INTRODUCTION Coal is an organic rock composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur and mineral matter.

These components can vary considerably both chemically and structurally, depending on the rank of the coal and even with coals of the same rank. At increased depths, higher temperatures in the organic masses improved the coalification process, producing higher rank coals (bituminous and anthracite). Intrusions of igneous rocks sometimes accelerated these increases. Of these parameters, sulfur and mineral matter exhibit the greatest variation for coals of the same rank. For coals of different ranks, the greatest characteristic variations occur in the carbon and hydrogen values. Kinds and Types of Coals Anthracite (highest rank and the hardest coal) Bituminous Coal (rank second highest and can be mettalurgical and thermal) Sub-bituminous Coal (softer than bituminous coal) Lignite (a soft, brown or black coal. Some lignites contain significant amounts of uranium) Peat deposits are made up of wet, partially decomposed organic matter, with low energy content per unit weight. Deposits are mainly in isolated areas and the drying problem is severe. It is not a significant power source. Coal around the world It is the worlds most abundant fossil fuel and is widely distributed as compared with oil and natural gas. China, United Sates, Poland and India are among the worlds largest producers and consumers. It is one of the largest commodities moved by ships worldwide. It is second only to oil as an energy source in the world. About 70% of the worlds coal production is used to generate 40% of the worlds electricity, 12 % is made into coke to produce 70% of the worlds, and the remanining18% is used for the other industrial and domestic purposes. Chemicals from Coal The liquid by-products of coal coking were earlier regarded as wastes. The discovery of the first coal tar color by Sor William Perkins in 1856 started the use of coal as a raw material.

Perkins discovery revealed that valuable materials could be isolated or made from coal tar and this ultimately led to the establishment of the modern chemical industry. Coke ovens rapidly came to be important as sources of chemical such as benzene, naphthalene, ammonia and hydrogen. Coal tar became an important source for aromatic and heterocyclic chemicals for the dye and pharmaceutical industries. Chemical by-products from coke manufacture amount to roughly 4% of the coal feed. Although this yield initially supplied adequate amounts of chemical for developing end uses, the growth of the industry eventually required additional sources of chemicals. When coal is thermally pyrolized or distilled by heating without contact with air, it is converted into a variety of solid, liquid and gaseous products. If a plant uses temperature from 454.4C-704.4C, the process ios termed low-temperature carbonization. With temperature above 898.8C it is designated high-temperature carbonization. In low-temperature carbonization, the quantity of gaseous products is small and the liquid products is relatively large. In high-temperature carbonization, the yield of gaseous products is larger than the yield of liquid products and the production of tar is relatively low. Most modern industrial plants burn coal wither on mechanically operated grates and strokes , or in pulverized form. These procedures allow the ratio of air to fuel to be properly controlled, thus ensuring efficient combustion and reducing heat losses through stack and ash. 2 General Classifications Surface Mining used when the coal is present near the surface, and overburden is thin enough. (e.g contour mining, strip mining and auger mining) 2 General Classifications Underground Mining are more labor-intensive than surface mining and are used to remove coal located below too much overburden for surface mining. 2 General Classifications Surface Mining Contour Mining Strip Mining Auger Mining Underground Mining Drift Mine

Slope Mine Shaft Mine Two general underground mining system: Room-and-pillar mining is an open-stopping method where mining progresses in a nearly horizontal or low angle direction by opening multiple stops or rooms, leaving solid material to act as pillars to support the vertical load. Two general underground mining system: Long-wall-mining Uses a machine that is pulled back and forth across the face of the coal seam in larger rooms. COAL PREPARATION It is the term applied to upgrading of coal to make it suitable for particular use. It includes blending and homogenization, size reduction, and beneficiation or cleaning COMBUSTION COMBUSTION EQUIPMENT Stoker Firing used to fire small-capacity boilers. Pulverized-Coal-Firing and Cyclone Firing electric utility and large industrial plants favor pulverizedcoal-firing and cyclone firing furnaces. Fluidized-Bed Combustion Advantages to the Local Residents Industrialization and development of the municipality Transfer of technology Increase in the socio-economic activities generating higher income level Employment opportunities to qualified local residents Advantages to the Local Residents Payment of taxes Financial assistance

PETROLEUM There are so many other products that come from oil, including crayons, plastics, heating oil, jet fuel, kerosene, synthetic fibers and tires. How is it possible to start with crude oil and end up with gasoline and all of these other products? INTRODUCTION There seems to be general agreement that petroleum has been formed from organic matter of nearshore marine deposits in an environment deficient in oxygen, and associated with the sediments later on solidified into rocks, the limestones, dolomites, shales, and sandstones The concentration of the organic matter may not have been high in the original deposition, but petroleum migrated and gathered in places most favorable to its retention, such as porous sandstone in domes protected by oil-impervious strata or against sealed faults in the sediments. Geophysicists can determine the likehood of occurrence of domes and deposits at considerable distances in the earth with the use of very sensitive instruments. The top of the arch of an anticline or a dome has greater specific gravity than the surrounding rocks. WHAT IS CRUDE OIL? Petroleum is a complex mixture of organic liquids called crude oil and natural gas, which occurs naturally in the ground and was formed millions of years ago. Crude oil varies from oilfield to oilfield in colour and composition, from a pale yellow low viscosity liquid to heavy black 'treacle' consistencies. Crude oil and natural gas are extracted from the ground, on land or under the oceans, by sinking an oil well and are then transported by pipeline and/or ship to refineries where their components are processed into refined products. Crude oil and natural gas are of little use in their raw state; their value lies in what is created from them: fuels, lubricating oils, waxes, asphalt, petrochemicals and pipeline quality natural gas. Crude Oil Components PROCESS of Petroleum would: Depends on the end products: -> LPG (Liquefied Petroleum Gas) -> TOPS (C5 Hydrocarbons) ->FRN (Full Range Naphtha) -> Platformate

-> DPF (Double Purpose Kerosene) -> LGO ( Light Gas Oil) -> HGO (Heavy Gas Oil) -> Residue -> VFCR (Vacuum Flash Crack) The Number of Carbons in Hydrogen chain in the processed oil determines the Classification of Gas/Oil. An oil refinery is an organized and coordinated arrangement of manufacturing processes designed to produce physical and chemical changes in crude oil to convert it into everyday products like petrol, diesel, lubricating oil, fuel oil and bitumen. Petroleum crudes are characterized by variability in composition. Over the years it has become usual to divide the crudes into three bases: 1. Parraffin base These consist of straight or branched carbon rings saturated with hydrogen atoms, the simplest of which is methane (CH4) the main ingredient of natural gas. Others in this group include ethane (C2H6), and propane (C3H8). 2. Parraffin base These consist of straight or branched carbon rings saturated with hydrogen atoms, the simplest of which is methane (CH4) the main ingredient of natural gas. Others in this group include ethane (C2H6), and propane (C3H8). 2. Intermediate base these crudes contain large quantities of both paraffinic and naphthenic compounds and furnish medium-grade-straight-run gasolines and lubricating oils. Both wax and asphalt are found in these oils. 3. Naphthene base Naphthenes consist of carbon rings, sometimes with side chains, saturated with hydrogen atoms. Naphthenes are chemically stable, they occur naturally in crude oil and have properties similar to paraffins. Petroleum products have long been divided into salable products by fractionation in the refining operations. This is a separation by boiling ranges. The natural separation that takes place when the petroleum leaves its underground reservoir as base on the same principle. Such refinery fractions maybe classified roughly as follows: Basic Steps in oil Refining The oldest and most common way to separate things into various components (called fractions), is to do it using the differences in boiling temperature. This process is called fractional distillation. You basically heat crude oil up, let it vaporize and then condense the vapor.

Newer techniques use Chemical processing on some of the fractions to make others, in a process called conversion. Chemical processing, for example, can break longer chains into shorter ones. This allows a refinery to turn diesel fuel into gasoline depending on the demand for gasoline. Refineries must treat the fractions to remove impurities. Refineries combine the various fractions (processed, unprocessed) into mixtures to make desired products. For example, different mixtures of chains can create gasolines with different octane ratings. Several types of cracking: Thermal - you heat large hydrocarbons at high temperatures (sometimes high pressures as well) until they break apart. Catalytic - uses a catalyst to speed up the cracking reaction. Catalysts include zeolite, aluminum hydrosilicate, bauxite and silica-alumina. Treating and Blending the Fractions Distillated and chemically processed fractions are treated to remove impurities, such as organic compounds containing sulfur, nitrogen, oxygen, water, dissolved metals and inorganic salts. Treating is usually done by passing the fractions through the following: a column of sulfuric acid - removes unsaturated hydrocarbons (those with carbon-carbon doublebonds), nitrogen compounds, oxygen compounds and residual solids (tars, asphalt) an absorption column filled with drying agents to remove water sulfur treatment and hydrogen-sulfide scrubbers to remove sulfur and sulfur compounds After the fractions have been treated, they are cooled and then blended together to make various products, such as: gasoline of various grades, with or without additives lubricating oils of various weights and grades (e.g. 10W-40, 5W-30) kerosene of various various grades jet fuel, diesel fuel, heating oil chemicals of various grades for polymers making plastics

and other ` NATURAL GAS

Natural gas is generally considered a non-renewable fossil fuel. Natural gas is considered a fossil fuel because most scientists believe that natural gas was formed from the remains of tiny sea animals and plants that died 300 to 400 million years ago. Raw natural gas is a mixture of different gases. The main ingredient is methane, a natural compound that is formed whenever plant and animal matter decays. By itself, methane is odorless, colorless, and tasteless. As a safety measure, natural gas companies add a chemical odorant called mercaptan (it smells like rotten eggs) so escaping gas can be detected. Natural gas should not be confused with gasoline, which is made from petroleum. HISTORY OF NATURAL GAS The ancient peoples of Greece, Persia, and India discovered natural gas many centuries ago. The people were mystified by the burning springs created when natural gas seeping from cracks in the ground was ignited by lightning. They sometimes built temples around these eternal flames so they could worship the mysterious fire. Soon after, in 1821, William Hart dug the first successful American natural gas well in Fredonia, NY. His well was 27 feet deep, quite shallow compared to todays wells. The Fredonia Gas Light Company opened its doors in 1858 as the nations first natural gas company. Producing Natural Gas Natural gas can be hard to find since it is usually trapped in porous rocks deep underground. Geologists use many methods to find natural gas deposits. They may look at surface rocks to find formations. clues about underground

They may set off small explosions or drop heavy weights on the Earths surface and record the sound waves as they bounce back from the sedimentary rock layers underground. They also may measure the gravitational pull of rock masses deep within the Earth. After natural gas comes out of the ground, it goes to a processing plant where it is cleaned of impurities and separated into its various components. Approximately 90 percent of natural gas is composed of methane, but it also contains other gases such as propane and butane. Natural Gas Use Just about everyone uses natural gas. Natural gas ranks second in energy consumption, after petroleum. About 24.7 percent of the energy we use comes from natural gas.

Industry is the biggest consumer of natural source to manufacture

gas, using it mainly as a heat goods.

Homes and businessesthe residential/commercial sectorare the second biggest users of natural gas, consuming a third of the gas in the country. About half of homes use natural gas for heating. Natural gas is also used to make electricity. It is the second largest producer of electricity after coal. Natural gas power plants are cleaner than coal plants and can be brought on-line very quickly. Quality Control Chemical treatment Some types of chemical treatment to remove or alter the impurities in petroleum products are usually necessary to produce marketable material. Improvement of color Improvement of odor Removal of sulfur compounds Removal of gums, resins, and asphaltic materials Improvement of stability to light and air PETROLEUM REFINERIES IN PHILIPPINES