness are innate and not just a byproduct of environmental factors. For something to be ideal, it must be desired by many and held at a high esteem. As a society we recognize something as ideal by the frequency in which it is actively pursued and attained. In a study conducted by Ridolfo (2001), it was found out that there is a great disparity between males and females actual and ideal body images. The ideal body of a white female involves being thin, having fair complexion,

The Drive to be Beautiful 4 long straight blonde hair, and blue eyes. The ability to attract men, as well as being happy and successful are all tied up to the achievement of this body image (BayCheng, 2002; Demarest & Allen, 2000; Greenberg & LaPorte, 1996; Henriques, 1996; Jackson & McGill, 1996; Jackson, 1999; Molloy & Herzberger, 1998; Powell & Kahn, 1995 as cited by Ridolfo, 2001). In addition, Crane, Molloy, Powell and Greenberg, all have stated that women not only strive to be thin, proportioned, and young-looking for their own worth, but to look for potential marriage partners as well. It seems that the social worth of American women is predicated upon their physical appearance (Prince & Robinson, n.d.). Studies reported that two out of three women are discontented and become depressed whenever they see themselves nude in a full-length mirror. How we see ourselves, or more importantly how we think others perceive us can say a lot about our mental and physical well being. If our perception is inaccurate (most see themselves as "too fat") it can seriously interfere with our sense of self worth. Also, the inability to measure up, especially when we are compared to others, can damage that core image of the self (Ronda, 1999). Contradictory to the American ideal of thinness, it is believed that Africans value and admire obese women. In order for African females to be regarded as real women, they have to go through rites of passage that involve overfeeding them until they became fat (Pittman, 2002 as cited Buonomo, n.d.). This ritual though, is not practiced by African-Americans. Robinson and Duncan (2002) and Hooks (1995) point out that even though African-American women have a more flexible body size image, they have adopted certain characteristics of beauty from both cultures. Instead of embracing White womens body image, their ideal body image comprise of having a light complexion, straight hair (whether chemically treated, weaved, or pressed), and light eyes, combined with their own native standards of having thick thighs, full buttocks, and full breasts. This ideal beauty image of African-American women is not one of choice as Hooks (1995) stated, but one of internalized racism, creating the black peoples caste system based on skin hues and hair texture and not on body size alone (Buonomo, n.d.). Like African women, Fijan women put more emphasis on a robust appearance (Becker, n.d.). Anthropologist Anne Becker explains that there is an ideal of attractiveness, mainly concerned with sexuality and youth, and an ideal based on norms for what women and society ought to be like. In Fiji a robust body indicates a woman (or a man for that matter) who is embedded in a well-functioning network of family and friendship relations. This body, taken to indicate the successful practice of caring and sharing, is more important than the body of attractiveness (Unknown Author, n.d.).

The Drive to be Beautiful 5

Today, the media is a very influential agent in providing a standard of beauty for society to live by. The media is also very powerful in shaping peoples perceptions. The importance of a thin body as a determinant of a womans value has been largely emphasized by television, movies, and advertisements. Through the media, we learn what the hottest trends are, and in this case what the best body types are. Researchers report that womens magazines have ten and one-half times more ads and articles promoting weight loss and over three quarters of the covers of womens magazines include at least one message about how to change a womans bodily appearance (Beauty and Body Image in the Media, n.d.). Most actresses and models have become younger, taller, and thinner. Furthermore, unrealistic standards for what body weight and appearance should be are being set by the media. The medias portrayal of what is normal keeps getting thinner and thinner. It was twenty-five years ago that the average female model weighed 8% less than the average American woman. But now, the average female model weighs 23% below her average weight (Body Image, n.d.). Recent experiments have shown that exposure to magazine photographs of super-thin models produces depression, stress, guilt, shame, insecurity, body-dissatisfaction and increased endorsement of the thin-ideal stereotype( Fox, 1997). Aside from the media, family and friends may also play a major part in the peoples craving to be beautiful and thin. One feels a great deal of pressure to be beautiful and thin to be accepted by peers and to get potential romantic partners. A person may also be anxious by hearing family members making constant comments about their own weight and imposing food restrictions on themselves. Thus, parents attitude towards beauty may have a tremendous amount of influence on their children's development of body image (Brown, n.d.). Hearing significant others criticize how other people look may indirectly affect how a person views himself/herself. As a result, an individual may cognitively construct a message that she/ he needs to be thin and beautiful to be accepted and loved by others (Body Image, n.d.). For ordinary people, the desire to be beautiful may seem to be an eternal struggle, especially when society favors those who are attractive. Experiments have shown that people react more positively to physically attractive people. In schools, attractive children are found to be famous and well-liked, not only by classmates but also by teachers who give higher evaluations on their work. It also appears that attractive people may have better chances of getting a job or of getting promoted at work. Although not fair, it seems that in court, attractive people are either rarely being convicted of being guilty for a crime or receive less severe sentence if found guilty. This unjust bias for beauty functions largely in almost all aspects of society. People seem to generalize that what is good is beautiful. In addition, it is believed that physically attractive people possess desirable characteristics such as intelligence,

The Drive to be Beautiful 6 competence, social skills, confidence, and even moral virtue (Fox, 1997). Being thin for females and being muscular for males is associated with being hardworking, successful, popular, beautiful, strong and self-disciplined. On the other hand, being large and overweight is associated with being lazy, ignorant, ugly, weak, and lacking in will-power. These stereotypes are prevalent in our society and are being reinforced by the media and other social influences. As a result, we unjustly criticize other people based on weight and size alone. Oftentimes we assume that by achieving our ideal body and beauty, we could be happier, more successful, and more accepted (Hatfield, 2007). In response to the cultural norm, we have begun to place a great value on the image that we see in the mirror as we grew and developed (Beauty and Body Image, n.d.). People have dedicated a lot of their time going to the gym and looking at themselves in the mirror (Unknown Author, n.d.). For a girl, the pressure to be thin becomes increasingly important as she enters adolescence. The typical change in weight and body fat during puberty is the usual anguish among females. Increases in the shape of their hips, waists, and thighs, which they feel are taking them further from the cultural ideal of unnatural slimness, are mainly the focus of their dissatisfaction. Girls try to preserve the girlish look of their childhood, which is seen as desirable by society and fight the changes going on inside of their bodies (Levinson 1986 as cited Ridolfo, 2001). Body image may have become permanently disturbed for children who are constantly teased by their peers about their physical flaws. Latest surveys have revealed that very young girls are engaging in diets because they believe they are fat and unattractive. One study in Harvard University showed that up to two-thirds of underweight 12-year-old girls consider themselves to be fat. Physical dissatisfaction seems to intensify as these children grow such that by the age of 17, only 3 out of 10 girls have not been on a diet (Fox, 1997). In 2003, Teen Magazine reported that 35% of girls 6 to 12 years old have been on at least one diet and that 50% to 70% of normal weight girls believe they are overweight (Beauty and Body Image in the Media, n.d.). As a woman reaches the college level, eating disorders and distorted views of self become more evident. Development and treatment for eating disorders and depression are greater at the college age more than at any other age group as a result of years of trying to combat a natural gain in weight as well as changes in the body shape (Brumberg 1988 as cited Ridolfo, 2001). From a socioeconomic point of view, upper and middle class white girls adhere more to the thin ideal than any other group (e.g. African Americans, Hispanics, lower class females, and males) (Molloy, 1998). It is interesting that the usual victims of anorexia nervosa and bulimia are disproportionately upper and middle class, white girls (Hsu, 1987 as cited by Ridolfo, 2001).

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In a study (Bronner, Dewberry-Moore, Gross, Paige, & Welch, 2004) among fourth-grade public school children from urban, suburban and rural Maryland, it was found that children from the urban area appear to be more satisfied with their body size than children from the other areas. Although no significant difference was noted in weight status of subjects based on geographic location, more children from rural schools than urban schools were eager of a smaller figure. Notably, urban students had a larger ideal image than suburban and rural students. In addition, the overweight urban students were more likely to be satisfied with their body image than the overweight suburban and rural students. This may relate to differing cultural standards for beauty in different geographic locations (Body Image Perception among School Children, 2004). In another study conducted among South African young women, results show that differences occurred in females body image conceptions depending on their rural or urban origins. It was found out that females with urban origins were more likely to be restrained eaters, meaning they have attempted weight reduction for fear of becoming fat (Senekal, et al., 2001). Perhaps there were cultural differences present that may have accounted for this that are not present in the United States, along with more pronounced differences in urban and rural areas (Hutchison, 2002). The I feel fat body image distortion is a widespread epidemic among women. Research indicates that exposure to images of thin, young, air-brushed female bodies is linked with depression, loss of self-esteem and the development of unhealthy eating habits among girls and women. Adolescents worry about how they look in comparison with others. They put a premium on looks and physical appearance. Teenagers want to look like the stars and pop idols they see on TV (Body Image and Self-esteem, n.d.). These days, self esteem among women seems to be based on how they think they look. They have learned to internalize the standards of beauty and body image made by the media and the society at large. They have learned to compare themselves with other women to compete for male attention (Beauty and Body Image in the Media, n.d.). Those who have suffered from body dysmorphic or dysmorpophobia and imagined ugliness have an extreme level of body image disturbance, body dissatisfaction, self-consciousness and preoccupation with appearance. They are likely to experience the most negative reactions once they see themselves in the mirror (Fox, 1997). Unhealthy methods of weight control like fasting, skipping meals, excessive exercise, laxative abuse, and self- induce vomiting are being practiced (Anorexia Nervosa and Related Eating Disorders Inc., n.d.) to avoid gaining weight. Furthermore, Anorexics and Bulimics experience greater body dissatisfaction and greater body image disturbance than other women and they are more likely to be miserable with

The Drive to be Beautiful 8 their reflection in the mirror. Women who are suffering from eating disorders come to assess that they have gained weight after consuming a slice of cake or a bar of chocolate. Surveys have shown that shopping for and trying on new clothes may be agony for most women. These women may go for clothes smaller than their original sizes and may be disappointed to see that they do not fit them. Doing this may only heighten their level of body dissatisfaction and self-criticism, resulting in a negative reaction to their reflection in the mirror (Fox, 1997). Women who are insecure of their bodies are more likely to buy beauty products, new clothes, and diet aids (Beauty and Body Image in the Media, n.d.). Likewise, people who are in stable and long-term relationships have a more positive body image than single people. In addition, results in an American study of adolescent dating-behavior have shown that teenagers who date in groups have a significantly better body image than those who go out alone with their boyfriend or girlfriend (Fox, 1997).