Concrete strength or failure Ultimate tensile strength

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search Ultimate tensile strength (UTS), often shortened to tensile strength (TS) or ultimate strength,[1][2] is the maximum stress that a material can withstand while being stretched or pulled before necking, which is when the specimen's cross-section starts to significantly contract. Tensile strength is the opposite of compressive strength and the values can be quite different. The UTS is usually found by performing a tensile test and recording the stress versus strain; the highest point of the stress-strain curve is the UTS. It is an intensive property; therefore its value does not depend on the size of the test specimen. However, it is dependent on other factors, such as the preparation of the specimen, the presence or otherwise of surface defects, and the temperature of the test environment and material. Tensile strengths are rarely used in the design of ductile members, but they are important in brittle members. They are tabulated for common materials such as alloys, composite materials, ceramics, plastics, and wood. Tensile strength is defined as a stress, which is measured as force per unit area. For some nonhomogeneous materials (or for assembled components) it can be reported just as a force or as a force per unit width. In the SI system, the unit is the pascal (Pa) (or a multiple thereof, often megapascals (MPa), using the mega- prefix); or, equivalently to pascals, newtons per square metre (N/m). The customary unit is pounds-force per square inch (lbf/in or psi), or kilo-pounds per square inch (ksi, or sometimes kpsi), which is equal to 1000 psi; kilo-pounds per square inch are commonly used for convenience when measuring tensile strengths.

Typical tensile strengths

Typical tensile strengths of some materials Yield Material strength (MPa) Structural steel ASTM A36 steel 250 Carbon steel 1090 250 Human skin 15 Micro-Melt 10 Tough Treated Tool Steel (AISI 5171 A11)[6] 2800 Maraging steel[7] 2617 Ultimate strength (MPa) 400 841 20 5205 2693 Density (g/cm) 7.8 7.58 2.2 7.45 8.00

Typical tensile strengths of some materials Yield Material strength (MPa) [8] AerMet 340 2160 [9] Sandvik Sanicro 36Mo logging cable Precision Wire 1758 AISI 4130 Steel, water quenched 855C (1570F), 951 480C (900F) temper[10] Titanium 11 (Ti-6Al-2Sn-1.5Zr-1Mo-0.35Bi-0.1Si), 940 Aged[11] Steel, API 5L X65[12] 448 Steel, high strength alloy ASTM A514 690 High-density polyethylene (HDPE) 26-33 Polypropylene 12-43 Stainless steel AISI 302 - Cold-rolled 520 Cast iron 4.5% C, ASTM A-48 130 [citation needed] "Liquidmetal" alloy 1723 [13] Beryllium 99.9% Be 345 [14] Aluminium alloy 2014-T6 414 [15] Polyester resin (unreinforced) 55 Polyester and Chopped Strand Mat Laminate 30% E100 glass[15] S-Glass Epoxy composite[16] 2358 Aluminium alloy 6063-T6 Copper 99.9% Cu 70 Cupronickel 10% Ni, 1.6% Fe, 1% Mn, balance Cu 130 Brass 200 + Tungsten Glass E-Glass S-Glass Basalt fiber[18] Marble Concrete Carbon fiber N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Ultimate strength (MPa) 2430 2070 1110 1040 531 760 37 19.7-80 860 200 550-1600 448 483

Density (g/cm) 7.86 8.00 7.85 4.50 7.8 7.8 0.95 0.91 8.19 6.1 1.84 2.8

248 220 350 550 1510 33[17] 1500 for laminates, 3450 for fibers alone 4710 4840 15 3 1600 for Laminate, 4137 for fiber

2.63 8.92 8.94 5.3 19.25 2.53 2.57 2.48 2.7 2.7 1.75

Typical tensile strengths of some materials Yield Material strength (MPa) Carbon fiber (Toray T1000G)[19] Human hair

Ultimate Density strength (g/cm) (MPa) alone 6370 fibre alone 1.80 380

What is Flexural Strength? It is the ability of a beam or slab to resist failure in bending. It is measured by loading un-reinforced 6x6 inch concrete beams with a span three times the depth (usually 18 in.). The flexural strength is expressed as Modulus of Rupture (MR) in psi. Flexural MR is about 12 to 20 percent of compressive strength. However, the best correlation for specific materials is obtained by laboratory tests.

Why Test Flexural Strength? Designers of pavements use a theory based on flexural strength. Therefore, laboratory mix design based on flexure may be required, or a cement content may be selected from past experience to yield the needed design MR. Some also use MR for field control and acceptance of pavements. Very few use flexural testing for structural concrete. Agencies not using flexural strength for field control generally find the use of compressive strength convenient and reliable to judge the quality of the concrete as delivered.1

How to Use Flexural Strength Beam specimens must be properly made in the field. Pavement concretes are stiff (1/2 to 2 inch slump). Consolidate by vibration in accordance with ASTM C 31 and tap side to release bubbles. For higher slump, after rodding, tap the molds to release bubbles and spade along the

sides to consolidate. Never allow the beam surfaces to dry at any time. Immerse in saturated lime water for at least 20 hours before testing. Specifications and investigation of apparent low strengths should take into account the higher variability of flexural strength results. Standard deviation for projects with good control range from about 40 to 80 psi. Values over 100 psi indicate testing problems, and there is high likelihood that testing problems, or moisture differences within a beam, will cause low strength.

Where a correlation between flexural and compressive strength has been established, core strengths by ASTM C 42 can be used for compressive strength to check it against the desired value using the ACI 318 85 percent criteria. It is impractical to saw beams from a slab for flexural testing. Sawing beams will greatly reduce measured flexural strength and should not be done. Some use has been made of measuring indirect tensile strength of cores by ASTM C 496, but experience is lacking on how to apply the data. Another procedure for in-place strength investigation uses compressive strength of cores calibrated by comparison with acceptable placements on either side of the concrete in question:

What are the Problems with Flexure? Flexural tests are extremely sensitive to specimen preparation, handling, and curing procedure. Beam specimens are very heavy, and allowing a beam to dry will yield lower strengths. Beams must be cured in a standard manner, and tested while wet.2A short period of drying can produce a sharp drop in flexural strength. Many state highway agencies have used flexural strength but are now changing to compressive strength for job control on concrete paving. Cylinder strengths are also used for concrete structures. The data points to a need for a review of current testing procedures. They suggest also that, while the flexural strength test is a useful tool in research and in a laboratory evaluation of concrete ingredients and proportions, it is too sensitive to testing variations to be usable as a basis for the acceptance or rejections of concrete in the field.3 The CSI Spec-Data Sheet by NRMCA, the Municipal Concrete Pavement Manual by ACPA, ACI 325, and ACI 330 on Concrete Pavements, all point to the use of compressive strength as more convenient and reliable. The Pennsylvania DOT uses compressive strength of cylinders; 3750 psi is specified with 3000 psi for opening a pavement to traffic. The concrete industry and inspection agencies are much more familiar with traditional cylinder compression tests for control and acceptance of concrete. Flexure can be used for design purposed, but the corresponding compressive strength should be used to order and accept the concrete. Any time trial batches are made, both flexural and compressive tests should be made so that a correlation can be developed for field control.

Common Causes of Concrete Failure & Cracking

Builders have used concrete made of natural materials for thousands of years. Modern concrete with industrially produced cement (known as Portland cement) was first utilized in the beginning of the nineteenth century. Today, the use of steel reinforcement to enhance the tensile strength of concrete members has resulted in the widespread use of what we commonly know as reinforced concrete. Mixing cement and water with aggregate (sand, gravel, crushed stone) and other substances (admixtures) produces concrete. When the cement and the water are combined, the mixture begins to harden (hydration). Anyone familiar with the use of concrete during construction can tell you that there are many variables involved with the finished concrete product that directly affects its appearance and strength. The most important of these variables include; a) type of cement, b) ratio of water to cement, c) type and size of aggregate, d) type and proportionate amount of admixture, and e) various conditions and/or actions occurring during the mixing, placement, finishing, and curing. One absolute in the use of concrete as a building material is the fact that a certain amount of cracking is bound to occur. As one job foreman aptly put it, "The only way to guarantee it won't crack is to leave it in the truck!" The following discussion relating to some of the more common causes of cracking in concrete may serve to clarify, and hopefully eliminate, some of the associated reoccurring cracking failures. Concrete cracking is categorized as occurring either in the plastic state or in the hardened state.

PLASTIC STATE CRACKING

Plastic Shrinkage cracking is produced when fresh concrete in its plastic state is subjected to rapid moisture loss. This may be the result of a combination of factors during placement and curing such as; a) air and concrete temperatures, b) humidity, and c) wind velocity. When the moisture from the surface of freshly placed concrete evaporates faster than it can be replaced by bleed water (excess water in the mix) the surface concrete shrinks. Due to restraint from the concrete below, the drying surface layer develops tension stresses resulting in shallow cracks of varying depth. These cracks may later develop into full depth cracks. Recommendations for Mitigation when weather conditions are unfavorable for a pour (especially in the construction of slabs-on-grade and other flatwork) proper curing methods are essential in the reduction of plastic shrinkage cracking. The use of fog nozzles to saturate the air above the surface, the application of plastic sheeting, wet burlap, waterproof paper, or spray applied liquid membrane to cover the surface and reduce evaporation, wind breaks to subdue wind velocity,

and sun shades to reduce surface temperatures will go a long way in the reduction of plastic shrinkage cracking. Settlement Cracking occurs when concrete in the plastic state continues to settle after its initial placement and vibration in the formwork. Where the concrete is locally restrained from downward movement by reinforcing steel, formwork, or previous pours, voids and/or cracking develop adjacent to the restraining element. Recommendations for Mitigation methods to reduce or eliminate settlement cracking include: a) proper vibration to reduce voids when the mix is first placed, b) decreasing the slump (flowability) of the mix, c) the use of more rigid forms, and an increase in the concrete cover over embedded reinforcement.

HARDENED STATE CRACKING

Drying Shrinkage Cracking is commonly associated with the loss of moisture from the cement paste constituent producing a corresponding decrease in volume (shrinkage), coupled with restraint by the subgrade or adjacent structural members. Recommendations for Mitigation drying shrinkage can be reduced and controlled by; a) adjusting the proportions of the mix (increased aggregate and decreased water content), b) careful detailing of reinforcing steel (especially through joints) and c) the liberal use of control joints (to induce cracks to occur along predetermined lines of weakness formed in the hardened concrete). Thermal Stress cracking results when temperature variations due to weather exposure or (in more massive concrete structures) different rates of dissipation of the heat of hydration cause differential volume changes. Thermal expansion or contraction in hardened concrete may cause cracking; especially where connections provide restraint and no provision has been made for the elongation or shrinkage of the member over time. Temperature variations in structural concrete cause deflection and rotation in structural members that, if restrained, can produce serious stress cracking. Recommendations for Mitigation Designers should be aware of conditions where certain portions of a structure are exposed to temperature variations while other portions may be partially protected or completely insulated. Allowance for the movement induced by temperature gradients should be made by supplying properly designed joints allowing freedom of movement and correct detailing on the plans. These same joints will also alleviate cracks due to movement induced by creep in concrete, which results in a long-term increase in strain or elongation under sustained loading.

POOR CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES

Mention must be made of the many improper practices in the field during the placement and curing of the concrete that ultimately lead to cracking. The most common of these is the adding

of water to improve workability of the concrete. This results in increased settlement of the mix, an increase in the drying shrinkage, and reduced strength. The lack of adequate curing, or early termination of curing allows for shrinkage at a time when the concrete has low strength. Other problems that may give rise to cracking are poor vibration or consolidation, improper placement of reinforcing steel, and in slabs the over spacing of control joints used to minimize the effects of random shrinkage cracking.

COMMON CAUSES OF CONCRETE FAILURE

bdsindia.com Generally, the cause of concrete failure is one or more of the following reasons: * Built-in design problems * Poor construction , defective use of materials * Environmental & chemical attack * Damage from shrinkage, creep, settlement and thermal contraction * Mechanical damage due to abrasion Jan 9, 2009

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Concrete Strength Generally a concrete mix is required to provide a specified strength. The most common measure of concrete strength is the compressive strength, determined in either a cube test or a cylinder test. The user can specify whether cube or cylinder strengths are to be used for the mix design. See Settings. Since the strength of a concrete specimen increases with time, the concrete age at testing is significant. It is also important to remember that the target strength of a mix will only be attained in practice, if the concrete is properly placed, well compacted and adequately cured. The DOE Method, used by Firstmix, designs mixes that will provide a compressive strength as determined in a cube test. Generally cube tests give higher compressive strengths than cylinder tests. However Firstmix uses the relation of cube and cylinder strengths to convert between cylinder and cube strengths and either cylinder or cube strengths can be used in Firstmix. See Conversion between Cube and Cylinder Strengths. The DOE Method assumes that the major factors, which determine the strength of a mix, are:

The Free water/Cement Ratio. The Coarse Aggregate Type. The Cement Properties.

Real-Time Concrete Strength

Based on ASTM C 1074 "Standard Practice for Estimating Concrete Strength by the Maturity Method", intelliRock Maturity Loggers analyze the time and temperature profile of in-place concrete to calculate the in-place strength of concrete in real-time - with the push of a button. The theory behind the maturity method is simple. Warmer concrete temperatures result in a higher rate of hydration (and therefore more rapid strength gain), and colder concrete hydrates more slowly. Data reported by the intelliRock maturity loggers along with a calibration graph generated from reference cylinders gives a convenient measure of in-place concrete strength.

Benefits Accelerate Workflow, Increase Quality Assurance, and Improve Quality Control - The intelliRock system saves time and money by enhancing:

Contractor's Critical Path - Accelerate concrete operations. Extends the construction calendar in cooler weather. Quality Control - Early validation of batching consistency. Quality Assurance - Documents early strength and temperature information.

Applications Real-time strength information optimizes the timing of:

Form stripping Removal of Shoring and reshoring Post-tensioning Loading structures Saw cutting Picking tilt-up panels Opening pavements to traffic Harvesting pre-cast members

Logger Configurations Maturity loggers are available that use the Nurse-Saul (time-temperature factor) as well as the Arrhenius (equivalent age) calculation methods. Standard intelliRock maturity loggers log temperature and maturity each hour for 28 days and calculate maturity using the Nurse-Saul technique. Other configurations are available on request.