26.

Determination of compressive stresseses by the corner points method

This method is used for determination of compressive stresses when, the surface of loading can be divided into such rectangles that the point considered is a corner point. Let us explain this by discussing three main cases Figure 4.11. - Point A is on the contour of the rectangle of the external pressures (a); - Point A is inside the pressures rectangle (b); - Point A is outside the pressures rectangle (c) and (d). Case (a) Z = ( K c 1 + K c 2 ) p (4.20)

a b K c1 = f 1 , 1 b1 z

and

a b Kc 2 = f 2 , 2 b2 z
p p

b a b
I.
1

b a a
I.
1

b
II. A

a b

A
2

II.

III.
3

IV .
3

a
b)

a)

a b

I.

II.

I.

II.

III.

a
c)

IV .

III.

IV .
3

b
4

d) Figure 4.11 Angle Method

Case (b)

Z = ( K c1 + K c 2 + K c 3 + K c 4 ) p

(4.21)

a b K c1 = f 1 , 1 b1 z a b Kc 2 = f 2 , 2 b2 z a b Kc3 = f 3 , 3 b3 z a b Kc 4 = f 4 , 4 b4 z

Z = (kc1 + kc 2 kc3 kc 4 ) p Z = (kc1 kc 2 kc3 + kc 4 ) p

(4.22) (4.23)

27. Stress distribution in the case of planar problem

Using the diagrams of stress distribution over horizontal and vertical sections of soil, for the case the planar pressure problem it is easy to construct curves of equal stresses isobars.

z = P1 z

(4.25)
P=100t

50

20 15 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3

z=0.5m

z=1m

z=1.5m
2

z=2.0m
1kg/cm

Figure 4.13 Isobars in half space. Punctual load

Note that the planar problem has a very important property consisting in that al component stress z , y and z in the given plane zOx are independent of the deformation characteristics of the linearly deformable half-space. The calculus relation for stresses in cartesian coordinate is being:

2 P cos3 R

2 P sin 2 c o s R 2 2 P c o s s in = R
y

where: P = the load for a length equal to unity; = the angle between R and the vertical axis; R = the distance between the origin and the point considered.

28. Determination of the active compressive zone by the quivalent layer method
Method of equivalent layer Figure 5.6. Equivalent layer method
This method combines the solution based on the theory of elasticity and solution for the settlement obtained for a confined specimen of soil of constant thickness in which the distribution of stresses is uniform like in the oedometer. In Figure 5.6 are shown the two situations for a partially uniform distributed load.

p 2 2 se = 1 he E 1
2

sr =
and

1 2 pb E

(1 ) b = A b he = (1 2 )
hi = h 1m n

(5.15) (5.16)
i =n

si = pzi

hi mi
hi Mi

Result: S = i =1 pzi

(5.17)

The condition is that for a both foundations the settlements should be equal: 1 s = m A p he = p b A 5.18) M

29. 30.+ 31.

for cohesionless soil

1 = 3 tan 2 45 + 2

1 = 3 tan 45 + + 2c tan 45 + 2 2
2

for cohesion soil

(6.7)

s
s=
T

c+

tan

s
T

+ s= c
0
1

tan

03 1

c
2

c*ctg

0 3 1

a) cohesionless soil

b) cohesive soil

Figure 6.4 The limit equilibrium state on soil

where:

1 = major principal stress = v

3 = minor principal stress = h

Thus: a) Cohesionless soil
3 = 1
tan (45 + ) 2
2

= 1 tan 2 (45

) = 1 Ka 2

(6.8)

b) Cohesive soil
3 = 1
tan 2 (45 + ) 2 2c tan(45 + ) 2 = 1 tan 2 (45 ) 2 c tan(45 ) = 1 k a 2 c K a 2 2

(6.9)

where:

ka = tan 2 45 2

Rankine active earth pressure coefficient .

(6.10)

Result: pa = h ka for cohesionless soil and

(6.11)

pa = h ka 2c ka for cohesive soil

32.
The Rankines Active Earth Pressure The Mohrs circle corresponding to wall displacements of x = 0 and

x >0 are show as

circles 1 and 2 respectively in figure 6.3.[b] Referring to the limit equilibrium equation, can be calculated the principal stresses for Mohrs circle that touches the Mohr-Coulomb failure envelope can be given by the Rankines Active Earth Pressure.
Wall movement to left

45+/2

45+/2

Shear stress (s)

z H h

v h

z
3

+ =c

an t

2 1

Rotation of wall about this point

Normal

h
b)

kv

1 stress

a)

Figure

6.3 Rankines Active Earth Pressure theory

If the displacement of the wall, x > 0, continue to increase there will be a time when the corresponding Mohrs circle will just touch the Mohr-Coulomb envelope defined by the equation: = tg + c (6.6) The three circles marked the failure condition in the cohesive soil mass. The horizontal stress 3 is referred to as the Rankine active pressure. The failure planes in the

soil mass at this time will make angles of 45 o + with the horizontal. 2

33.
The Rankine Passive Earth Pressure If the wall is pushed in to the soil mass by an amount x < 0 as shown in fig.6.6, the horizontal stresses at a depth z, can be defined as the Rankine passive pressure, or

Direction of wall movement

45-O/2

45-O/2

z H

v h

Shear stress
s=t g + c

O 0 a b v Normal stress h = p

Rotation about this point

h = k 0 v h

h = 3 = pp .
Figure.6.6 Rankines passive earth pressure theory

36.
The graphical solution for determination the earth pressure of soil Culmanns solution Cullman consider wall friction, irregularity of the backfill (either concentrated or distributed loads) and the angle of internal friction of the soil. The solution is applicable only to cohesion less soils (modified it can be used for soils with cohesion). In this discussion the solution is applicable only to cohesionless soils, although with modifications it can be used for soils with cohesion. This method can be adapted to stratified deposits of varying densities, but the angle of internal friction must be the same throughout the soil mass. A rigid plane rupture surface is assumed. Essentially, the solution is a graphical determination of the maximum value of soil pressure, and a given problem may have several graphical maximum points, of which the largest value is chosen as the design value. A solution can be made for both active and passive pressure. Steps in the Cullman solution for active pressure are as follows:
C3 C2 C1
t gen Tan

B W1

W1
Pa m ax

Pa
C

Culmann's line W3

R =
=

W2 W1

W2=W1+W1'

A =

Figure 6.12

C2 C1 B

C3

W1

W1

Tangent Culmann's line Pa max W2 W3

=90
A

W1

=-=90- D

W2=W1+W1'

Figure 6.13 1. Draw the retaining wall so any convenient scale, together with the ground line, location of source irregularities, point loads, surcharges, and the base of the wall when the retaining wall is cantilever type. 2. From the point A lay off the angle with the horizontal plane, locating the line AC. 3. Lay of the line AD at an angle of with line AC. The angle is computed as : = +

where:

- angle back of wall makes with the horizontal ; - angle of wall friction.

4.Draw assumed failure wedges as ABC1, ABC2ABCn. These should be made utilizing the backfill surface as a guide, so that geometrical shapes such as triangles and rectangles are formed. 5.Find the weight Wn of each of the wedges by treating as triangles, trapezoids or rectangle, depending on the soil stratification, water in soil, and other conditions of geometry. 6.Along the line AC, plot to a convenient weight scale, the wedge locating the points W1, W2 ...Wn. 7.Through the points just established (steps 6) draw lines parallel to AD to intersect the corresponding side of the triangle as W1 to side AC1, W2 to side AC2Wn to side ACn. 8.Through the locus of points established on the assumed failure wedges, draw a smooth curve (the Culmann line). Tangent to this curve and parallel to the line AC draw a tangent line. It may be possible to draw tangents to the curve at several points, if so, draw all possible tangents. 9.Through the tangent point established in step 8, project a line back to the AC line, which is also parallel to AD. 10.The value of this to the weight scale is Pa, and a line through the tangent point from A, is the failure surface. 11.When several tangents are drawn, choose the largest value Pa.

37.
Poncelet Graphical Process Poncelet has given a graphic method to compute the active and passive earth pressure based on the rule of Rebhann. The surface of the fill in this case is plane. 1. It is built the natural , , , H , , , slope line BC, angle (internal friction angle).
2. Through the superior edge A is drawn the orientation line which makes with the direction AB angle + , obtaining at the intersection with BC the point D. 3. On the natural slope line is being built a semicircle with the diameter BC. 4. From the point D is rise a perpendicular BC, till meeting the semicircle in point P. 5. Planning the point P on BC in F having as planning center the point B. 6. From F is banded A parallel to the orientation line which meets the free plane surface of the soil in point G. A) Without over charge B) With overcharge 7. Its planning G on BC, in H, with the center in F: 1 I. Pa = ef 2 1 ef II. Pa = p 2 8. Are united G with H, is descending perpendicular from G on HT, resulting point I.

] 2 q[KH/m

ORIZONTALA

G A
DRE APT AD ORI E ENT ARE

6 7 2
DE A LUN ECA RE
R"=FG

F
OB R=OC=

A
O D

H z

Pah Pav

Pa n

PLA NUL

4 1
R'=BE

ORIZONTALA

P
3

38. TYPES OF RETAINING WALLS

A retaining wall is a wall that provides lateral support for a vertical or near-vertical slope of soil. It is a common in many construction projects and the most common types of retaining wall may be classified as follows: - Gravity retaining walls; - Semi gravity retaining walls; - Cantilever retaining walls; - Counter fort retaining walls. Gravity retaining walls depend on their owned weight and any soil resting on the masonry for their stability (Figure 7.1)

Figure 7.1 Gravity Retaining wall types In a many cases, a small amount of steel may be used for the construction of gravity walls, this walls find are referred to as semigravity walls. Cantilever retaining walls is economical up to a height of about 8 m and are made of reinforced concrete that consists of a thin stem and a base slab (Figure 7.2 a) Counter fort retaining walls are similar to cantilever walls except for the fact that, at regular intervals, they have thin vertical concrete slabs known as counter forts that tie the wall and the base slab together (Figure 7.2 b).

counterfort plate w all w all w all

foundation plate spur a)

foundation plate b)

foundation plate

Figure 7.2 Cantilever retaining wall types

39.RETAINING WALLS STABILITY

7.3 Stability Checks To check the stability of a retaining wall, the following steps are necessary: 1. Check for overturning about its toe ; 2. Check for sliding failure along its base; 3. Check for bearing capacity failure of the base; 4. Check for settlement; 5. Check for overall stability. 7.3.1 Check for overturning
In Figure 7.4 shows the forces acting on a gravity and cantilever retaining wall witch the assumption that the Rankine active pressure is acting along a vertical plane AB trawl through the heel. Pp is the Rankine passive pressure; its magnitude can be given as.
A b' A

1 1 c1=0
Pav Pa Pah

Pp C qtoe B a)gravity wall B 2 qheel 2 c2

Df

Pp C qtoe B b)cantilever wall B 2 q heel

Figure 7.4 Check for overturning

The factor of safely against overturning about the toe that is, about point C in Figure 7.4 can be expressed as:

1 1 c1=0
Pav Pa Pah H'

2 c2

=
where :

(7.1)

= sum of the moments of forces tending to overturn about point C; = sum of the moments of forces tending to resist overturning about point C. 7.3.2 Check for sliding along the base The factor of safety against sliding may be expressed by the equation: FR f 1,3 (7.2) Fl = F d Where:

F F

= sum of the horizontal resisting forces; = sum of the vertical forces.

1(kN /m 3) o 1 ( C) c 1=0 (kPa) W s1

Pah

W s2
Pp D'

R' B

Figure 7.5 Check for sliding along the base The thus, the maximum resisting force that can be derived from the soil per unit length of the wall along the bottom of the base is area of cross section A =B 1. 7.3.3 Check for the concrete section Check for section 1 1

where:

and

and

(7.2)

A = B 1,0

W =

Pav Ws1 W1 Pp Df Ws2 1 W2

1

Pa Pah
1.0m

section1-1
o1
1

o1

B' W3

B'

Figure 7.6 Stress calculation in the most stressed 1-1 for a weight retaining wall.

7.3.4 Check for bearing capacity failure The vertical pressure as transmitted to the soil by the base slab of the retaining wall should be checked against the ultimate bearing capacity of the soil (figure 7.7). The pressure distribution under the base slab can be determined by using the simple principles of mechanics of materials:
p12 =

V
A

M y I

(7.3) (7.4)

V 1 6e
A B
where:

p1max padm ; p2 min 0

of all the forces, function of the central point O2 I=moment of inertia per unit length of the base section. B 1 B3 y= I= 12 2 = bearing capacity of soil ( ) , , The relationships for the ultimate bearing capacity of a shallow foundation were discussed in chapter 8.

M net =moment= ( V ) e

1 1
Ws'' a' W a''
3 1

2 2 Df Ws' 1 2
C p1=pmax=ptoe E

Pah

1 .0 m

02

B
2 3

o2
p4

pmin=pheel=p2

p2<0 p2=0 p2>0

p1>0

p3

B/2

Figure 7.7 Check for bearing capacity failure

M 1 - 1 = Ph' *1 a1 a Pa 1 1
Section1-1
h'

a'

2 2 - 2 = (2 q 1 + q 3 ) * a'

A a2

q3 q1 2

Section2-2

a '' 3 W s ''

q = W s ''/a '' M
3 - 3=

q * a '' 2 A a3 2

Section 3-3

where:

P - horizontal resulting force of the earth;

W W - the soil weight; W the wall weight.

40.SLOPE STABILITY
Slopes may be man made and slopes may also be naturally formed. The soil moves from the high points to a lower level. The several forces produce shear stresses through the soil mass and a movement will occur unless the shearing resistance on every possible failure surface throughout the mass is sufficiently larger than the shearing stress. The shearing resistance depends on the shear strength of the soil and other natural factors. A stability analysis involves making an estimate of both the failure model and the shear strength. In general slope stability is a plane strain problem. It is usual to investigate a typical cross section which is one unit thick with plane strain ignoring the perpendicular strains ( and stresses). The main difficulty in the stability analysis slopes lies in the necessity of relation calculations for the determination of the most slip surface, respectively of the safely factor. In order to eliminate this difficulty, this has also repercussions on the accuracy by admitting certain.

41.

Methods of computing stability homogeneous soil mass limited by a slipping plane. The factor of safety will be: R W cos tg + c L Fs = = T W sin (9.12) tg 2 c tg cL sin Fs = + = + W sin tg h sin( ) tg

for for

c=0

Fs = Fs =

tg tg 2c sin h sin( )

(9.13) (9.14)

=0

A slope is steady if

Fs 1,50

43.Fellenius method
The investigation carried out in Sweden (1928), confirmed the surface of failure of earth slopes resemble the shape of a circular arc. The method of analysis is as follows. The soil mass above assumed slip circle is divided into a number of vertical slices of equal width. The forces used in the analysis acting on the slices are shown in Figure. 9.11
Passive 0 i bi
i

Active
xi
x

r B C

bi

(i)

E' r
T'
o'

Wi

li

ci Ti
i

1:

m
(i)

Ni

Clay

Wi

A
Wi Ni Ti

Ti=Wisini T'=Ntg=Wcos1tg Ci=cili

1(-) 1(-)

i(+) i(+)

Figure 9.11 Fellenius Method The forces are: 1.The weight W of the slice;

Wi = i hi bi 1 Wi = i hi bi 1
where:

(9.25)

i - total unit weight of soil

h i - average height of slice b i - width of slice.
2.The normal component of the weight N;
N = N i = Wi cos i
n

(9.26)

3.The tangential components of the weight T;

T = Ti = Wi sin i
i =0 n

(9.27)

4.The effective frictional ( F ) and cohesive ( C ) resistances. The frictional force F acting on the base of any slice resisting the tendency of the slice to move downward is :

F = N tan ,
or (9.28)

F ' = ( N U ) tan ' The cohesive force C opposing the movement of the slice and acting at the base of the slice: (9.29) C = c 'l , c - the effective unit cohesion;

' - the effective angle of friction.

These forces acting on the base of the slice which is designated as i. The effective normal pressure N , acting on the base of any slice is (9.30) N '= N U U = u l The moments of the actuating and resisting forces about the point of rotation may be written as a ratio between the stability moment and actuating moment. The factor safety Fs may now be written as:

Fs =

Ms = Mr

R( Fi + C i ) + R Ti
i=n i =n

R T i
i =0

(9.31)

where: M s - the resisting moment;

M r - the actuating moment. Several trial circles must be investigated in order to locate the critical circle, which is the one having the minimum value of Fs .

44.Friction Circle Method

The principle of the method: A trial circle with centre of rotation O and radius R sin , where R is the radius of the trial circle, a circle is drawn. Any line tangent to the inner circle must intersect the trial circle at an angle , with R. Therefore, any vector representing an intergranular pressure at obliquity to an element of rupture it must be tangent to the inner circle. This inner circle THOSE is called the friction circle or the - circle. The friction circle method of slope analysis is a convenient approach for both graphical and mathematical solutions. It was given this name because the characteristic assumption of the method refers to the circle. The forces considered in the analysis are: -The total weight W of the mass above the trial circle. This the force acting through the centre of the mass; -The resultant boundary neutral force U; -The resultant intergranular force, R, acting on the boundary; -The resultant cohesive force C. To a homogeneous slope, the factor of safety is determined, considering the soil mass as an entire stiff mass. We consider two particular cases: For Fs = 1 and = 0o (Figure 9.13 a) C We establish cnec with the expression cnec = AD a)

(9.35)

Figure.9.13 .a Friction circle when 0 = 0

b)

For Fs = 1 and

c = 0 [kPA]

We establish nec with the relation :

r (9.36) R Determination of factor of safety with respect to strength Figure.9.13.b is a section of a dam. AD is the trial arc. The force Wr is drawn as explained earlier.

nec = arc sin

r=Rsin nec o

H
A

1:

Wr

Figure 9.13.b Friction circle when c = 0

[kPa]

The factor of safety is: (9.37) MO The 45o line, representing Fc F intersects the curve to give the factor of safety Fs for this trial circle.
L(,c) cnec
M

Fs =

LO

nec

Figure 9.13 c Wedge block analysis 9.9 Block method for stability of slope If the soil mass has some slipping surface, we can obtain the blocks by cutting the mass with vertical plans in order to obtain for each block an homogeneous slipping surface, with one value

of c and ' .

i-1

i1
i

i1 i1
i+1

i+1

i
Ni

W Ti

i1
(R i ci)tg i

Ei

Si li ci i R i i ui

E E

Figure 9.14 Blocks method for the stability of slopes Ti c i 'l i (Ri + U i ) tan i '+ E i 1 cos( i i 1 ) E i cos( i i ) = 0

Ni (Ri + Ui ) + Ei 1 sin(i i 1 ) Ei sin(i i ) = 0

(9.38)

Ei = Ei 1 f i , i , i 1,i, + Ti T fi
where: Ei = active pressure for (i+1) block or passive earth pressure of (i+1) block

Ti = the active earth pressure for i block

T fi = the shearing force opposing

If:

Ei <0 i block is stable (steady);

E = 0 i block in limited equilibrium;

Ei >0 i block is instable.