Unit3 SignalDegradationin OpticalFiber

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SignalDistortioninOpticalFiber
ATTENUATION:
Attenuationlimitstheopticalpowerwhichcanreachthe receiver,limitingtheoperatingspanofasystem. Areceiverinanopticalsystemrequiresaminimumoptical inputpowertooperatewithaspecifiederrorprobability. Attenuationreducestheopticalpoweravailable,degradingthe errorprobability.

Attenuationmechanisms:
Absorption Scattering relatedtothefibermaterial; associatedwithfibermaterialand waveguidestructure; Radiativelosses originatesfromperturbations ofthefibergeometry.
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AttenuationinOpticalFibers
ThepowerP(z) atadistancez downthefiberis P(z)=P(0)exp(pz) where

p =(1/z)ln[P(0)/P(z)]

isthefiberattenuationcoefficient. InunitsofdB/km,theattenuationcoefficient canbe expressedas

(dB/km)=(10/z)log[P(0)/P(z)] =4.343p (km1)

Thisparameterisreferredtoasthe fiberattenuation. Itisa functionofthewavelength

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AttenuationinOpticalFibers

Figure: Fiber attenuation as a function of wavelength

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MaterialAbsorptionLosses
Materialabsorptioniscausedbyabsorptionofphotonswithin thefiber.
Whenamaterialisilluminated,photonscanmaketransitionof valenceelectronsofanatomtohigherenergylevels. Photonisdestroyed,andtheradiantenergyistransformedinto electricpotentialenergy.Thisenergycanthen
Bereemitted(scattering) Freetheelectron(photoelectriceffects) Dissipatedtotherestofthematerial(transformedintoheat)

InanopticalfiberMaterialAbsorptionistheopticalpowerthatis effectivelyconvertedtoheatdissipationwithinthefiber. Twotypesofabsorptionexist: IntrinsicAbsorption: causedbyinteractionwithoneormoreof thecomponentsoftheglass ExtrinsicAbsorption: causedbyimpuritieswithintheglass

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IntrinsicAbsorption
Lesssignificantthanextrinsicabsorption.Forapure(no impurities)silicafiberalowlosswindowexistsbetween800nm and1600nm.

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IntrinsicAbsorption
Intrinsicabsorptionintheultravioletregioniscausedby electronicabsorptionbands.
Absorptionoccurswhenalightparticle(photon)interactswithan electronandexcitesittoahigherenergylevel.

Theultravioletedgeoftheelectronabsorptionbandsfollows theUrbach'srule: uv =C exp(E/Eo).

Here,C andEo areempiricalconstantsandE isthephotonenergy.

Themaincauseofintrinsicabsorptionintheinfraredregionis thecharacteristicvibrationfrequencyofatomicbonds.
Insilicaglass,absorptioniscausedbythevibrationof(SiO) bonds.Theinteractionbetweenthevibratingbondandthe electromagneticfieldoftheopticalsignalcausesintrinsic absorption.Lightenergyistransferredfromtheelectromagnetic fieldtothebond.
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ExtrinsicAbsorption(metallicions)
Extrinsicabsorptionismuchmoresignificantthanintrinsic. Causedbyimpuritiesintroducedintothefibermaterialduring manufacture Iron,nickel,andchromium Causedbytransitionofmetalionstoahigherenergylevel. Modernfabricationtechniquescanreduceimpuritylevels below1partin1010.
Forsomeofthemorecommon metallic impuritiesinsilicafiberthetable shows thepeakattenuationwavelength and theattenuationcausedbyan impurityconcentrationof1in109.
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ExtrinsicAbsorption(OHions)
Extrinsicabsorptioncausedbydissolvedwaterintheglass,asthe hydroxylorOHion. InopticalfiberswithhighlevelsofOHionsgiverisetolarge absorptionpeaksoccurringat1400,950,and725nm.Thesearethe1st, 2nd,and3rdovertones,respectively,ofthefundamentalabsorption peakofwaterbetween2700nmand4200nm. Typicallya1partpermillionimpuritylevelcauses1dB/kmof attenuationat950nm.Typicallevelsareafewpartsperbillion

AbsorptionSpectrumfor OHinSilica.

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ScatteringLossesinFiber
Scatteringisaprocesswherebyallorsomeoftheopticalpower inamodeistransferredintoanothermode. Frequentlycausesattenuation,sincethetransferisoftentoa modewhichdoesnotpropagatewell.(alsocalledaleakyor radiationmode).

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TypesofScatteringLossinFiber
Twobasictypesofscatteringexist:
Linearscattering Nonlinearscattering :RayleighandMie :StimulatedBrillouinand StimulatedRaman.

Rayleighisthedominantlossmechanisminthelowlosssilica windowbetween800nmand1700nm. RamanscatteringisanimportantissueinDenseWDMsystems

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RayleighScattering
Dominantscatteringmechanisminsilicafibers Scatteringcausesbyinhomogeneitiesintheglass,ofasizesmallerthan thewavelength. Inhomogeneitiesmanifestedasrefractiveindexvariations,presentin theglassaftermanufacture. Difficulttoeliminatewithpresentmanufacturingmethods. Rayleighlossfallsoffasafunctionofthefourthpowerofwavelength: Rayleighloss: dBperkm
inthisempiricalformulaisexpressedinmicrons(m)

TheRayleighscatteringcoefficientAr isaconstantforagivenmaterial. For1550nmthelossisapproximately0.18dBperkm.

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RayleighScattering
Rayleighscatteringlossatawavelengths resultingfromdensity fluctuationscanbeapproximatedby 8 3 2 2 R = 4 n 1 k BTf T 3

Or

8 3 8 2 n p k B Tf T = 4 3

Here,n istherefractiveindex,p isthephotoelasticcoefficient,kB isBoltzmann's constant,T istheisothermalcompressibilityofthematerial,andTf isthe temperatureatwhichthedensityfluctuationsarefrozenintotheglass.

Rayleighlossisrelatedtotransmissionlossoffiberby
whereListhelengthoffiber.

= exp ( R L )

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MieScattering
Occursatinhomogeneticswhicharecomparableinsizetoguided wavelength. Resultsfromnonperfectcylindricalstructureofthewaveguide, irregularitiesincorecladdinginterface,corecladdingrefractive indexdifferencesalongfiberlength,strainsandbubbles. Scatteringcreatedbysuchinhomogeneticsismainlyinthe forwarddirectionandmaybereducedby:
Removingimperfectionsduetoglassmanufacturingprocess. Carefullycontrolledcoatingofthefiber.

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StimulatedBrillouinScattering(SBS)
Modulationoflightthroughthermalmolecularvibrations withinthefiber.ScatteredlightappearsasUSBandLSBwhich areseparatedfromincidentlightbymodulationfrequency. Incidentphotonproducesaphononofacousticfrequencyas wellasascatteredphotonwhichproducesanopticalfrequency shiftwhichvarieswiththescatteringangle. Frequencyshiftismaximuminbackwarddirection. ThresholdPowerisgivenby,

PB = 4.4 10 3 d 2 2 d B

watts

Whered and arethefibercorediameterandtheoperating wavelength,bothmeasuredinmicrometers,dB is fiber attenuationindB/km., isthesourcebandwidthingigahertz.

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StimulatedRamanScattering(SRS)
HighfrequencyOpticalphononisgeneratedinthescattering process. Occursinbothforwardandbackwarddirections. ThresholdPowerisgivenby,

PR = 5.9 10 2 d 2 d B

watts

Whered and arethefibercorediameterandtheoperating wavelength,bothmeasuredinmicrometers,dB is fiber attenuationindB/km..

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BendingLossinFibers
Atabendthepropagationconditionsalterandlightrayswhichwould propagateinastraightfiberarelostinthecladding. Thelosscanberepresentedbyradiationattenuationcoefficient.

R = c1 exp ( c 2 R )

WhereRistheradiusofcurvatureoffiberbendandc1 andc2 areconstantswhichare independentofR.

TypesofBendingLoss:
Macrobending, forexampleduetotightbends Microbending, duetomicroscopicfiberdeformation,commonly causedbypoorcabledesign

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Macrobending Loss
The curvature of the bend is much larger than fiber diameter. Lightwave suffers sever loss due to radiation of the field in the cladding region. As the radius of the curvature decreases, the loss increases exponentially until it reaches at a certain critical radius. CriticalradiusofcurvatureRc formultimodefiberisgivenapproximatelyby:

For SM Fiber,

Rcs =

20 ( n1 n 2 ) 3 / 2

2 . 748 0 . 996 c

For any radius a bit smaller than this point, the losses suddenly becomes extremely large. Higher order modes radiate away faster than lower order modes.

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Microbending Loss
Microscopic bends of the fiber axis that can arise when the fibers are incorporated into cables. The power is dissipated through the micro bended fiber, because of the repetitive coupling of energy between guided modes & the leaky or radiation modes in the fiber.

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Dispersioninopticalfiber
Dispersionwithinthefibercausesbroadeningoflightpulseasthey travelalongthechannel. DispersioncreatesISIatthereceiverinputandreducesthemaximum bitrate.
Thedispersivepropertiesdeterminethelimitoftheinformation capacityofthefiber,specifiedbythebandwidthdistanceproduct in MHz.km.

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Dispersioninopticalfiber
MaximumBitRate
ForNoOverlapping(i.e.noI.S.Iisallowedtotakeplace),the broadenedpulse durationafterdispersionmustbelessthanthebitintervalT.Sincethebitrateis thereciprocalofthebitintervalweget

1 BT 2 BT 1

Bits/ sec Bits/ sec

ForRZcodes

ForNRZcodes

IfthebroadenedpulsehasaGaussianshape,withanrmswidthof.

BT (max )

0 .2

Bits / sec

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OpticalandElectricalBandwidth
3dBopticalbandwidthisthefrequencyonthefibertransferfunction H(f)wherethepowerishalfthelowfrequencyvalue.

TheOpticalandElectrical3dBfrequenciesarenotequivalent. Inareceivertheelectricallevelattheoptical3dBfrequency is6dB down.

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DispersioninOpticalFiber
Chromatic(Intramodal)Dispersion
Chromaticdispersionisactuallythesumoftwoformsofdispersion

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IntramodalDispersion
Resultsfromthedifferentgroupvelocitiesofthevariousspectral componentslaunchedintothefiberbythesource. Typicalopticalsourcehasanopticaloutputthatspreadsovera rangeof wavelength. Spectral"width"canbedefinedaseitheranr.m.svalueoraFWHMvalue.

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IntramodalDispersion
Inanopticalfiberthepropagationvelocityvarieswithwavelength.Thus apulsemadeupofmanywavelengthswillbespreadoutintimeasit propagates.

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DispersiveMedium
Inanondispersivemediumthephasevelocitiesoftheindividualplane wavecomponentsareindependentofwavelength.Thewavepacketdoes notchangeshapeasitmovesalongthemedium. Butinadispersivemediumthephasevelocitiesoftheindividual componentsaredependentonwavelengthResultisthatthe"shape"of thewavepacketchangesoverthemedium

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MaterialDispersion
Inamediumthatissusceptibletomaterialdispersion,therefractive indexisitselfisafunctionofwavelength. Thusthepropagationconstant isamorecomplexfunctionof wavelength.Thenatureofthedependenceof onwavelengthwill determineifdispersion(pulsebroadening)takesplaceornot. Byconventionthesocalledfreespacepropagationconstantkisgiven by2/. Thepropagationconstantinthemediumisgivenby:

ThetimedelayperunitlengthLofamedium,iscalledthegroupdelay g andcanbeshowntobegivenby:
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AnalysisforMaterialDispersioninafiber
Pulsespreadduetomaterialdispersionmaybeobtainedby consideringthegroupdelayg;intheopticalfiberwhichisthe reciprocalofgroupvelocityg. Assuming propagationdistanceL,Groupdelayisgivenby:

Pulsedelay m duetomaterialdispersioninafibreoflength Lis given by:

IfwehaveanimpulsesourcewithanRMSopticalspectralwidthof andamean wavelengthof.theneachspectralcomponentwillarrive atadifferentpointintime soeachm valuewillbedifferent.

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Contd
Assumeasourcewithanrmsopticalspectralwidthof andamean wavelengthof.Thermspulsebroadeningintimeduetomaterial dispersionm maybefoundbyexpandingequationusingaTaylorseries:

Inpracticeitisfoundthatthefirsttermnormallydominates.

Nowthefirstderivativeofm withrespectto.canbefoundas,

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Thermspulsebroadeningduetomaterialdispersionisgivenby

Contd

Henceifthesecondderivativeiszerothendispersioniszero. MaterialDispersionparameterforopticalfiberissometimesquotedas

d 2 n1 2 2 d
2

or,

simply

d 2 n1 d22

Itmayalsobegivenintermsofmaterialdispersionparameteras:

1 d m d 2n M = = L d c d 2

1 2

ps/(km.nm)

m = L M
ReducingMaterialDispersion:
Useasinglemodelaserwithanarrowspectralwidth.
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WaveguideDispersion
Waveguide dispersion is due to the dependency of the group velocity of the fundamental mode as well as other modes on the V number i.e. group velocity varies with wavelength for a particular mode in the fiber. Mainly a problem for singlemode, in multimode mode penetration into the cladding is very small relatively. In order to calculate waveguide dispersion, we consider that n is not dependent on wavelength. Defining the normalized propagation constant b as:

b=

2 / k 2 n2 2
n1 n 2
2 2

/ k n2
n1 n 2

solving for propagation constant:

n 2 k (1 + b )

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WaveguideDispersion
Using V number:

V = ka(n1 n2 )1/ 2 kan2 2

2 2

Delay time due to waveguide dispersion can then be expressed as:

wg

d (Vb) L = n2 + n2 c dV

For single mode fibers, waveguide dispersion is in the same order of material dispersion. The pulse spread can be well approximated as:

wg

n2 L d 2 (Vb) = L Dwg ( ) = V dV 2 d c

d wg

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Intermodal(Modal)Dispersion
Resultsfromthepropagationfromthepropagationdelaydifferences betweenmodeswithinmultimodefiber. Asdifferentmodesinmultimodefibertravelatdifferentgroup velocities,thepulsewidthattheoutputisdependentupon transmissiontimesoftheslowestandfastestmodes. Modaldispersionisgreatestinmultimodestepindexfibers.Morethe numberofmodesgreater,themodaldispersion. Araymodelcangiveandadequatedescriptionofmodaldispersion.

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AnalysisforModalDispersioninaMultimode StepIndexfiber

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Contd

TofindTmax realizethattheraytravelsadistancehbutonly travelsadistanced towardthefiberend(d<h). Soifthefiber lengthisL thentheactualdistancetravelledis:

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Contd

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Contd
Or,

L n1 ts = c n2

n1 n 2 n 1

2 L n1 cn 2

Assume << 1

L n1 n1 n 2 ts = c n2
Hence

L n1 c

L (NA ) ts = 2 n1 c

WhereNAisnumericalapertureforthefiber.Incaseofmodecoupling;

ts

(LLc ) 1/ 2 n1 = (LLc ) 1/ 2(NA)2 =

c 2 n1 c

WhereLc ischaracteristiclengthoffiberwhichisinverselyproportionalto couplingstrength.

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Contd
Whentheopticalinputtothefiberisapulseofunitareaasshown below.

Thermspulsebroadeningatfiberoutputduetomodaldispersion is givenvariances2 as,

s =
2

+ ts / 2

ts / 2

1 2 t dt ts
=

1 ts = 3 2
2

s =

L n1 2 3c

L (NA )

4 3 n1 c

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ReducingModalDispersion

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QuantifyingDispersioninaGIFiber
Asinthestepindexcaseonedeterminesmaximumtime differencebetweenthetwomostextrememodes.Most commonexpressionis:

Bycomparisontheequivalentvalueforastepindexfibre has beenshowntobe:

Becauseofthe2 dependenceforgradedindexthedispersionis muchlowersince is<<1.

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OverallFiberDispersion
MMFiber:
T = c + n
2

2 1/ 2

)
)

Wherec isintramodal(chromatic)broadeningandn isintermodal broadening. 1/ 2

c = m + wg
2

Wherem isbroadeningduetomaterialdispersionandwg is broadeningduetowaveguidedispersion.SinceinMMfiberwg <<m , hence

c m

SMFiber:pulsebroadeningisalmostentirelyfromintramodalor
chromaticdispersion.

DT=DM+DW

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Higherorderdispersion
Sincealllightsourceshavenonzerospectralwidth,thedispersion cannotbezeroforallwavelengthwithin. TheeffectivedispersionisD=S where isthedispersion slope,differentialdispersionparameter,orsecondorderdispersion parameter.(note:SomepeopleuseD=0.5S). FromD,Scanbederivedas, ZerodispersionslopeS0 isobtainedatthewavelength(0)ofminimum Intramodaldispersioni.e.

S0=S(0)
Totalchromaticdispersionatanarbitrarywavelength canbe estimatedas

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PolarizationModeDispersion
Lightcanbedecomposedintwopolarizations Ey(t)andEx(t).Both polarizationsareorthogonaltoeachotheraswellastothedirection ofpropagation. Twoorthogonalpolarizationmodestravelataslightlydifferent velocityandthepolarizationorientationrotatewithdistance.The resultingdifferenceinpropagationtimebetweenthetwoorthogonal polarizationmodeswillresultinPolarizationModeDispersion (PMD). Causedbycylindricalasymmetryduetomanufacturing,temperature, bends,andsoforththatleadtoBirefringence.

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PolarizationModeDispersion
Ifthegroupvelocitiesofthetwoorthogonalpolarizationmodes arevgx andvgy, thenthedifferentialtimedelaypol betweenthetwopolarizationcomponents duringpropagationofthepulseoveradistanceLis

pol =|L/vg x L/vgy|

ModalBirefringenceBF forthefiberisgivenby,

BF =

2 /

Birefringent coherenceismaintainedoveralengthoffibercalledcoherence LengthLbc;

Lbc

2 = = B F f B F
c

FiberBeatLength: Acharacteristicofopticalfiberusedtocalculatethefiber'sabilitytomaintain polarization.TheBeatlengthdescribesthelengthrequiredforthePolarizationto rotate360degrees.Foragivenwavelength,itisinverselyproportionaltothe fiber'sbirefringence.

LB =

BF
44

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PolarizationModeDispersion
Incontrasttochromaticdispersion,PMDvariesrandomlyalonga fiber. Thus,pol cannotbeuseddirectlytoestimatePMD.Instead,statistical predictionsareneededtoaccountforitseffects. AusefulmeansofcharacterizingPMDforlongfiberlengthsisinterms ofthemeanvalueofthedifferentialgroupdelay

<pol>=DPMDL

whereDPMD measuredinps/km1/2,istheaveragePDMparameter.

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FiberCableanFiberJoints
Jointsinfiberareneededforanumberofreasons:
Fiberisavailableandcanonlybeinstalledinlengthsuptoabout 2km,forlongerspansajointisneeded Fortherepairofdamagedfiber Fortestpurposesatterminalequipment

Therearethreebasictypesofjoint:
Opticalfiberconnector,demountableconnection Fusionsplice,permanentconnection Mechanicalsplice

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FiberCableanFiberJoints

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LossinFiberJoints
Thereareseveralsourcesoflossinafiberjoint:

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FresnelLossatanInterface
Lossisassociatedwithinterfacesbetweentwomediawherethere isa stepchangeintherefractiveindex Lossoccursbecauseofreflectionattheinterface.

FractionoflightreflectedattheinterfacegivenbyFresnelFormula,

na nb r = n +n b a

ThelossindecibelduetoFresnelreflectionisgivenby

Loss Fres = 10 log10 (1 r )

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FresnelLossatanInterface
TypicallyFresnellossorreflectionoccursatjointswithanairgap Forafiberjointlossoccurstwice,onceateachfiberairinterface.

HencetotallossindecibelduetoFresnelreflectionisgivenby

n n 2 0 Loss Fres = 20 log 10 1 1 n +n 1 0

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FIBERTOFIBERJOINTS
Mechanical misalignment losses

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FIBERTOFIBERJOINTS
Longitudinal offset effect

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OpticalFiberConnectors
Some of the principal requirements of a good connector design are as follows: 1- low coupling losses 2- Interchangeability 3- Ease of assembly 4- Low environmental sensitivity 5- Low-cost and reliable construction 6- Ease of connection

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Connectorloss
Connectorlossisrandom,notonlybetweendifferent connectorsofthesame typebutalsobetweeneachmating (repeatability).

Attenuation(InsertionLoss):

ReturnLoss:
Reflectionsaretheopticalpowerdirectedbacktowardthesource. Mostcommonsourceofreflectionisafiberjoint. Magnitudeofreflectionisdefinedbythe"ReturnLoss"

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OpticalFiberCouplers
Couplersareoneofthemostcommondevicesinopticalfiber systems. Usedtosplit,combineandroutesignalswithinsystems.

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ClassificationofFiberCouplers

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CouplerSplitRatio

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CouplerInsertionLoss

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CouplerExcessLoss

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CouplerCrosstalkorDirectivity

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Fused BiconicalcouplerORDirectionalcoupler

P3,P4 extremelylow(70dBbelowPo) Coupling/SplittingRatio=P2/(P1+P2) IfP1=P2 Itiscalled3dBcoupler

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FusedBiconicalTaperedCoupler
Fabricatedbytwistingtogether,meltingandpulling togethertwosinglemodefibers TheygetfusedtogetheroverlengthW;taperedsectionof lengthL;totaldrawlength =L+W SignificantdecreaseinVnumberinthecouplingregion; energyinthecoreleakoutandgraduallycouplesintothe secondfibre

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Definitions

Splitting (Coupling) Ratio = P2 ( P + P2 ) 1

Excess Loss =10 Log[ P0 ( P + P2 )] 1

Insertion Loss =10 Log[ Pin Pout ]

Crosstalk = 10 Log( P3 P0 )
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StarCouplers
TheprincipalroleofstarcouplersistocombinethepowersfromM inputsanddividethemequallyamongN outputports. Thefiberfusiontechniquehasbeenapopularconstructionmethod forNxNstarcouplers. Figureshowsageneric4x4fusedfiberstarcoupler. Inastarcoupler, thesplittinglossisgivenby SplittingLoss=10.log(1/N)=10.logN ForasingleinputpowerPin andNoutputports,theexcessloss isgiven by ExcessLoss=10.log[Pin/(Ni=1 Pouti)]
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FusedFiberStarCoupler

SplittingLoss=10Log(1/N)dB=10Log(N)dB ExcessLoss=10Log(TotalPin/TotalPout) Fusedcouplershavehighexcessloss

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