PREFACE

My professional career has ended and I am now happily retired. However, there are a few unpublished papers that I would like to make available. While research on the hedonic view of happiness and well-being has flourished very little has focused on Aristotles eudaimonic theory. These might add something to the existing literature. TO SEE OUR OTHER STUDIES OF THE EUDAIMONIC THEORY AND OUR SCALE TO MEASURE MOREAL VIRTUE PLEASE GO TO : csufresno.academia.edu/SamuelFranklin I believe that virtue is the most important, but greatly misunderstood, idea in Aristotles theory. I have included several chapters on the topic of virtue in a recent book entitled THE PSYCHOLOGY OF HAPPINESS: A GOOD HUMAN LIFE, published by Cambridge University Press. I have also included a study on crowding that may be of interest. It suggests that crowding and scarcity of resources may lead to both political and social upheaval. Although the study was conducted in the 1970s it may portend the future for some.

Virtue and Well-Being: Evidence for Aristotle's Eudaimonic Theory of Happiness

Samuel S.

Franklin and Richard Torzynski Fresno

California State University,

Paper presented at the meeting of the Western Psychological Association Phoenix, AZ April, 1993

Abstract Aristotle's eudaimonic theory has received very little attention in the psychological literature on well-being. The eudaimonic theory suggests that happiness accompanies psychological Actualization, in turn, depends largely on the presence of

growth or actualization of potential. virtue.

Virtue, according to Aristotle, has three dimensions: right thinking and feeling, right Scales

behavior, and motivation to act rightly, where "right" is always relative to the person.

intended to measure each of these facets of virtue were examined for their relation to the two dimensions of well-being: eudaimonic theory, obtained. life satisfaction and affect. In accord with earlier research on the

significant relationships between virtue, actualization and well-being

The present results, however, reveal more precisely the nature of these relations.

Regression analyses indicate that the different dimensions of virtue affect different dimensions of well-being. Specifically, the data show that virtuous thinking influences the cognitive (life

satisfaction) dimension of well-being, while virtuous behavior impacts the affective dimension. The data suggest that actualization may not bring happiness, but rather constitute a separate dimension. discussed. The implications of these findings for the theoretical structure of well-being are

Virtue and Well-Being:

Evidence for Aristotle's

Eudaimonic Theory of Happiness

The problem of happiness has remained an issue in philosophy for centuries but has only recently attracted the attention of psychological researchers. After a thorough review of the current

psychological literature on happiness Diener (1984) concluded that it consists of two dimensions: life satisfaction and affect. Life satisfaction refers to a subjective judgment of the overall Affect typically refers to the

quality of ones life (Diener, Emmons, Larsen and Griffen 1983). balance of positive and negative feelings (Bradburn, 1969).

An alternative conceptualization of the good life, dating back to the ancients, remains relatively unexplored by empirical psychology. Aristotle's eudaimonic theory suggests that happiness Guided by the

accompanies the fulfillment of potential, the actualizing of possibility.

philosophical works of Norton (1976), Waterman (1984) states the eudaimonic thesis succinctly: Each person is viewed as having a unique set of talents and potentials. The translation of these potentials into actuality is considered the highest purpose to which one can devote one's life. The striving for self-realization is accompanied by a subjective sense of rightness and personal well-being, (p.4-5) This ancient teleological view is not incompatible with the more modern version of well-being as life satisfaction and affect.

Waterman's observation that a "subjective sense of rightness and personal well-being" accompanies fulfillment seems to merge all three variables. Well-being as life satisfaction and positive

affect may indeed flow from the actualization process.

According to eudaimonic theory, the fulfillment which brings happiness requires certain "goods." Aristotle discusses our need for what he called external goods like food, clothing, and shelter, and our need for goods of the soul or as we say today, psychological goods, like self-esteem, security, etc. But Aristotle emphasizes most the need for virtue. While the term 'virtue' may

seem archaic and outside the domain of psychology, its meaning is not.

Most of the things we need in life are what Aristotle called 'limited goods', i.e. they are needed only in certain amounts and only at certain times, and they may be good only if obtained by certain means. We have to make decisions about how much, when, where, and how. And, we must act

accordingly.

The virtues are the cognitive, affective and behavioral processes by which we

correctly seek what we need.

There are then two fundamental principles in eudaimonic theory: actualization and virtue. enables actualization or fulfillment and fulfillment brings happiness.

Virtue

This paper is an attempt to

bring together Aristotle's teleological approach to the good life and the modern view of happiness as life satisfaction and affect.

In a previous study Franklin, LaMarca and Barton (1991) found that fulfillment contributed moderately to both the affective and life satisfaction components of well-being. Virtue

contributed substantially to one dimension of well-being (satisfaction) but had little impact on the other (affective) component. Thus, while some support for the eudaimonic theory obtained, the

nature of the relationships between virtue, fulfillment, life satisfaction and affect require further examination. This is the purpose of the present investigation.

Franklin, LaMarca and Barton (1991) measured virtue with the Constructive Thinking Inventory or CTI (Epstein and Meier, 1989). The CTI was developed as a broad measure of practical intelligence with major subscales to measure both emotional and behavioral coping. The virtues refer to adaptive

ways of thinking with implications for both feeling and acting, and that is precisely the quality that the CTI attempts to tap. There is great overlap in the meaning of Epstein's "constructive The CTI is designed

thinking" and Aristotle's idea of virtue but they are not identical concepts.

to measure "a persons ability to think in a manner that solves everyday problems in living" (Katz &

Epstein, 1991).

Aristotle's concept of virtue, while not easily definable in the language of

contemporary psychology, appears to encompass several psychological functions. ...if virtue , like nature, requires more accuracy and is better than any art, then it will aim at the mean.... In feeling fear, confidence, desire, anger, pity, and in general pleasure and pain, one can feel too much or too little; and both extremes are wrong. The mean and the good is feeling at the right time, about the right things, in relation to the right people, and for the right reason; and the mean and the good are the task of virtue. Similarly, in regard to actions there are excess, deficiency, and the mean. ( Ethics II, 5)

Virtue involves choice. choices..." (p.94).

Adler (1980) notes

"... moral virtues are habits of making the right "...it is that which

Virtue is also concerned with actions and feelings:

is concerned with passions and actions, and in these there is excess, defect [deficiency] and the intermediate" (Ethics II, 6).

Finally, as noted in the sentence above, virtue is about amount, degree, or quantity of feeling and behavior. One might say then, that moral virtue is the habit of making the right choices with Urmson (1980,

regard to actions and feelings; aiming at the mean, and usually avoiding extremes. 1988) points out that the 'doctrine of moderation' is easily misunderstood.

It does not mean that

moderation is always right or that behavioral and affective extremes are always bad.

There is even more to virtue than choosing, acting and feeling. The person of good character wants to be virtuous and enjoys it.
"..whether one has excellent character ... depends not merely on Virtue is a..."settled disposition to want to act The virtuous person

what one does but also on what one likes doing."

and to act in a way appropriate to the situation." (Urmson, 1988, p.26 ff) enjoys being temperate, courageous, just, fair, etc.

Virtue then is the disposition to choose (to The

reason or think) and act correctly, to feel rightly (appropriately) and to enjoy doing so.

present experiment examined the relations between virtue, as conceived above, actualization, and well-being .

SCALES Virtue Virtue was again measured by the Constructive Thinking Inventory (CTI) but in consideration of

Aristotle's emphasis on choosing well, acting and feeling correctly, and his belief in the importance of wanting/liking to act virtuously, two new scales were developed. The Self Appraisal

Scale (SAS) was constructed to assess virtuous behavior, i.e. the ability to attain the right amount, at the right time, in the right way, etc.

A scale was also developed to measure how much one enjoys and wants to be virtuous.

The Situation

Reaction Scale (SRS) briefly describes situations and asks subjects for their affective reactions. For example, an item used to measure the virtue of 'justice', reads "You find a wallet with $100.00 in it and turn it into the authorities." To

each of 29 such items subjects rated their feelings on a 5 point scale.

Actualization The Life Rating Scale (LRS) used by Franklin et. al. (1991) was again used to measure actualization or fulfillment. A second measure of the same variable was also employed. Ryff (1989) developed

the Personal Growth Scale (PGS) which consists of 20 items (alpha = .87) and measures openness to new experiences, sense of self improvement and realization of potential. reliability coefficient of the scale over a six week period was .81 (Ryff The test-retest (1989).

Affect The MUNSH, used in the 1991 study was replaced in this experiment with the more widely used Affect

Balance Scale or ABS (Bradburn, 1969) which appears to be a more direct measure of the affective dimension of well-being.

Life Satisfa ction Finally, the satisfaction dimension of well-being was again measured by the Diener et. al. (1985) Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS).

Packets of the seven scales were distributed in two different classes of mostly senior psychology majors. The mean age of the 111 Ss was 27.3 years (s.d. = 7.79)

RESULTS The means, standard deviations and alpha's for each scale are presented in Table 1. Three of the

scales used in this experiment were also used in the 1991 study and all three produced very similar data on both occasions.

Item analyses were performed on the scores of the two newly constructed scales; the Self Appraisal Scale (virtuous behavior) and the Situation Reaction Scale (enjoyment of virtue). item SAS was pared to 38 items and the SRS was reduced from 29 to 19 items. were all performed on the data of these revised and shortened scales. The original 60

Subsequent analyses

CORRELATIONS
Age Table 2 presents a correlation matrix of all the measures. It can be seen that age was not an

important variable in the study. Although Aristotle speculated that only the elderly may know happiness (probably because in the young too few potentials have been realized) many investigators have reported no relationship between age and well-being, (see Diener, 1984 and Costa, Zonderman, McCrae, Cornoni-Huntley, Locke, & Barbano, 1987).

Virtue and Growth

Table 2 shows moderate correlations between all measures of virtue and psychological growth.

The

CTI (thinking), SAS (behavior) and SRS (motivation to be virtuous) are all correlated with the PGS measure of growth at at least the .01 level. These findings support the hypothesis that virtue is

related to fulfillment and actualization of potential.

Growth and Well-Being The relation of actualization, or more accurately, psychological growth, and well-being, which obtained in 1991, was also replicated this experiment. (p. - <.01) with the SWLS and .29 (p - <.01) The Life Rating Scale (LRS) correlated .34 The more comprehensive measure

with the ABS.

developed by Ryff, the Perceived Growth Scale and .30 with the ABS (p = <.01). each other (r = .44, well-being. p = <.001)

(PGS), correlated .40 (p = <.001) with the SWLS

Table 2 shows that the two growth scales correlated well with and demonstrated comparable relationships to both dimensions of

While the two growth measures seem comparable in some ways, it appears to us that the Throughout the remainder of this paper the PGS data will be

PGS is the preferable instrument.

treated as the major source of information regarding the actualization variable.

Virtue and well-being The relationship between virtue and well-being observed in the 1991 study was also replicated here. Two of the three measures of virtue were significantly correlated with well-being. Virtuous

thinking as measured by the CTI, was again correlated with the SWLS (r = .50, p = <.001) and with the ABS (r = .34, p = <.001). The newly developed Self Appraisal Scale (SAS), designed to measure p = <.001) and

virtuous behavior, was also significantly correlated with both the SWLS (r = .40, the Affect Balance Scale (r =.48, p = <-001).

The Situation Reaction Scale (SRS), intended to Thus,

measure the enjoyment of virtue, yielded only non-significant associations with well-being.

two of the three measures of virtue (CTI and SAS) produced meaningful correlations with both the satisfaction and affective dimensions of well-being .

REGRESSION ANALYSES Simple and Multiple stepwise regression analyses were performed to further examine relationships between the variables. The results of these analyses are summarized in Table 3 and in Figure 1.

Eudaimonic theory suggests that virtue is a means to growth and growth, in turn, brings well-being. These ideas seem to be generally supported by the present data, but the relationships between virtue, growth and well-being are not as simple and straightforward as the theory seems to suggest.

Virtue and Growt h Both the correlational and regression analyses support the relationship between virtue and growth. All three measures of virtue (CTI,SAS,SRS) are significantly correlated with the PGS. Table 3 and Figure 1 show however, that each dimension of virtue effects growth differently. A stepwise

multiple regression analysis showed that virtuous behavior (SAS) explained 15 percent of the PGS variance, motivation (SRS) accounted for another 7 percent and virtuous thinking (CTI) made no significant contribution to growth when the other two measures were partialed out. These findings

suggest that enjoyment of virtue and virtuous behavior contribute to growth but virtuous thinking does not, at least directly.

Growth and Well-being . Table 3 and Figure 1 further demonstrate, in accord with eudaimonic predictions, that growth is a

reasonably good predictor of well-being.

Simple regression analyses indicate that PGS scores However,

explain 11 percent of the variance in life satisfaction and 15 percent of affect balance.

further analyses, discussed below, raise questions about the effect of growth on well-being.

Table 3 and Figure 1 show that when all three measures of virtue and the PGS growth scale are entered into stepwise regression analyses, the contribution of growth to well-being is greatly diminished. Under these conditions the CTI explained 23% of the variance in the SWLS but the

contribution of the PGS drops from 11 to 7 percent.

A similar effect occurred in a stepwise multiple regression to the ABS.

Table 3 and Figure 1 show An

that the SAS predicted 22 percent of the variance in the affective dimension of well-being. additional 3 percent is explained by the CTI.

Both motivation to be virtuous (SRS) and growth Thus, when the SAS and the CTI are

(PGS) fail to explain any significant variance in ABS scores.

entered into the regression equations, the contribution of growth to the SWLS and the ABS is greatly reduced or eliminated altogether. These findings suggest that the portion of variance in

well-being scores, which at first appeared to be attributable to growth, may be more correctly explained directly by virtuous thinking (CTI) and virtuous behavior (SAS).

Virtuous Thinking As expected, virtuous thinking was a good predictor of virtuous behavior. A stepwise regression

analysis using CTI and SRS scores as predictors showed the CTI explained 31 percent of the SAS variance (F = 46.8, p <.001). the SAS. Unexpectedly, motivation (SRS) did not contribute significantly to

As noted above, virtuous thinking was a good predictor to only one of the dimensions of well-being. As in the 1991 study, the CTI accounted for a about one quarter of the variance in the satisfaction dimension (SWLS) of well-being but only 3 percent of the affective dimension (ABS). Stepwise

regression analyses revealed that the CTI did not contribute significantly to the variance of either the SRS or PGS.

Virtuous Behavior Virtuous behavior predicts the affective dimension of well-being as well as virtuous thinking predicts the life satisfaction dimension. It may be noted in Table 3 and Figure 1 that the SAS It

accounts for 22 percent of the variance in the ABS but has no predictive power to the SWLS.

appears that good thinking contributes substantially to overall life satisfaction but it is good behavior that advances our affect.

DISCUSSION The eudaimonic theory suggests that happiness is a byproduct of right living. needs certain goods: To live well one

external goods like food, clothing, shelter; the psychological goods like

friendship, love, and art; and most important for Aristotle, that category of goods called virtues. Virtues are best conceived as good habits. "correct" is always relative to the person. of goods, actualization of is possible. Habits of thinking, acting and feeling correctly, where To the degree that one can achieve the three classes

It is the process of actualization or growth that The data generally support the

generates the experience we call happiness or well-being. eudaimonic theory but they also raise several questions.

Virtue and well-being According to eudaimonic theory virtue is necessary for the achievement of happiness. dimensions of virtue: Three

virtuous thinking (CTI), virtuous behavior (SAS) and motivation to be

virtuous (SRS), were examined for their effect on growth (PGS) and on well-being directly (SWLS and ABS). Of the three measures of virtue, two, the CTI and the SAS were significantly correlated with In this study, and in the previous one (Franklin, et.al.,1991), virtuous thinking Although good thinking (CTI) was

well-being.

explained nearly one fourth of the variance of life satisfaction.

correlated with affect in both studies, in each, it explained only a small fraction of affect variance. The CTI accounted for just 3 percent of the ABS in this study and less than 1 percent of

the MUNSH in the first investigation. Good thinking appears to be an important determinant of life satisfaction but only indirectly impacts affect. What relationship does exist between virtuous

thinking and affect appears to be mediated by behavior.

The newly developed measure of virtuous behavior, the SAS, demonstrated significant correlations to both the cognitive and affective dimensions of well-being. be predictive of only one of those dimensions. But like good thinking, it appears to

Multiple stepwise regression analyses revealed that

SAS scores explained 22 percent of the variance in ABS scores but the SAS has no predictive power to the satisfaction dimension of well-being. related to life satisfaction. The data seem clear on this point. Good thinking is

Good behavior is related to affect.

Cognition lies behind the

satisfaction dimension of well-being while behavior contributes most to the affective domain.

The strong contribution of good thinking to virtuous behavior (The CTI explains 31 percent of the variance of SAS) makes it likely that life satisfaction and affect will covary but that need not be the case. Thinking well and acting well are not the same. The two may be correlated when

mediating variables like motivation and skills are present, but as the learning theorists of long ago recognized, cognition and behavior are by no means identical. thinking may not manifest itself in behavior. Lacking certain Without sufficient motivation, good thinking cannot be

skills,

carried over into behavior. beh avior .

Whether or not affect is elevated depends upon the quality of the

This model suggests that it is possible to think well, i.e. to be a virtuous thinker, If we lack the mediating structures required to transfer our

but still be relatively unhappy.

thoughts into behavior we may fail to enjoy the affective part of living well.

According to eudaimonic theory, virtue requires not only good thinking and good behavior but also their enjoyment. Motivation to be virtuous was measured by the Situation Reaction Scale which was

designed to assess the degree to which one enjoys and wants to behave in accord with reason and moderation. We found little evidence in support of this part of the theory, but enough to cause The problem of virtue motivation will be discussed again

us to hesitate to dismiss it entirely. later in the paper.

Growth and well-being . Growth, actualization, or fulfillment, is undoubtedly the cardinal concept of eudaimonic theory. It is the foundation upon which all actualization theories rest. Sullivan (1977) notes "Much of

Aristotle's moral philosophy is echoed today in the writings of psychologists such as Erich Fromm, Jean Piaget, Eric Berne, Carl Rogers, Erik Erikson, Abraham Maslow and Rollo May....There is no great gulf between Maslow's 'self-actualizing' person and Aristotle's man of 'moral excellence.."

(p.13).

In view of the teleological core of eudaimonic theory it was expected that strong relationships between measures of growth and well-being would obtain. partial support for this expectation. Tables 2 and 3 and Figure 1 suggest only

The PGS is significantly correlated with all three measures On

of virtue, with the LRS measure of the same variable, and with both dimensions of well-being. the surface it looks like growth is as essential as Aristotle believed. Figure 1 also reveal difficulties in this perspective. However, Table 3 and

Multiple stepwise regression analyses

showed that when virtue is extracted out, growth explains only 7 percent of the variance in the SWLS and makes no contribution to the affective dimension of well-being. Actualization, appears to

have only minimal impact on both of the defining characteristics of well-being.

The relative independence of growth and well-being was also demonstrated in a principle-components factor analysis of all the scales. The analysis revealed two factors. The first factor consisted

of the SWLS, ABS, CTI and SAS, accounting for 47.8 percent of the variance. was made up of only the SRS and PGS, accounting for an additional 17 percent.

The second factor The first factor The

appears to summarize "living well", and consists of virtue and both dimensions of well-being. second factor consists primarily in the motivational variable (SRS). [It is this finding that As may be

makes us hesitate to exclude the enjoyment of virtue from further consideration.]

noted from Table 4, growth (PGS) loads on both factors but more heavily on the second. relation of growth to well-being remains uncertain.

Thus, the

On the one hand it is marginally related to

virtue and accounts for a small fraction of the variance in one of the traditional measures of well-being. On the other it stands apart, in the company of motivation.

Our failure to find a strong effect of growth on well-being may well reflect the truth of the matter. Although major theorists from Aristotle to Rogers have embraced the bond between

actualization and the good life, it has received very little empirical support in the well-being literature. Alker and Gawin (1978) reported a moderate correlation between maturity level and

well-being but McCrae and Costa (1983), using different measures failed to replicate the finding. Ryff (1989), who developed the growth scale used in our study, also observed only a weak link between personal growth and the traditional measures of well- being.
She found, as did we, that

growth loaded on a different factor than the usual well-being scales such as life satisfaction, affect balance, morale etc. Our findings essentially replicate those of Ryff in this regard.

Ryff suggests that theoretically derived concepts like growth, purpose in life, etc., which have been a part of the literature on positive psychological functioning for ages, should guide and define the concept of well-being, expanding it beyond the boundaries of life satisfaction and affect. Actualization may not bring happiness but rather be happiness. The present results may be

consistent with this position. Conclusions The present paper has been concerned with two major principles derived from eudaimonic theory. First, the theory holds that happiness is a consequence of actualization. Second, eudaimonic

theory suggests that virtue enables us to choose, act and feel so as to procure the goods we need for actualization. Thus, virtue enables growth which in turn brings happiness. The results

generally confirm the importance of virtue for happiness, but the place of growth or actualization

in the theoretical structure of well-being remains uncertain.

Whether actualization brings

happiness, is happiness, or is only peripheral to happiness, is still an open question.

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TABLE SCALES,

MEANS AND RELIABILITIES

SCALE Critical Thinking Inventory(CTI) Self Appraisal Scale (SAS) Situation Reaction Scale (SRS) SRS+ SRSPersonal Growth Scale (PGS) Life Rating Scale (LRS) Affect Balance Scale (ABS) AB+ ABSatisfaction With Life (SWLS)

VARIABLE Virtue/Thinking Virtue/Behavior Virtue/Motiv Virtue/Like Virtue/Dislike Growth Growth Affect Balance Positive Affect Negative Affect Well-being

MEAN

SD

ALPHA .90 .87 .74 .62 .85 .63 .72 .59 .88

116.7 17.59 26.2 6.92 28.2 15.30 9.04 75.3 8.31 47.1 85.6 8.51 20.9 6.30 2.0 2.16 4.0 1.28 2.0 1.50 23.5 6.58