Verslag 6

Aviation Studies Powerplant 2A2J
Preface
This project demanded specific research into powerplant and the re-engining for NATOs AWACS E3A airplanes. Noise limitations, environmental pollution and fuel prices have played a more important role during the years. This causes Airliners to make important and necessary decisions about their engines. This project would not have been accomplished without the guidance during this project. Therefore special thanks goes out to Rob Scholder for his guidance during this project. The group hopes all readers of this report enjoy it. Project group 2A2J, December, 2007
The engine you need in the time you want it
Hogeschool van Amsterdam - AHT
Index
Introduction ......................................................................................................................................... 1 Summary ............................................................................................................................................. 2 1 Gas Turbine Research ................................................................................................................... 3 1.1 NATO .................................................................................................................................... 3 1.1.1 Organisation and goal ....................................................................................................... 3 1.1.2 AWACS ............................................................................................................................. 3 1.2 Thermodynamics................................................................................................................... 3 1.2.1 Laws of Thermodynamics ................................................................................................. 4 1.2.2 Brayton Process ................................................................................................................ 4 1.2.3 Gas Turbine Efficiency ...................................................................................................... 6 1.3 Theory engines ..................................................................................................................... 6 1.3.1 Engine components .................................................................................................................. 6 A Compressor .......................................................................................................................... 7 B Combustion chamber ............................................................................................................ 9 C Turbine .................................................................................................................................. 9 D Exhaust ............................................................................................................................... 10 1.3.2 Types of aircraft gas turbines .......................................................................................... 10 1.3.3 Subsystems ........................................................................................................................ 12 1.3.3 Subsystems..................................................................................................................... 13 1.3.4 Materials of the Engine ................................................................................................ 14 1.3.5 Forces on an Engine ....................................................................................................... 15 1.3.6 Vibrations ........................................................................................................................ 16 1.4 Demands and Regulations .................................................................................................. 18 1.4.1 Contractor Demands ....................................................................................................... 18 1.4.2 Regulations ..................................................................................................................... 18 Modification Possibilities .............................................................................................................. 21 2.1 Current Engine .................................................................................................................... 21 2.1.1 Specifications .................................................................................................................. 21 2.1.2 Points of improvement..................................................................................................... 22 2.2 Demands new engine ......................................................................................................... 22 2.2.1 Performance.................................................................................................................... 22 2.2.2 Thrust Specific Fuel Consumption ................................................................................... 22 2.2.3 Durability, Emissions and Noise ...................................................................................... 22 2.3 Possible choices ................................................................................................................. 22 2.3.1 Pratt & Whitney 6124 ...................................................................................................... 23 2.3.2 CFM56-7B24 ................................................................................................................... 24 2.3.3 International Aero Engines V2528-D5 ............................................................................. 25 2.4 Pros and Cons .................................................................................................................... 27 2.5 Engine choice...................................................................................................................... 27
3 Modification Aspect .......................................................................................................................... 28 3.1 Old versus New ............................................................................................................... 28 3.2 Costs ............................................................................................................................... 28 3.2.1 Purchase ......................................................................................................................... 28 3.2.2 Modification......................................................................................................................... 28 3.2.3 Maintenance ....................................................................................................................... 29 3.2.4 Fuel..................................................................................................................................... 29 3.2.5 Personnel ........................................................................................................................ 29 3.3 Conclusion .......................................................................................................................... 29 List of Literature ............................................................................................................................... 31 Appendix list ..................................................................................................................................... 34
Introduction
The project group 2A2J (year 2007-2008), from the engineering department of ALA is assigned by the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) to investigate a successor for the engine of an AWACS E3A airplane. This report contains the research of and engine construction and its operation. The project group will also make a selection of three possible engines. The report itself has to comply with several requirements, for example the report must not exceed 40 pages, excluding appendices. The report will also be written conform Wenztel (2006). This report is divided in three chapters in compliance with the general project requirements. To get a clear view of an engine in general, the main aspects will be investigated and described in chapter one. This investigation contains research considering the types of engines and their operation. Usually an engine also has other functions besides providing propulsion. These subsystems are researched and described. The general rules an engine and its subsystems must follow are also handled (1). With this knowledge the search for a new engine can begin. Many engines are available on todays market, the project group must choose the most suitable engine. Therefore the project group has narrowed the selection of engines to a number of three engines. Then all specifications of all three engines are researched and compared. The project group can then evaluate the results and chose the best engine (2). To find out if the modification to the new engine can be realised, a cost-overview must be made. Furthermore, the project group will have made an own conclusion of their research. This will help the NATO to make the right choice for modification of their airplanes (3). The most important source for this report is the paper Vliegtuiggasturbines of sir R. Scholder. To explain all aspects as clear as possible, appendices are used. The list of appendices at page 34 also contains several important documents such as the original project assignment, the pyramid model and planning. The abbreviations used in this report will summarized on page 31. This report also contains an excel sheet used for calculation of several values in an engine (appendix VII), page 12.
Summary
The North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) is considering using the E-3A airplane with Airborne Warning And Control System (AWACS) for another fifteen years. The engines currently mounted on the E-3A are not efficient and produce relatively much more noise than modern engines and therefore the NATO wants to replace the old engine (TF-33). In order to be able to choose a suitable engine a better understanding of gas turbines is needed. To get a better understanding of gas turbines a basic thermodynamic knowledge is needed. Thermodynamics is a part of physics, where heat is converted in mechanical energy and vice versa. The First Law of Thermodynamics is also known as the law of conservation of energy. According to this law the sum of all energy changes will always stay equal to zero. the Second Law of Thermodynamics states that mechanical energy can be converted into heat, but not all heat can be converted into mechanical energy. There will always be losses of heat to the environmental surroundings, because heat always tries to go from warm area to a cooler area. An aircraft gas turbine can be divided into four main sections. These parts are from the front of the back of the engine to the compressor, combustion chamber, the turbine and the exhaust. In this axial compressor the air pressure rises with every step and moves towards the combustor. At the end of the compressor the air pressure has risen, the temperature is high and the volume is small. This air flows to the combustors where the fuel is spread under high pressure through a nozzle into the combustion chamber which will be ignited by the igniters. This causes the mixture of air and the combustion gas expand with high velocity towards the turbines. The turbines deliver power to the compressor and the turbine itself gets powered by the energy from the gas that comes from the combustion chamber. After the turbine the mixture flows out of the exhaust. The exhaust provides a vortex free axial gas stream and protect the aircraft from hot air. Most large aircraft use the turbofan engines. The air that is accelerated by a fan is split up; one part is driven to bypass the core engine, the other part is driven through the core engine. The bypass ratio (BPR) is the ratio between the mass flow rate of air drawn in by the fan but bypassing the engine core to the mass flow rate passing through the engine core. During operation an aircraft engine is subject to different forces. The basic forces are gravity, propulsion and aerodynamic forces. Every rotating part in an engine has its own rotating moment. Due to the rotations, a centrifugal force called Fcentrifugal is created. Vibration will occur in the engine. The most important vibrations are the high cycle fatigue and low cycle fatigue. High cycle fatigue is a vibration caused by blades that are in the hot gas stream. One of the important design aspects of an engine is the noise. The engines need to comply with the regulations set by the International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO). The noise levels are expressed in Perceived Noise Level (PNL) which is on a logarithmic scale in units Effective Perceived Noise in Decibel (EPNdB). There are also emission regulations which are set up to minimize environmental damage (Annex 16 volume II Aircraft Engine Emissions). Before an engine can be certified it must be tested on its emission. To make a modification possible it is necessary to know which engine is used this is the Pratt & Whitney TF-33 which is the military version of the JT3D, used by the civil aviation. The engine has a maximum power at sea level of 21,000 lb and the trust specific fuel consumption (TSFC) at maximum power is 0.52 lb/lbt/h. With the characteristics of the old engine, a number of new variants can be found that comply with the demanded properties. The Pratt & Whitney 6124 is a turbofan engine which can deliver 23,800 pounds of thrust and the TSFC at cruise is 0.0672 Kg/N * h. The second possible engine is the CFM56-7B24 which can deliver 24,200 pounds of thrust and also has a cruise TSFC of 0.0615 Kg/N * h. The third possible engine is the V2528-D5 which can deliver 28,000 pounds of thrust and the TSFC at cruise is 0.0625 Kg/N * h. The best suitable engine is the CFM56-7B24 cause the TSFC at cruise is lower, which means fewer emissions. Also the engine has a higher range and endurance. The replacement of the old engine is very expensive. One CFM56-7B24 costs 3.93 million euro so to replace all the engines and to have some spares a total of 72 engines is needed which will cost 283 million euro. With the modification the improvement of the E-3A will be recognizable in a lower fuel consumption, higher thrust, lower emissions and a lower noise level. As required, the new CFM567B24 engines will be able to operate under hot conditions, have a low TSFC, so that the endurance will meet the demand of 10 hours non-stop flying at a speed of 380 kts. The final decision of the replacement must be made by the NATO.
Hogeschool van Amsterdam - AHT 2
Gas Turbine Research
The NATO has a couple of airplanes, provided with TF-33 engines. First, a brief explanation of this organisation will be given (1.1). To get a better idea of an engines operation, the theory of thermodynamics will be explained (1.2). Main parts used to make operation of an engine possible, are discussed (1.3). Besides the the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) demands for the new engine, all engines have to apply to demands and regulations, set up by EASA (1.4).
1.1 NATO
To clarify the intention of re-enginging the E-3A airplane, it is necessary to know what kind of organisation is assigning this project (1.1.1). The NATO uses airplanes equipped with an Airborne Warning And Control System (AWACS), and is used in several situations (1.1.2).
1.1.1 Organisation and goal

The NATO was founded after World War II. It is an alliance between 26 countries, generally from Europe and North America. The organisation strives for international freedom. The main goal of the NATO is to support the North Atlantic Treaty, signed in Washington on the 4th of April 1949. This means that the organisation plays a fundamental role in providing freedom and security for all members of the NATO. The NATO is a military alliance, supporting all forces on land, sea and in the air. The organisation supports safety in a political and military way. A part of the fleet uses AWACS. The fleet that uses this system is called the NATO Airborne Early Warning and Control Force (NAEWF), owned and operated by NATO. The NATO AWACS E-3 has seventeen trained crew, all with their own expertise.
1.1.2 AWACS
Currently the NATO uses 17 E-3A airplanes. These E-3A airplanes are the military variant of the Boeing 707-300, combined with the AWACS system. This system observes all movements in the surrounding area. The system makes it possible to detect other airplanes and can be used as a lookdown radar. It also communicates with other airplanes. While airplanes without AWACS have a small range of detecting aircraft, the AWACS system supports signals due to its wider range and stronger signal. The AWACS is a large dome (figure 1.1) with a diameter of 9.1 meter. Its height is 1.8 meter and the length from the body to the dome is 3.35 meter.
1
1.
AWACS radar dome
Figure 1.1: NATO E-3A
1.2 Thermodynamics
To get a better understanding of gas turbines a basic understanding of the thermodynamics is needed. Thermodynamics is a part of physics, where heat is converted in mechanical energy and vice versa. The thermodynamics consist of two laws, the First Law of Thermodynamics and Second Law of Thermodynamics (1.2.1). There is one process which occurs in every gas turbine, this process is called the Joule process or also called Brayton process (1.2.2). With the Brayton process the efficiency of gas turbine can be determined (1.2.3).
1.2.1 Laws of Thermodynamics

There are two thermodynamic laws, the First Law of Thermodynamics (A) and the Second Law of Thermodynamics (B).
First Law of Thermodynamics
The First Law of Thermodynamics (formula 1) is also known as the law of conservation of energy. According to this law the sum of all energy changes will always stay equal to zero. This law is valid if there is an amount of heat, internal energy and outward work. This means that the supply of heat can increase the internal energy of an object or by letting the object perform an outward work. But the total amount of energy will always stay the same. Q = U + W Q U W = Heat = Internal Energy = Outward work Q in J U in J W in J (1)
Second Law of Thermodynamics
The first law of Thermodynamics stated that heat can be converted into mechanical energy and vice versa. But the Second Law of Thermodynamics states that a process will always go in one direction and is irreversible. This means that mechanical energy can be converted into heat, but not all heat can be converted into mechanical energy. There will always be losses of heat to the environmental surroundings, because heat always tries to go from warm area to a cooler area. The nature strives for disorder. The Second Law of Thermodynamics is also known as the law of entropy. Entropy is a measure for disorder. In an irreversible process, the entropy will increase.
1.2.2 Brayton Process

The process in a gas turbine is an open cycle and was first used in the hot air engine of Joule. This process is called the Joule process or the Brayton process (A). This process is theoretically, in reality the process is a bit different (B).
Theoretic Brayton Process
An open cycle means that a medium is replaced by a new medium after the cycle. The Brayton process can be shown in a pressure-volume (P-V) diagram and a temperature-entropy (T-S) diagram (figure 1.2).
1-2 2-3 3-4 4-5 5-6
Inlet Compression Combustion Expansion Exhaust
V
Figure 1.2: P-V diagram and T-S diagram
To get a better understanding of the Brayton process, the process is illustrated below in a gas turbine (figure 1.3).
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Inlet Compression Combustion Expansion Exhaust
Figure 1.3: Gas turbine Brayton process
The Brayton process consists of different routes: Route 1-2 (Inlet) Route 2-3 (Compression) Route 3-4 (Combusting) Route 4-5 (Expansion) Route 5-6 (Exhaust)
Ad 1 Inlet
The air flow enters the inlet (1), this inlet is divergent. With the law of continuity (formula 2) can be explained that the pressure and temperature increases. The velocity of the influent air will decrease. This is called the ram recovery effect. A V = Density = Surface = Volume kg/m3 A m2 V m3 (2)
* A * V = constant
Ad 2 Compressor
After the inlet, the air flow will be compressed (2), which causes the temperature and pressure to increase. During the compression the velocity of the air will remain constant. Also the volume of the gas will decrease.
Ad 3 Combustion
After the gas is compressed it enters the combustion chamber (3). In the combustion chamber there is constant burning process. By burning fuel, this is the heat which added to the process and is called Qin. Now the temperature, volume and gas velocity will increase. Theoretically the pressure will be constant, but in reality the pressure will decrease. These are the losses in the combustion chamber.
Ad 4 Expansion
Now the gas will expand (4), which will cause the pressure and temperature to decrease intense. The volume of the gas and velocity increases. The energy of the gas will be converted into a mechanical energy, which will drive the compressors.
Ad 5 Exhaust
At last the gas will go through the exhaust (5) of the gas turbine, also called propelling nozzle. The nozzle is convergent, so the pressure and temperature will decrease, and the volume and velocity will increase. De velocity of the gas reaches its maximum in the nozzle.
Real Brayton Process
As explained before, in reality the Brayton process encounters several losses (figure 1.4).
1. Real process 2. Theoretic process 1 2 S

Figure 1.4: P-V diagram Figure 1.5: T-S diagram
1 2
1. Real temperature 2. Theoretic temperature
The dotted lines represent the real process (1), and the solid line the theoretic process (2). This is because in the combustion the pressure decreases, and this causes losses in the compressor and turbine. The losses in the compressor are a consequence of vortices and friction in different stages of the compressor. There will also be losses in the combustion chamber. As a result of the losses, more fuel has to be added to the mixture. This will cause a higher fuel usage. At the same time at the combustion process a decrease in pressure will occur, this is necessary, because otherwise the gas will not flow towards the turbine. The loss in pressure is about four percent of the end pressure. For the turbine does the same story as the compressor count, in this stage losses also occur while expansion of the gas. Expansion vortices and friction causes the gas temperature to increase (figure 1.5). This results in the fact that the temperature after the turbine will be higher (1) after isentropic expansion (2).
1.2.3 Gas Turbine Efficiency

With the thermodynamics it is possible to calculate the efficiency of a gas turbine. Before the efficiency can be calculated, first some important ratio has to be determined. Temperature ratio over the compressor is (appendix III, 1). Another important ratio is temperature ratio of the lowest and highest temperature which occur (2). This is the ratio of the inlet temperature before the turbine, this is called Turbine Inlet Temperature (TIT), and the temperature before the compressor. Besides temperature ratio, there is pressure ratio. The pressure ratio is the ratio over the compressor (3). With these ratios it is possible to determine different efficiency; Due to the losses in the compressor the compressor efficiency (c) is made (4). The compressor efficiency of old gas turbine is about 85% and 87%, but the gas turbine which are used these days have an compressor efficiency of over the 90%. The turbine also has a efficiency and is called the turbine efficiency (t). The turbine efficiency is about 88% and 90% (5). With these two it is possible to determine the thermodynamic efficiency (thermodynamic) (6).
1.3 Theory engines

Before a new gas turbine for the E3-A can be found a thorough component research needs to be made. The engine components are the compressor, combustion chamber, turbines and the exhaust (1.3.1). There are also three different kind of engines these are the turbojet, turbofan and the turboprop (1.3.2). On an gas turbine there are several subsystems like the thrust reversers and the pneumatic system (1.3.3). For the different engine component there are different materials used that must be able to withstand the temperatures and the pressures in the engine (1.3.4). During operation there are basic forces on the engine like the gravity and propulsion, but there are also centrifugal and pressure differences forces (1.3.5). Vibrations are a bad side-effect which occurs in every engine (1.3.6).
1.3.1 Engine components

An aircraft gas turbine can be divided into four main sections. These parts are from the front of the back of the engine to the compressor, combustion chamber, the turbine and the exhaust. (figure 1.6). The compressor is used to compress the air (A) and the combustion chamber is used to expand the
gas with the use of fuel (B). Turbines are used for powering the compressor (C) and after the turbines the air flow goes through the exhaust which increases the velocity of the gas (D).
Figure 1.6: Engine sections
Compressor
The compressor compresses the air before it sends the air to the combustion chamber. There are two kinds of compressors: 1. Centrifugal compressor 2. Axial compressor
Ad 1 Centrifugal compressor
In the centrifugal compressor the air flows parallel to the rotation axel and in radial direction out (figure 1.7). The impeller is a disc with blades on top of it (1). This part is powered by the turbine and sucks the air in. The diffuser (2) and the compressor manifold (3) are non-moving parts.
1. Impeller 2. Diffuser 3. Compressor manifold
1 2 3
Figure 1.7: Centrifugal compressor
The air flows in at the front of the impeller and gets pushed up to the diffuser. During this process the velocity (1) will increase and because of the divergent shape the pressure (2) will also increase (figure 1.8). 1. Velocity 2. Pressure
1 2
Figure 1.8: Pressure and velocity in compressor Hogeschool van Amsterdam - AHT 7
The diffuser is also divergent and consists of vanes. In some engines there are two diffusers after each other. One radial (2) and one axial (3) diffuser which moves the air in 90 degrees straight back (figure 1.9). This will cause an extra rise in pressure while the velocity drops to approximately the same as when it entered the impeller.
1. 2. 3. 1
Impeller Radial diffuser Axial diffuser
2 3
Figure 1.9: Diffuser Ad 2 Axial compressor
In the axial compressor the air flows parallel to the rotation axel through the rotor (figure 1.10). This type of compressor consists of two parts: the rotor (1) and the stator (2). 1. 2. Rotor vanes Stator vanes
1 2
Figure 1.10: Axial compressor
The rotor is a cylinder with a large amount of vanes (appendix IV). Between a line of rotor vanes there is a line of stator vanes. A line of rotor vanes and a line of stator vanes is called a stage (figure 1.11).
Figure 1.11: Compressor stage
In this axial compressor the air pressure rises with every step and moves towards the combustor. At the end of the compressor the air pressure has risen, the temperature is high and the volume is small. This air flows to the combustors.
Combustion chamber
The combustion chamber consists of two cylinder shaped tubes. The flame tube or combustion liner and the air casing (figure 1.12). Twenty-five to thirty percent of the air from the compressor goes straight into the combustion chamber, while the rest will be added at a later stage. On the left side the compressed air from the compressor flows into the combustor. The fuel is spread under high pressure through the nozzle into the combustion chamber which will be ignited by the igniters. Before the air from the compressor enters the combustion chamber, the axial speed must be reduced for an optimal combustion. This speed should be around sixty meters per second while the velocity of the air from the compressor is about 100 to 200 meter per second. Therefore, swirl vanes are installed (1). The secondary air is added to the combustor through a large amount of dilution holes (2). This makes the temperature drop to acceptable values for the combustion chamber.
1 2
Figure 1.12: Combustion chamber
1. 2.
Swirl vanes Dilution holes
The mixture of the large amount of air and the combustion gas expands with high velocity towards the turbines.
Turbine
The turbine delivers power to the compressor and several other engine accessories. The turbine itself extracts its energy from the gas that is produced in the combustion chamber. Most gas turbines use two turbines (figure 1.13) and thus two shafts (N1 and N2) (1 & 2). 1
2
3 4 5 6
Figure 1.13: Turbines Hogeschool van Amsterdam - AHT
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
N1 shaft N2 shaft High pressure turbine High pressure compressor Low pressure turbine Low pressure compressor 9
The high pressure turbine (3) powers the high pressure compressor (4) and the low pressure turbine (5) powers the low pressure compressor (6). The hot gas from the combustors will flow through the turbine vanes (figure 1.14). These gas will exert a force on the vanes. In reaction the vanes will exert a force on the shaft which will cause the shaft to turn.
Figure 1.14: Turbine vanes
The remaining energy of the gas will be used for the other steps of the turbine and also for propulsion of the aircraft.
Exhaust
The exhaust provides a vortex free axial gas stream and protect the aircraft from hot air. The exhaust also makes the gas velocity as high as possible. This is done by using a convergent nozzle pipe (figure 1.15). This pipe is directly behind the turbine and is called the exhaust duct. This duct is placed to overcome the ring shaped form of the turbine to the round shape of the nozzle. 1. (Convergent) propelling nozzle
Figure 1.15: Nozzle
Because the airflow at the end of the engine has a much higher velocity compared to the gas at the inlet of the engine there is propulsion.
1.3.2 Types of aircraft gas turbines

In aviation, three basic types of gas turbine engines are used as a mean of propulsion on aircraft. The most basic design is the turbojet (A). The modern, more efficient version, which is used on many transport category aircraft today, is the turbofan (B). The propeller of the turboprop (C) is driven by a gas turbine engine.
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Turbojet
The turbojet (or straight jet) is the oldest and most simple type of jet engine. The design (figure 1.16) comprises all the basic part described in paragraph 1.3.1, and was the only type of gas turbine used in aviation for a long time. The first jet aircraft flew with turbojets with a single compressor and turbine. Turbojets proved to be powerful engines, but as gas turbine knowledge improved downsides of the engine were found. The high fuel consumption is the main disadvantage. Namely, the kinetic energy that comes from the fuel energy, varies with vjet2, while the thrust varies with vjet. Therefore, the fuel consumption rises drastically when higher thrust is needed. The propulsion efficiency of a turbojet is therefore relatively low at the speed that is desired for commercial aviation. Secondly, the turbojets noise level is high compared to other engines. This is caused by the gas that exits the nozzle at high velocity. The turbojet accelerates a relatively small mass of gas to a high velocity. This hot gas exits the nozzle and contacts the ambient colder, slower air, which makes the turbojet very noisy.
Figure 1.16: Single-spool axial flow turbojet
Today, turbojets are only used in military aircraft. Their higher operating speeds make the turbojet more efficient. Also, high fuel consumption and high noise levels are of less importance, as military aircraft are not bound to civil regulations. On some military turbofans, an afterburner is installed. To achieve a great thrust boost, the afterburner can spray fuel directly into the hot exhaust gas. The fuel consumption drastically increases when the afterburner is used.
Turbofan
Turbofan jet engines feature the parts of a turbojet engine (figure 1.17), but a low-pressure compressor and turbine are added respectively in front of the compressor and at the end of the turbine. The low-pressure compressor or fan acts as an extra stage of compression while the lowpressure turbine extracts energy from the exhaust gases. As a result, the pressure after the fan is increased, and the temperature and pressure of the exhaust gases are lowered. The air that is accelerated by the fan is split up; one part is driven to bypass the (core) engine, another part is driven through the core engine. The bypass ratio (BPR) is the ratio between the mass flow rate of air drawn in by the fan but bypassing the engine core to the mass flow rate passing through the engine core. Depending on the engine type, the BPR can vary from less than three (low bypass ratio) to more than five (high bypass ratio). The Rolls Royce Company produces high bypass jet engines up to a bypass ratio of 11:1. Compared to turbojets, turbofans accelerate a large mass of air to a relatively slower speed. This means that, at jet airliner speeds, for the same fuel consumption, the given thrust of a turbofan engine is much greater. The propulsion efficiency is therefore more suitable for commercial jet aircraft. Furthermore, the total velocity of the air exiting the nozzles and bypass duct is lower, which leads to a reduction of sound level.
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Figure 1.17: Triple-spool high bypass ratio turbofan
The turbine of a turbofan drives both the low pressure and high pressure compressors. Because of their different diameters, the low and high pressure compressors rotate at different speeds. Thus, the engine requires multiple shafts to propel the compressors. Two shafts are most common, sometimes three shafts are used.
Turboprop
On turboprop engines, almost all of the useful power output is used to drive a shaft, which at its turn drives an unducted propeller via a gearbox mechanism. The gearbox is necessary because the efficiency of the propeller tips drops when they approach the speed of sound. The turbine rotates at a much greater speed. The air that leaves the nozzle after the large turbine only provides a small part of the total thrust. The turbine is larger than on the other types of engines. In the 400-700 km/h domain, the turboprop provides more thrust and is much lighter, when compared to piston engines. Compared to a turbofan, the turboprop is lighter (because it lacks a nacelle) and requires less fuel for a given fuel consumption. The thrust that a turboprop produces collapses at higher speeds however, this prevents their use in high-velocity applications.
1.3.3 Subsystems
Using the right materials are essential to the correct functioning of the engine. There are sereral types of materials used that are chosen by its needed specifications like withstanding extreme high pressures in the compressor (A) or extreme heat in the combustion chamber (B). Also the turbine has to be able to withstand extreme heat and pressure (C). The exhaust nozzle has to be able to camp with the heat and speed of the gasses (D).
Compressor
The materials that are used for the compressor blades has to be a light and very strong metal. One of the most used metals in the compressor of most civil aircraft is very strong but light titanium alloys. In early years the compressor was made out of an alloy of aluminum. The high pressure compressor was then made out of a steel alloy.
Combustion chamber
Because of the high temperature and relative high pressure the combustion chamber is one of the most delicate parts of the whole engine. This will result in the use of very tough materials that will have to restraint the heat that is produced. This was done by using the best heat resisting materials and layers of heat resistant coating and cooling of the inner was wall. The metal that is used is a steel alloy that is treated so that it can withstand the enormous heat.
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Turbine
The turbine in his way will produce the force to drive the sub systems and return the power to the compressor. The turbine suffers extreme high temperatures and pressures. The material that is used is therefore a metal that is capable of resisting the heat and pressure. The metal that is used in the turbine is therefore an alloy of titanium.
Exhaust nozzle
The nozzle is where the thrust is produced, the nozzle must be capable of withstanding the heat of the gas. Therefore nickel of titanium will have to be used. Also the heat that is produced and partials absorbed may not be transferred to the rest of the aircraft structure. This is done by or ventilation around the heat pipe or by placing several layers of insulating blanket.
1.3.3 Subsystems
There are six subsystems attached to the engine, the system that will drive the hydraulic engines (A). Further on there is a system that will produce the electricity that is needed (B) and the third system is the pneumatic system (C). The engine needs to be started by a separate engine (D), this is also a subsystem. To keep the engines running a fuel pump is required (E) and for the smooth operation of the engine, pumps that will pump lubrication oil into the engine are also installed (F). When the aircraft after flight touches down on the runway the engines will reverse their thrust and this is the last subsystem (G).
Hydraulic System
The hydraulic system is pressurized by a pump that is connected to the gearbox that is linked to the engine shafts. The shaft that is linked to the pump that is pressurizing the system is in the early engines directly mounted to the high pressure compressor shaft.
Electric System
The electric system is powered by a generator. This generator is driven by the high pressure turbine shaft. The Power is produced by linking a generator to the accessory gearbox that is mounted on N2 axle. The N2 axle is the shaft that runs from the air turbine to the front of the engine to the High pressure compressor.
Pneumatic System
The system is used to cool/heat the cabin and to cool the computers and radar screens that are used during flight. The air that is used for the air-conditioning of the cabin is air bled from the compressor. This air is sent to the A/C pack (air conditioning) and due to expanding the temperature drops and the air is pumped into the cabin. An anti ice system is added (hot air system) to provide several parts in the engine with heating. This heating is necessary to prevent parts from damaging due to cold situations. Ice can enter the inlet and damage the blades. Anti icing is used on parts sensitive for damage. For example the nose cone, leading edge of the nose cowl and the front stage of the compressor stator blades.
Starting Motor
To start the engine a separate motor is installed. This motor will initiate the turning of the high pressure compressor. Because of the aerodynamic linkage the low pressure will start turning also. And after the starting fuel is injected and the engine is at the right RPM the fuel nozzle will automatically start the flow from the main fuel. Then the starting fuel is shut off.
Fuel Pumps
Main fuel pressure pumps for gas turbine engines generally have one or two gear type, positive displacement or high pressure elements. These gears are driven by the N2 shaft earlier explained. Each of these elements discharges fuel through a check valve to a common discharge port. If one of these elements fails, the remaining element continues to supply sufficient fuel for engine operation.
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Lubrication Pumps
Oil pumps for turbine engines are usually of the positive displacement gear type, with a relief valve to prevent excessive pressure. The gear type pump consists of a driving and driven gear. The pump is driven from the engine accessory section and causes the oil to pass around the outside of the gears in pockets formed by the gear teeth and the pump casing. The pressure developed is proportional to engine rpm up to the point where the pressure relief valve opens and limits the pressure output of the pump.
Reverse Thrust
The reverse thrust system is not built in the engine but it is systems that will propel the bypass air back out to the front. This will mean that the propulsion that is created backwards is used to slow the aircraft down when it is landed. The air is pushed back out on an angle of approximately 45 degrees.
1.Normal no thrust reverser active 2.Reverse thrust active
1 Figure 1.18 reverse thrust system.
1.3.4 Materials of the Engine

Using the right materials are essential to the correct functioning of the engine. There are several types of materials used that are chosen by its needed specifications like withstanding extreme high pressures in the compressor (A) or extreme heat in the combustion chamber (B). The turbine also has to be able to withstand extreme heat and pressure (C). The exhaust nozzle has to be able to camp with the heat and speed of the gasses (D).
Compressor
The materials that are used for the compressor blades have to be made of a light and very strong metal. One of the most used metals in the compressor of most civil aircraft is very strong but light titanium alloys. In early years the compressor was made out of an alloy of aluminum. The high pressure compressor was then made out of a steel alloy.
Combustion Chamber
Because of the high temperature and relative high pressure the combustion chamber is one of the most delicate parts of the whole engine. This will result in the use of very tough materials that will have to restraint the heat that is produced. This was done by using the best heat resisting materials and layers of heat resistant coating and cooling of the inner was wall. The metal that is used is a steel alloy that is treated so that it can withstand the enormous heat.
Turbine
The turbine in his way will produce the force to drive the sub systems and return the power to the compressor. The turbine suffers extreme high temperatures and pressures. The material that is used is therefore a metal that is capable of resisting the heat and pressure. The metal that is used in the turbine is therefore an alloy of nickel.
Exhaust Nozzle
The nozzle is where the thrust is produced. The nozzle must be capable of withstanding the heat of the gas. Therefore nickel of titanium will have to be used. Also the heat that is produced and partials absorbed may not be transferred to the rest of the aircraft structure. This is done by or ventilation around the heat pipe or by placing several layers of insulating blanket.
1.3.5 Forces on an Engine

An airplane engine is subject to different forces. The basic forces are gravity, propulsion and aerodynamic forces (A). When the engine is in use, several parts are rotating. This causes centrifugal forces (B). A direct consequence of the rotating parts is the rigidity that occurs on the engine (C). Inside the engine pressure differences are present. Those differences result in forces working inside the engine (D).
Basic Forces
Due to earths gravity, the engine will always be subdue to gravity forces (1, figure 1.18). Gravity or Fgravity is calculated with the following formula: Fgravity = m x g Fgravity m g = gravity = mass of the engine = gravitational force Fgravity m g N kg m/s (3)
The goal of an engine is to accelerate the surrounding air. According to the 3rd law of Newton, an action gives an equal opposite reaction. So when the air accelerates in the right direction, an exact force is created in the opposite direction. This force is called propulsion or Fthrust (2, figure 1.18). Fthrust depends on the mass and speed of the surrounding air and is calculated as followed: Fthrust = M x (cJ ci) Fthrust m cJ ci = propulsion = airflow mass per second = incoming airflow speed = exhaust airflow speed Fthrust m cJ ci N kg m/s m/s (4)
The aerodynamic forces an engine is subject to, is created by the colliding air molecules. This causes a force backwards of the airplane, also called drag (3, figure 1.19).
1. 2.
3.
Propulsion Gravity Drag
Figure 1.19: Propulsion, gravity and drag on an aircraft engine
Centrifugal Forces
Every rotating part in an engine has its own rotating moment. Due to the rotations, a centrifugal force called Fcentrifugal is created. To calculate the centrifugal force, the following formula is used: Fcentrifugal = m x 2 x r Fcentrifugal m r = centrifugal force = mass = rotation speed = radius Fcentrifugal m r N Kg m/s m (5)
The Fcentrifugal depends on the rotation speed of the parts, since the rotation speed is the only variable. Fcentrifugal is a very important force as it can develop tension within the engine.
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Gyroscopic effect
Rigidity is caused by the non-stop rotation of the earth and engine axes. This has several effects on the engine. Rigidity occurs when an object has a high rotating speed. The engine will also posses these gyroscopic characteristics. Rigidity depends on three factors, namely the mass, the rotation speed and the distance the object is form the centre. The engine will then try to maintain its angular position according to the earth. For example, while an aircraft is yawing, the engine wants to stay in position. This causes great forces on the suspension of an engine. The suspension of an engine is called a pylon. During rotation, the pylon is heavily stressed due to the gyroscopic effect.
Pressure Differences
Inside the engine different pressure values are present. Thus, the pressure inside the combustion chamber is higher than the pressure at the fan. These pressures practise great forces on the material of the engine. This can lead to cracks in the material. Cracks can lead to domestic damage. Domestic Object Damage (DOD) is the damage created by objects like screws and bolts. This damage is the result of parts of the engine getting loose and damaging the engine.
1.3.6 Vibrations
Vibrations will always occur in an aircraft engine. The vibration on the engine is a disadvantage for the performance of the engine. There are different causes of vibration (A) that could occur. It is necessary to measure the vibrations (B) in the engine to know what the situation is.
Causes of vibration
Many causes for aircraft engine vibrations are known, such as: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. Torsion vibration Offset Eccentricity Whirl Whip Resonance Aerodynamic forces Misalignment Rubbing Wrong bearings High cycle fatigue
Ad 1 Torsion Vibration Vibrations that occur around the rotation centre line. Because of the mass inertia the axis of the gas turbine a rotor wheel can lag behind in relation to the axis of the gas turbine. The forces on the axis can cause vibration and if the forces are getting too large the axis can break. Ad 2 Offset An unequal partitioning of the mass surrounding the rotation centre line. This is one of the most important causes of vibration but it is easy to solve. Usually offset is caused by manufacturing errors. Ad 3 Eccentricity If the centre line of the rotating axis does not coincide with the centre line of the rotation. This can cause small vibrations. Ad 4 Whirl A phenomenon that occurs under influence of lubrication. The bearings are lubricated between the axis and the balls. When the pressure is not equal on all sides, the axis will change from positioning in the bearing this causes vibrations. The oil circulates with the axis but if the oil somehow is debilitated by an obstacle, the axis will slow down, this also causes vibration. The whirl usually occurs by the half of the rotation frequency at the critical speed. The whirl is also called half frequency whirl. It can be detected by measuring the displacement of the axis in the bearing.
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Ad 5 Whip Is caused in the same way as the whirl. The only difference is that the whip occurs by two times the critical speed. At this speed a mechanical resonance can be created. An other phenomenon is the dry whip. This occurs when there is not enough oil in the bearing. Ad 6 Resonance Different kind of parts that vibrate at the same frequency. If somewhere in the engine a part starts to vibrate with an own frequency and a different part has the same own frequency this part will also vibrate. Ad 7 Aerodynamic Forces Forces on the blades of the gas turbine can cause vibrations. The forces on the blades are not harmful for the engine. The forces working on the blades can cause resonance and that is harmful for the engine. Ad 8 Misalignment If the two centre line of the axis crosses each other in stead of overflowing each other. The forces that are working on the axis can be divided in a horizontal and vertical force on the axis. This causes a vibration in the axis. A miss alignment can be established by an offset and a combination of miss alignment and offset Ad 9 Rubbing When the rotor rubs against the casing vibrations will occur. When this happens a lot of noise will be generated. Rubbing that occurs regularly does not give any seriously problems. Ad 10 Wrong Bearings When the slide or roller bearing is not installed correctly, vibrations can occur because of the forces working on the bearings. Ad 11 High Cycle Fatigue Blades that are in the hot gas stream will cause vibrations. Especially the blades that are locked on one side can break. To make sure that the blades will not break, the blades have to be cooled.
Measurement
To measure the vibration on the engine sensors are needed. There are three different kinds of vibration sensors: 1. Proximity transducer 2. Velocity transducer 3. Accelerometer Ad 1 Proximity Transducer Is a non contact vibration sensor that is at a certain distance of the engine. The most common transducer is the Eddy current transducer. This transducer exists out of a spool that is provided by a frequency of one megahertz. When the distance changes between the spools it will give a current that is associated with a kind of vibration. The proximity transducer is usually used for the measurement of the distance between the bearings and the axis. Ad 2 Velocity Transducer Is an electro dynamic transducer and it measures the vibrations. The transducers consist of a spool that is positioned in a magnetic field. If the spool gets in motion an electrical current will flow and the size of the current can be associated with the vibration. The velocity transducer is very suitable for measuring low frequencies and vibrations of light engine parts. Ad 3 Accelerometer It works according the piezo-electric principal. It exists out of two piezo-electrical elements that are connected with each other. If there is pressure on the piezo a potential difference will occur. The accelerometer transforms vibration into a potential difference. The accelerometer is mostly used for high frequency vibrations. It is very important that the accelerometer is very good connected to the concerned part.
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1.4 Demands and Regulations

A new engine design cannot be chosen randomly. The new engine requires several specifications. These demands are set up by the NATO. (1.4.1) However, the aircraft also has to maintain its airworthiness with the new engines. The airworthiness certificate can be obtained by following the rules set up by the European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) in CS-25. (1.4.2)
1.4.1 Contractor Demands

The goal off this report is to find a new engine for the AWACS E-3, which fulfils the demands of the NATO. The main reason for choosing a new engine is the low effectiveness, due to high fuel consumption, and the high noise pollution of the current engine (Pratt & Whitney TF-33 (JT3D)). Therefore, the new engine must have low fuel consumption and must be more silent than is predecessor. As a result of the high effectiveness, the aircraft must be able to maintain a speed of 380 kts for 10 hours without refuelling. Further demands are the requirement of an Extended-Range TwinEngine Operation (ETOPS) and thrust reverse. With the new engine, enough thrust must be provided so the aircraft will be able to depart from every major airport, with a maximum elevation of 6000 ft, under all weather conditions.
1.4.2 Regulations
EASA regulations comprise certification specifications for large aeroplanes (CS-25), certification specifications for aircraft jet engines (CS-E 30) (A). Noise (B) and emissions (C) are regulated in International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO) Annex 16.
Engine Regulations
All engines must have an airworthiness code that is applicable for the engine according to the CS-E 30. All other aircraft parts and equipment that are mounted on, or driven by, the engine and not covered by the engine certificate type must be identified. The engine must have a manual that contains instructions for installing and operating the engine. These instructions must include a definition of the physical and functional points of contact with and equipment of the airplane. They must also contain a description of the primary, all alternate modes and any back up systems. Servicing information that defines details regarding servicing points, capacity of tanks, reservoirs types of fluids to be used. The limitations of the engine control system and its points of contact with the aircraft systems must also be clarified. Engine capacity data, consistent with the acceptance and operating limitations, must be provided for the aircraft performance, handling and stressing purposes. The maximum stresses developed in the engine must not transgress values of the material that is used in the engine. Where new type material is involved, evidence must be available to prove the assumed material characteristic and the effects of any residual stresses. The materials must have sufficient strength to withstand the flight and ground loads for the aircraft as a whole in combination with the local loads arising from the operation of the engine. Each engine must be developed and constructed to function throughout its stated flight envelope and operating range of rotational speeds and power/thrust without inducing stress or vibrations forces to the aircraft structure and engine.
Noise
The noise an engine produces is one of the main factors for engine manufacturers to base an engine design on. The aircraft noise regulations for Europe are set up by the European Aviation Safety Agency to regulate the amount of noise an aircraft may produce. These regulations are based on those of the ICAO. If aircraft comply to these regulations the Federal Aviation Organisation (FAA) classify them into four groups (appendix V). These regulations can be found in Annex 16 volume I: Aircraft noise. Before an aircraft is certified the noise levels are measured. These levels are expressed in Perceived Noise Level (PNL) which is on a logarithmic scale in units Effective Perceived Noise in Decibel (EPNdB). The noise levels of each aircraft is measured at three points (table 1). The lateral full power measurement point is for jet powered aircraft on a line parallel to and 450 meters from the runway centre line. This is the point where the noise level is at a maximum at take-off. The second line is the fly-over measurement point. This is the point on the extended centre line of the runway and at a distance of 6.5 km from the start of roll.
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The third measurement point is the approach point. This measurement point is on the ground, on the extended centre line of the runway, 2 km from the threshold. On level ground this corresponds to a position 120 m (394 ft) vertically below the 3 descent path originating from a point 300 m beyond the threshold. Low MTOW (EPNdB) 94 (MTOW 35000 kg) 89 98 (MTOW 35000 kg) High MTOW (EPNdB) 103 (MTOW 400000 kg) 101 (MTOW 385000 kg) 104 (MTOW 385000 kg) 106 (MTOW 385000 kg) 105 (MTOW 280000 kg)
Measurement point Lateral full power Two engines or less Flyover Three engines
Four engines or more
Approach
Table 1: Maximum noise levels
Emissions
These regulations are set up to minimize environmental damage (Annex 16 volume II Aircraft Engine Emissions). Before an engine can be certified is must be tested on its emission. There are several conditions which an engine must comply with. The following emission shall be controlled for certification of an engine. Smoke Gaseous emission Unburned hydrocarbons (HC) Carbon monoxide (CO) Oxides of nitrogen (NOx) The smoke emission is measured in terms of smoke number (SN) The mass (Dp) of the gaseous pollutant HC, CO and NOx emitted during the reference emissions landing and takeoff (LTO) cycle shall be reported and measured in grams (table 2). Phase Takeoff Climb Approach Taxi/ ground idle Time in operation mode, minutes 0.7 2.2 4.0 26.0
Table 2: Reference emissions landing and takeoff (LTO) cycle
The engine shall be tested at sufficient power setting to define the gaseous and smoke emission of the engine so that the mass emission rates and Smoke Number corrected to the reference ambient conditions. Phase Takeoff Climb Approach Taxi/ground idle
Table 3: Thrust settings
Thrust settings 117 per cent F00 85 per cent F00 30 per cent F00 7 per cent F00
The Smoke Number at any thrust setting when measured and computed in accordance with the procedures of Appendix 2 and converted to a characteristic level by the procedures of Appendix 6 shall not exceed the level determined (formula 6).
F00 (6) = Max thrust available for take-off under normal operation conditions, at ISA sea level static conditions
Regulatory smoke number= 83,6 (F00)-0.274
The engine shall be representative of the certificated configuration; off-take bleeds and accessory loads other than those necessary for the engines basic operation shall not be simulated.
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Gaseous emission levels when measured and computed in accordance with the procedures of Appendix 3 and converted to characteristic levels by the procedures of Appendix 6 shall not exceed the regulatory levels determined from the following formulas Hydrocarbons: Dp/F00= 19.6 Carbon monoxide: Dp/F00=118 The following derived information shall be provided for each engine tested for certification purposes: emission rate, total gross emission of each gaseous pollutant measured over the LTO cycle, values of Dp/F00 for each pollutant gaseous pollutant and the maximum smoke number.
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Modification Possibilities
To make a modification possible it is necessary to know which engine is used (2.1). From that perspective, a summary of possible improvement points for the new engine can be made (2.2). Subsequently, new engines that are compliant to these points are found, and examined (2.3). A table of advantages and disadvantages can be set up, and the engines are compared (2.4). From the table, the best alternative engine is chosen (2.5).
2.1 Current Engine

When looking for a possible new engine, a comparison has to be made with the currently used engine. To make this comparison possible, research to the specifications of the current engine has to be done (2.1.1). The most important specifications concerning the modification are reviewed. After this, research can be done for improvements of the new engine, which will be brought along the possible alternatives for the new engine (2.1.2).
2.1.1 Specifications
Following table 4 shows the specifications of the Pratt & Whitney TF-33 engine. Specifications Bypass ratio: Take-off thrust (lb): Specific fuel consumption at max. power (lb/lbs/h)i: Fan tip diameter (inch): Length, flange to flange (inch): Compressor stages: Turbine stages: Dry weight (lb): HC emission (g/kN): CO emission (g/kN): NOx emission (g/kN): Smoke number (g/kN):
Table 4: Specifications P&W TF-33
1.4:1 21,000 0.56 54 142 16 4 4,790 0.0 56.7 45.7 6.7
The current engine used by the E3-A airplanes is the Pratt & Whitney TF-33 (figure 2.1). This engine is manufactured by Pratt & Whitney and is the military version of the JT3D, used by the civil aviation. The TF-33 is the turbofan version of the J57 turbojet. The JT3D is an axial-flow turbofan with a 15stage split compressor. A nickel alloy is used in the combustion chamber because of its high melting temperature. The turbine section consists of a four-stage gas turbine. A divergent form is used for the nozzle and consists of a nickel and steel alloy. The engine has a Figure 2.1: Pratt & Whitneys TF-33 maximum power at sea level of 21,000 lb and a compression ratio of 13:1. Its trust specific fuel consumption (TSFC) at maximum power is 0.52 lb/lbt/h. The estimated service life of this engine is 6000 hours. Which means the engine can deliver 6000 hours of operation without any new parts. In table 5 noise emission during several stages of flight can be seen for the TF-33 engine. TF-33 Take-off SL Approach Noise emission (EPNdB) 103 97.6 105.3 Stage 2
Table 5: Noise emissions of the TF-33
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2.1.2 Points of improvement

The TF-33 has some disadvantages, for example a low by-pass ratio. Due to this low by-pass, a higher thrust specific fuel consumption is obtained. Consequence of this high TSFC is the relative high fuel consumption, compared to higher by-pass engines. This is logically quite uneconomical. Due to this high fuel consumption, it will produce a higher emission of gasses. Besides the high TSFC, this engine is susceptible to high noise production. Its high noise production does not meet the current FAA noise requirements (year 2000).
2.2 Demands new engine

There are various alternative engines to replace the TF-33 turbofan on the AWACS E-3A. Before the modification plan is worked out, three regular used engines are primarily rated for their performance (2.2.1) and their fuel consumption during operation (2.2.2). They are also rated according to engines noise, other emissions and finally for compatibility and durability during use on the AWACS E-3A airplanes (2.2.3).
2.2.1 Performance
In the domain of engine performance, the primary concern is thrust. The TF-33 engine on a E-3A provide a maximum of 21,000 pounds of thrust. The newly chosen engine must have a similar thrust, preferably higher. Engine can be compared by their specific thrusts, which can be calculated by dividing the output thrust by the engine inlet mass flow. This cancels out the various diameters of the engines.
2.2.2 Thrust Specific Fuel Consumption

An engine uses fuel to produce thrust. The amount of fuel used to generate enough thrust is an important factor. The fuel efficiency is called Trust Specific Fuel Consumption (TSFC). TSFC is the mass of fuel burned by an engine in one hour divided by the thrust that was produced. To calculate the TSFC of an aircraft, a formula is used (formula 7). TSFC = f / Fpropulsion TSFC f Fpropulsion = Trust Specific Fuel Consumption = Fuel burned in one hour = Thrust created in one hour TSFC f Fpropulsion (7) (Kg/N) per hour Kg N
The TSFC is used to compare engines with each other. The lower the TSFC the higher the efficiency is. The TSFC can also be used to figure out how much fuel is required to perform a procedure. The new engine must remain a constant speed of 380 kts ( 380 kN) during a time of 10 hours, without refuelling. The Boeing 707 has an capacity of 17,866 litre. The TSFC of the TF-33 is 0.56 lb/lb.h.
2.2.3 Durability, Emissions and Noise

The NATO has several demands for the new engine design. The engine must be suitable for the E3-A AWACS planes. Noise regulations set up by the EASA may not be exceeded. Noise levels higher than 101 EPNdB are forbidden. This is an important factor of the engine design. The engine may not exceed the emission levels stated by EASA Annex 16. E3As new engine must not exceed 26 grams per minute during ground idle and by the approach not more than four grams per minute. The smoke number and engine rates must be kept in the reference ambient conditions. Durability of the engine is important because it can reduce costs compared to the old engines. The engine must be able to perform 22,000 lbs of thrust on MSL at standard day conditions. The endurance of the engine must be at least more than ten hours without refuelling at a speed of 380 knots.
2.3 Possible choices

With the characteristics of the old engine, a number of new variants can be found that comply with the demanded properties. These three engines will be discussed on their its most important features. The three engines are produced by different manufacturers and can be compared to the old engine. The chosen engines are the PW6124 (2.3.1), the CFM56-7B (2.3.2) and the V2528 (2.3.3).
2.3.1 Pratt & Whitney 6124

In table 6, specifications of the Pratt & Whitney 6124 can be seen. Specifications Bypass ratio: Take-off thrust (lb): Specific fuel consumption at max. power (lb/lbs/h): Fan tip diameter (inch): Length, flange to flange (inch): Compressor stages: Turbine stages: Dry weight (lb): HC emission (g/kN): CO emission (g/kN): NOx emission (g/kN): Smoke number (g/kN):
Table 6 Specifications P&W 6124
4.9:1 23.800 0.37 56.5 108 4, 6 1, 3 5,050 0.0 56.7 45.7 6.7
Figure 2.2: PW6124
The Pratt & Whitney 6124 (figure 2.2) is a turbofan engine which can deliver 24,000 pounds of thrust. This is enough for the AWACS E-3A. The engine is relatively new (entered service in 2005) and is currently used to power the Airbus 318. The engine uses less parts compared to its counterparts making the maintenance costs lower. The emission of the engine complies with the regulations stated in ICAO Annex 16 (appendix VI.a). The sound emission of the Pratt & Whitney 6124 can be found in table 7. P&W 6124 Take-off Side Line Approach Noise emission (EPNdB) 79.7 90.4 89.7 Stage 3
Table 7: Noise emissions of the P&W 6124
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2.3.2 CFM56-7B24
Following table 8 gives an overview of the specifications of CFMs 56-7B24 engine. Specifications Bypass ratio: Take-off thrust (lb): Specific fuel consumption at max. power (lb/lbs/h): Fan tip diameter (inch): Length, flange to flange (inch): Compressor stages: Turbine stages: Dry weight (lb): HC emission (g/kN): CO emission (g/kN): NOx emission (g/kN): Smoke number (g/kN):
Table 8: Specifications CFM56-7B24
5.3:1 24,200 0.37 61.0 98.7 3, 9 1, 4 5,216 6.0 45.6 55.4 16.2
The CFM56-7B24 (figure 2.3) is a high bypass engine, one of the next engines in the CFM56 series, which is developed by CFM international. This engine is developed to provide engines with higher thrust, improved efficiency and lower maintenance cost than its predecessor CFM56 engines. The engine has achieved outstanding reliability since its entry, this reliability made the CFM56-7B powered 737 the first aircraft the first to be granted with 180-minute ETOPS approval by the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration. ETOPS is the number of minutes flying time from a suitable airport that a twin engine aircraft may operate in the event that one engine becomes inoperative. The approval gives great advantage airliners have a greater route-scheduling flexibility. The engine has a fan diameter of 61.0 inches and a length of 98.7 inches.
Figure 2.3: CFM56-7B
The improvements of the CFM56-7B engines are mainly due to the new 61.0 inch fan, this fan consist of 24 solid titanium wide chord fan blades (figure 2.4, 1). The new core and low pressure turbo machinery, which are designed with the most advanced three-dimensional aerodynamic design methods makes the engine better than its predecessors. The engine incorporates a three stage booster (2) and a nine stage axial compressor (3). Furthermore, the engine incorporates a four stage low pressure turbine (4). The CFM56-7B is equipped with a dual annular combustor which results in a significant reduce of NOx emission. The CFM engine is also equipped with the new electronic engine control called the Full Authority Digital Engine Control (FADEC). This system makes sure that the engines operate at their maximum potential. A new material is used in the turbine and is called the single-crystal. This material is used in the high pressure turbine. By using this material, the CFM56-7, compared to its previous engines, has a lower operation temperature with higher exhaust gas temperature. It also improves the significant fuel with eight percent. Maintenance has improved compared to its predecessors, because the removal and replacement for line replaceable units (LRU) have been reduced by more than 80 percent. Also, the engines can be replaced in a single shift. The emission of the engine complies with the regulations stated in ICAO Annex 16 (appendix VI.B).
3 4
1. 2. 3. 4.
Fan blades Booster Compressor Turbine
2 1
Figure 2.4: CFM56-7B engine
The sound emission of the CFM56-7B can be found in table 9. CFM56-7B Take-off Side Line Approach Noise emission (EPNdB) 88.6 93.2 96.5 Stage 3
Table 9: Noise emissions of the CFM56-7B
2.3.3 International Aero Engines V2528-D5

In table 10, specifications of the International Aero Engines V2528-D5 can be seen. Specifications Bypass ratio: Take-off thrust (lb): Specific fuel consumption at max. power (lb/lbs/h): Fan tip diameter (inch): Length, flange to flange (inch): Compressor stages: Turbine stages: Dry weight (lb): HC emission (g/kN): CO emission (g/kN): NOx emission (g/kN): Smoke number (g/kN): 4.66:1 28,000 0.35 63.5 126 4, 10 2, 5 5,720 0.4 26.4 62.2 11.6
Table 10: Specifications International Aero Engines V2528-D5
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Figure 2.5: V2500 Parts produced per shareholder
International Aero Engines AG is a consortium of four aircraft engine manufacturers, namely Pratt & Whitney, Rolls Royce, Japanese Aero Engines Company Corporation (JAEC) and Germanys MTU Aero Engines. Each company produces one specific module of the successful V2500 jet engines series (figure 2.5), and continuously focuses on refining their specific part of the engine. The International Aero Engines V2500 two-shaft high bypass turbofan series entered service in 1982 as an engine specifically developed for the 150-seater aircraft market. Various versions were designed in the 22,000 to 33,000 pound thrust range. International Aero Engines has powered more than 1,300 aircraft with the V2500 engines, accumulating more than 40 million flight hours. Currently, different versions of the V2500 engine are in use on the Boeing MD-90 and Airbus A319, A320 and A321 aircraft. Because the AWACS E-3A is based on a Boeing 707 jetliner, the MD-90 engine will be most suitable as a replacement. A derated MD-90 version of the V2500 exists, it is named V2528-D5. This engine is compliant with the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) Stage 4 standards and therefore also compliant with the ICAO Chapter 4 minimum requirements for aircraft noise. The NATO will probably prefer these quiet engines, because of the noise pollution around Geilenkirchen Airbase. The V2528-D5 is an advanced, efficient and reliable high bypass turbofan. It comprises, next to the wide chord fan, which is less vulnerable for FOD, four low-pressure compressor stages and ten highpressure compressor stages manufactured by Rolls Royce. The engine has two-shafts, with a two stage high pressure- and five stage low pressure turbine powering the compressors and fan (figure 2.6).
Figure 2.6: V2500 engine overview
The engine operability and maintenance diagnostics are made easier and more efficient with the FADEC. Furthermore, the V2500 series are designed with a balanced emissions approach, which makes it the engine one of the lowest emission levels in its class (appendix VI.C). The sound emission of the V2500 can be found in table 11. V2500 Take-off Side Line Approach Noise emission (EPNdB) 77.2 91.4 91.7 Stage 4
Table 11: Noise emissions of the V2500
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2.4 Pros and Cons

To make the right engine choice, several items have to be investigated. Some characteristics play an import role when making an engines decision. Most important demands are: fuel consumption, noise and emissions produced and at last the compatibility with the E-3A. To get a good overview of the specific engines the following table (table 12) is set up using the excel sheet (appendix VII). Pratt & Whitney 6124 Take Off thrust TSFC Take Off TSFC Cruise Range Max endurance HC emission CO emission NOx emission Smoke number Noise Dry weight Fan Tip Diameter 23.800 lb 0.37 0.0672 Kg/N * h 5528 NM 14,2 Hours 0.0 g/kN 56.7 g/kN 45.7 g/kN 6.7 g/kN Stage 2 5,050 lb 56.5 inch CFM56-7B24 24,200 lb 0.37 0.0615 Kg/N * h 5838 NM 15,0 Hours 6.0 g/kN 45.6 g/kN 55.4 g/kN 16.2 g/KN Stage 3 5,216 lb 61.0 inch International Aero Engines V2528-D5 28,000 lb 0.35 0.0625 Kg/N * h 5632 NM 14,5 hours 0.4 g/kN 26.4 g/kN 62.2 g/kN 11.6 g/kN Stage 4 5,720 lb 63.5 inch
Table 12: Pros and cons summary
The fuel consumption is one of the most important demands on the engine. The aircraft will have to fly at least ten hours without refuelling, to comply with the demands. The engine that is most efficient at cruise level is the CFM56-7B24. Due to the lower emissions the P&W is the most environmental friendly, but when the P&W runs at take-off thrust the slightly higher fuel consumption, in comparison to the IAE engine makes the IAE more economical. The dimensions that are needed to install the engine and complying with the law will mean that certain modifications will have to be done. These changes will have to be made in order to get the plane safe and running. Due to the slightly lower fuel consumption the range of the CFM is a bit larger. But the emissions made by the CFM is much more that the emissions of the P&W engine. The weight of the engine is also a point of consideration, the P&W weighs almost 200 pounds less than the CFM and this will make the amount of weight added to the plane less than when the CFM engines are installed. The weight of the engine will mean that there is less mass and therefore less fuel consumption.
2.5 Engine choice

The engine that will be chosen is the CFM56-7B24. This engine is chosen because of the higher range and endurance. Also the TSFC at cruise is lower, which means fewer emissions. All the three engines comply to ICAO chapter three or four (noise regulations) so this is no point to decide on. Also named before, the maintenance will be outsourced and this will have the consequence that no people have to be trained and hired for maintenance. Companies like KLM make use of the CFM-56 engines, and also maintenance is supported by their own personnel. By example, mechanics of their company can by used for maintaining the E3As new CFM engine. All these things will make the CFM the best contestant to replace the current engine.
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3 Modification Aspect
The CFM56-7B24 engines are the best choice for the engine refit of the AWACS E-3A. To make a good decision about the re-engining of the aircraft, the benefits of the new engine compared to the old one need to be known (3.1). The total costs of this modification are the second big influence on the decision (3.2). The NATO must make a decision about the modification concerning all the costs and benefits, using the conclusions found during this project (3.3).
3.1
Old versus New
To see if it is rewarding to buy and install the new engine, the new engine must be compared with the old engine. In order to see the advantages the new engine brings in the following table is made (table 13). The table contains the most relevant values of the engine. Pratt & Whitney JT3D / TF-33 4150 lb (1884 kg) 0,52 lb/lbs/h No CFM56-7B24 5216 lb (2365 kg) 0,37 lb/lbs/h Yes
Weight Maximum TSFC Legal Noise Emission

Table 13: Pros and cons summary
Although the CFM56-7B24 is heavier, it has a much lower TSFC. This results in a lower and more efficient fuel usage. The chosen engine also complies with the emission standards set by ICAO. After all, the CFM56-7B24 has an overall advantage over the JT3D.The new engine is however larger than its predecessor. The P&W JT3D has a diameter of 1,35m and a length of 3,40m compared with 1.55m and 2.50m of the CFM56-7B24. The new E3-A (equipped with CF56M-7B24) must be able to depart, to a TAS of 200 kts, under certain circumstances. These circumstances are considered as hot day conditions. This includes an atmospheric temperature of 30. Another precondition is the ability to depart from an airport with an altitude of 6000ft AMSL. At this height, the atmospheric pressure is 0.812 bar and the density is 3 0.8359 kg/m . Under the previous circumstances, the engine will produce 200,744 kN of thrust. So the aircraft will have a propulsion of 4 x 200,744 = 802,*967 kN.
3.2
Costs
The main costs of the engine replacement are the purchase costs (3.2.1). The modification costs are the costs to adept the aircraft to the new CFM engine (3.2.2). Maintenance costs of the new engine will be lower than the maintenance costs of the old engine (3.2.3). The operation costs will also be lower with the new engine since the new engines TSFC is much lower compared to the TF-33 (3.2.4). Personnel costs will not change much since the same amount of engines will be operational. Personnel will have to be trained for the new maintenance procedures (3.2.5).
3.2.1 Purchase
The main costs of the engine are the purchase costs. Since the NATO has seventeen AWACS aircraft with four engines each a minimum of 68 engines need to be bought. But there is also the need of extra spare engines in case of maintenance or failures. So there will be an extra of four engines which brings the total to 72 engines. The CFM56-7B24 engine costs 3.93 million euro each, so the grand total of purchase costs will be 283 million euro.
3.2.2 Modification
When the CFM-56 engines are bought the modification can start. Personnel are needed to perform the modification and replace all the old engines with the new engines. There are seventeen airplanes each have four engines so there are 68 engines to replace. To replace one engine it cost 65 man hours, so to change all the engines it will sum up to 4420 man hours. This will take about 27 weeks before the modification is complete. To prepare the modification there are two men needed for 48 hours for each airplane. For all the seventeen airplanes it means that it will cost 1632 man hours. The pylons of the aircraft must be adapted for the wiring and the mounts of the engine. The ground
engineers need a modification training to make sure that the modification is correct performed. There is at least one ground engineer needed for each engine and that is four ground engineers for each plane. There are three kinds of shifts, each shifts needs four ground engineers that will assume in a total of twelve ground engineers for each day. But in case of sickness there must be spare personnel that are licensed to work on a CFM-56. So, sixteen ground engineers need a modification training to make sure that the modification is correct performed.
3.2.3 Maintenance
By replacing the engine, a lot can be saved on maintenance costs. Naturally in the beginning, maintenance costs will be lower, concerning the replacement of the engine. Later on, there will be an increasing of the maintenance costs. The maintenance is divided into on-wing maintenance and overhaul maintenance. On-wing can be scheduled and unscheduled. Scheduled on-wing maintenance is maintenance that is performed during A, B, C and D checks. Unscheduled on-wing maintenance is performed when the engine has a failure or during trouble shooting an error has been found in the engine. Overhaul maintenance is performed every 4-5 years, an overhaul maintenance takes 35040 men hour. This is performed by twenty men and will approximately take 70 days.
3.2.4 Fuel
Due to lower fuel consumption of the new engine, the airplane will be much more efficient during flight. There will be less fuel burned because of the lower TSFC at cruise altitude. This will mean that the airplane can stay longer in flight and will have a range of approximately 15 hours (5800 NM). The engine will be lighter, this will mean that less mass has to be moved and therefore the range will also be greater. The thrust that is produced is higher, so the engine does not have to make as much RPM to have the same thrust as the TF-33, this will also result in lower fuel consumption.
3.2.5 Personnel
Some financial disadvantages can be expected because the CFM-56 is not of the same brand as the TF-33. Maintenance engineers and other maintenance crew will not be familiar with the CFM approach to manuals and support. Moreover, a big part of the tools and supportive equipment will not be suitable for the new engine, anymore. These factors altogether will make that the transition from the TF-33 to the CFM-56 will require a high effort of the supporting crew. On the positive side, CFM engines hold almost half of the market share of aircraft engines for aircraft carrying more than 100 passengers. Although the E-3A is a military jet, scale profits could be made when maintenance is boarded out to large CFM engine maintenance facilities, like KLM Maintenance and Engineering at Amsterdam Airport Schiphol. In the case that the NATO does not want to board out maintenance services, CFM engineers will be the easiest to train or recruit.
3.3 Conclusion
A complete analysis of the engine replacement for the E-3A has been made. The basics of jet engine propulsion have been investigated, three alternative engines have been compared and the modification aspects have been discussed. On each of these points, the following is concluded: The NATO is an alliance of 26 countries with supporting forces on land, sea and air. The NATO owns 17 AWACS E-3A aircraft that are used as airborne support and surveillance units. The thermodynamic process in a gas turbine engine is called the Brayton process. In practice, losses always occur during this process, for this reason the efficiency of a jet engine is always smaller than one. A gas turbine engine is built up out of at least the following components: compressor, combustion chamber, turbine and exhaust. Using these components, the layout of the engine can be of the turbojet, turbofan or turboprop type. Turbofans have the highest efficiency and therefore the lowest fuel consumption. Next to the primary intention of the engine, providing thrust, the engine also powers the hydraulic, pneumatic, electric and fuel systems and the engine lubrication and thrust reverser systems. In the engine, extremely durable materials as titanium and nickel are used to withstand the high temperatures. The other elements that affect the materials in the engine are the various forces such as pressure differences, centrifugal forces and thrust and drag. Noise, other emissions and engines specification certification procedures can be found in respectively ICAO Annex 16 Volume 1 and 2 and ICAO CS-E.
Currently, the E-3A is fitted with Pratt & Whitney TF-33 turbofans. The downsides of these aged engines are their high fuel consumption and high noise levels. A turbofan with a higher bypass ratio would take away these downsides. The Pratt & Whitney 6124, CFM56-7B24 and International Aero Engines V2528-D5 are more modern engines with a high bypass ratio in the same thrust range as the TF-33. After a comparison, the CFM56-7B24 is the most suitable for the E-3A. When fitted with four CFM engines, the improvement of the E-3A will be recognizable in a lower fuel consumption, higher thrust, lower emissions and a lower noise level. Total amount of purchase and modification and fitting of the new CFM56-7B24 engines will be between 482 million euro 690 million euro. As the project assignment requires, the new CFM56-7B24 engines will be able to operate under hot conditions, have a low TSFC, so that the endurance will meet the demand of 10 hours non-stop flying at a speed of 380 kts. The ultimate decision about the engine replacement is to be made by the NATO though.
30
List of Literature
Books:
European Aviation Safety Agency Certification Specifications for Large Aeroplanes Brussels, 17 October 2003 European Aviation Safety Agency Certification Specifications for Engines Brussels, 24 October 2003 International Civil Aviation Organisation Annex 16: Environmental Protection 4th edition July 2005 Kooijman, H.S. Gasturbines Algemeen Jeweka B.V. Bleskensgraaf, February 2003 Kooijman, H.S. Voortstuwing voor vliegtuigonderhoud: turbinemotoren, brandstofafpassing, motorinstrumenten Jeweka B.V. Bleskensgraaf, 2005 Gorter, Daan and de Jong, Wouter Project Handboek 1st edition Assendelft, 2007 Rolls Royce The Jet Engine rd 3 edition Derby, 1973 Rolls Royce The Jet Engine 5th edition Derby, 1996 Rolls Royce The Jet Engine 6th edition London, 2005 Scholder, Robert H.G. Vliegtuiggasturbines Hogeschool van Amsterdam Amsterdam, 2005 Scholder, R.H.G & Dijk, van B.H Technische Natuurkunde: Thermodynamica Hogeschool van Amsterdam Amsterdam, 2007 Siers, F.J. Methodisch ontwerpen: volgens H.H. van den Kroonenberg 3rd edition Groningen, 2004
31
Wentzel, Tilly Het projectgroepsverslag Amsterdam, 2006 Hogeschool van Amsterdam Amsterdamse Hogeschool voor Techniek Wild, Thomas W. Transport Category Aircaft systems Jeppeson Englewood Col. 1996
Webpages:
http://www.aerospaceweb.org/question/propulsion/ Aerospaceweb.org | Ask Us - Propulsion Questions Last used: 11-6-2007 http://www.aircraftenginedesign.com/TableB2.html Aircraft Design Last used: 11-18-2007 http://www.aviation-history.com/index-engine.htm Aircraft Engines Last used: 11-20-2007 http://avsim.com/geoffschool/airlinecourse/etops.htm Avsim Flight simulator pilots Last used: 11-18-2007 http://www.boeing.com/commercial/707family/index.html Boeing: Commercial Airplanes - 707 - 707 Family Home Last used: 11-8-2007 http://www.boeing.com/defense-space/ic/awacs/index.html Boeing: Integrated Defense Systems - Airborne Warning and Control System (AWACS) - E-3 AWACS Overview Last used: 11-11-2007 http://www.cfm56.com/index.php?level2=customer_value&level3=1121 CFM international last used: 12-12-2007 http://www.flug-revue.rotor.com/Frtypen/FRA318.htm Flug Revue Last used: 11-15-2007 http://www.geae.com/education/engines101/index.html General Electric Aviation Last used: 12-4-2007 http://www.caa.co.uk/default.aspx?catid=702&pagetype=68 ICAO Engine Exhaust Emissions Data Bank Last used: 12-1-2007 http://jet-engine.net/miltfspec.html Jet engine specification database Last used: 11-15-2007 www.v2500.com International Aero Engines Last used: 12-12-2007
32
http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-468/contents.htm National Aeronautics and Space Administration Last used: 12-2-2007 http://www.e3a.nato.int/html/base.htm NATO AWACS Mission & Base Last used: 11-8-2007 http://www.pw.utc.com/ Pratt & Whitney a United Technologies Company Last used: 12-5-2007 www.prattwhitney.com/StaticFiles/Pratt%20&%20Whitney/Assets/Documents/commercial_2003_pw60 00.pdf Pratt & Whitney a United Technologies Company Last used: 11-20-2007 http://www.shanaberger.com/engines/TF33.htm Pratt & Whitney TF33 Last used: 11-12-2007 http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/K-12/airplane/shortp.html Short Index of Propulsion Slides Last used: 11-14-2007 http://www.snecma.com/article.php3?id_article=109&lang=en Snecma Safran group Last used: 12-2-2007 http://media.www.avionnewspaper.com/media/storage/paper798/news/2005/09/06/Aeronautica/LanAirlines.Selects.Pratt.Whitney.6000.Engine-975884.shtml The Avion Online Last used: 11-20-2007 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Aero_Engines_V2500 Wikipedia free encyclopedia Last used: 11-29-2007
33
Abbreviations list
Airborne Warning And Control System Bypass Ratio Carbon Monoxide Certifications Specifications 25 Certifications specifications for aircraft jet engines Domestic Object Damage Effective Perceived Noise in Decibel European Aviation Safety Agency Extended-Range Twin-Engine Operation Federal Aviation Administration Full Authority Digital Engine Control International Civil Aviation Organisation Japanese Aero Engines Company Corporation Line Replaceable Units Mass of gaseous pollutant Max thrust available for take-off under normal operation conditions, at ISA sea level static conditions NATO Airborne Early Warning and Control Force North Atlantic Treaty Organisation Oxides of nitrogen Perceived Noise Level Reference Emissions Landing and Takeoff Smoke number Thermodynamic efficiency Trust Specific Fuel Consumption Unburned hydrocarbons AWACS BPR CO CS-25 CS-E 30 DOD EPNdD EASA ETOPS FAA FADEC ICAO JAEC LRU Dp F00 NAEWF NATO NOx PNL LTO SN thermodynamic TSFC HC
34
List of Appendices
I A B C II III IV V VI A B C VII Pratt & Whitney 6124 Emissions CFM56 7B24 Emissions V2528-D5 Emissions 9 10 11 12 Assignment formulation Pyramid model Planning 1 3 4 5 6 7 8
Process report Efficiency Compressor vanes FAA noise stages
Calculations
35
Appendix I.A
Assignment formulation
Appendix I.B
Pyramid model
Appendix I.C
Planning
Appendix II
Process report
The group agreed that at a meeting all members must be focused on their work and work properly. Playing games and distracting other project members will not be appreciated. During the meetings there is always a chairman and a secretary. When a chairman is absent, the secretary of that week will become chairman and the secretary of the next week has to make the minutes. The meetings were effective, but there have been many meetings were not everyone was present. The layout agreements were very good, as the group used a handbook written by Daan Gorter and Wouter de Jong, two fellow students at the Amsterdam School of Technology. During the first week of the project there were eight members. One of these members, Erik de Graaf, did not show up. During the second week of the project, the members received an e-mail of Erik. In that e-mail he told the other ones that he will not be joining the project team, because he will be following a study at the Delft Technical University. The cooperation between most of the other members of the group was reasonable. The members let the other ones speak and listened what the other one had to tell. There were no heavy discussions.
Peter Jan
Maarten
Olivier
Samir
Varro
Front Page Preface Table of Contents Introduction Summary 1.1.1 Organization and Goal 1.1.2 Goal 1.2.1 Laws of Thermodynamics 1.2.2 Brayton Process 1.2.3 Gas Turbine Efficiency 1.3.1 Engine Components 1.3.2 Types of Aircraft Gas Turbines 1.3.3 Subsystems 1.3.4 Materials 1.3.5 Forces on an Engine 1.3.6 Vibrations 1.4.1 Contractor Demands 1.4.2 Regulations 2.1.1 Specifications 2.1.2 Points of Improvement 2.2.1 Performance 2.2.2 TSFC 2.2.3 Durability, Emissions and Noise 2.3.1 Pratt & Whitney 6124 2.3.2 CFM56-7B24 2.3.3 International Aero Engines V2528-D5 2.4 Pros and Cons 2.5 Engine Choice 3.1 Old Versus New 3.2.1 Purchase 3.2.2 Modification 3.2.3 Maintenance 3.2.4 Fuel 3.2.5 Personnel 3.3 Conclusion List of Literature List of Abbreviations List of Appendices Excel Sheet Process Report
Roel 5
Bas
Appendix III
Efficiency
The pressure ratio (1), Temperature ratio compressor (2), Temperature ratio (3), The compressor efficiency (4), Turbine efficiency (5) and total thermodynamic efficiency (6).
Appendix IV
Compressor vanes
The compressor vanes can be connected in three different ways. But they are never completely fastened in order to prevent vibrations and fatigue. Also a repair is easier this way. A pin connection (figure 1.a) is rarely used. A fir tree connection and a dove tail connection is often used (figure 1.b and figure 1.c).
a. pin connection
Figure 1: Securing Compressor blades
b. Fir tree connection
b. Dove tail connection
The dove tail connection can be connected axial or tangential. At the axial connection method the blades are connected using lock plates on both sides (figure 2.a). The tangential connection does not need these lock plates but after the last placed blade a packing piece is placed and locked. The whole ridge is filled with blades.
Figure 2: Dove tail connection methods Hogeschool van Amsterdam - AHT 7
Appendix V
1. 2. 3. 4. Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4
FAA noise stages
The FAA has made a categorized noise regulation system with four stages.
Ad1
Stage 1
All non noise certified aircraft belong to the stage one noise category.
Ad2
Stage 2
Stage two noise regulations are regulations which were applicable till the sixth of October 1977. The lateral measurement point was 650 meters away from the centreline. This is where the noise level is at its maximum level.
Ad3
Stage 3
The stage three noise regulations are the current noise limitations for take-off, flyover and approach. These limitations are described in paragraph 1.4.2 B.
Ad4
Stage 4
Stage four noise regulations are also current regulations. To obtain the stage four limitations, the maximum take-off, flyover and approach noise levels are each subtracted from the maximum permitted noise level. The sum of the three obtained margins must be minimally 10 EPNdB. The sum of two of the three margins must be greater than 2 EPNdB.
Appendix VI .A Emissions PW6124
Appendix VI.B
Emissions CFM56-7B24
10
Appendix VI.C
Emissions V2528-D5
11
Appendix VII
Flight speed: Pam: 200 m/s 0.997 bar
Calculations Example
299.4 K 1.268 bar 2.156 bar 348.4 K 353.9 K 344.2 m/s 1.6 m 122.68 kN 2.981 bar 39.509 bar 382.8 K 386.5 K 808.8 K 831.0 K 1215 K 393.4 K 395.2 K 1608.4 K 1198.6 K 819.7 K 803.2 K 37.7 bar 11.5 bar 2.17 bar 1.09 bar 703.6 K 703.6 K 518.2 m/s
2
T1 = Tam (Cl/2Cp) P1= Pam (T1/Tam) ^ (lucht/ lucht -1) P02 = FPR * Dam T02 = T1 * (P01/P01) ^ (lucht -1/ lucht) T2.8 = T02 (P02c / P01) (lucht -1/lucht ) T2.8 = T02- fan * (T02 T01 ) C2.8= 2 CPL * (T02 - T2.8) T28= T cr = (2/ lucht -1) * T02 C2.8 = Cl sound = (lucht * RS * T2.8) P28= Pcr / Rs * Tcr) A2.8 = 1 / Clsound * P28 * Mg F thrust cold = (Cjf - Ci) + (A28 / mg) * (Pcr Pam) P02c = LPC * P01 P03 = tot * P01 T02c' = T01 * ( P02C / P01) ^ (lucht -1 / lucht) T02c = T01 + (T02' - T01 ) / LPC T03' = T02c ( P03 /P02c) ^ (lucht -1 / lucht) T03 = T02c + ( T03' - T02c ) / HPC EGT = EGTmax * (N1 / 117) (T04 - T4.9) = (CPl / CPG) * ((T03 -T02c) / mech) T4.9 - T05 = CPl / CPg * ((Mcold * (T02 -T01)) + (Mhot * (T02c - T01)) / mech * Mhott T04 = TIT = EGT + T04 -T4.9 T 4.9 = T04 - (T04 - T4.9 / hpt T49= (T04 - T049) - T04 T05 = T49 - (T49 -T05) T05' = T49 - ((T49-T05)/lpt) P04 = P03 * 0.957 P49 = P04 * (T 49 / T04) ^ ( lucht / lucht -1) P05 = P49 ( T05' / T49) ^ ( lucht -1 / lucht) P cr = P05 (1 - (( lucht -1) / jet * (gas +1)) ^ ( gas / ( gas -1)) T 08' = T05 ( P8/ P05) ^ (lucht -1 / lucht ) T08 = T05 jet * (T05 - T08') C8 = ( 2 CPg * (T05 - T08)) C8 = Cjc T08 = T cr = ( 2/ (lucht - 1)) jet * T05 P08 = P05 * (1- (( gas -1)/ ( gas +1)) P08 = P cr rho 8 = P cr / (Rs * Tcr) C 08 = Cl soud = gas * Rs * T08 A08 = 1 / (Cl soud * rho 08) * Mg F Thrust hot = (C jc - C vl) + (a08/ mg ) * (Pcr - P am) F thrust total= f thrust hot+ F thrust cold TSFC = M fuel / F thrust totaal Range = (overall * H0 * (L/D) * LN(TOW/MLW)) / (g * 1.852) Endurance = Range / (Ctas * (3600/1852)
0.540 kg/m3 0.392 m2 38.6 kN 161.327 kN 0.0614 kg/N * h 5580 NM 14.35 h
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Aviation Studies Powerplant 2A2J

The engine you need in the time you want it

Hogeschool van Amsterdam - AHT

Aviation Studies Powerplant 2A2J

Hogeschool van Amsterdam - AHT

Aviation Studies Powerplant 2A2J

Hogeschool van Amsterdam - AHT

Aviation Studies Powerplant 2A2J

Aviation Studies Powerplant 2A2J

Gas Turbine Research

1.1.1 Organisation and goal

AWACS radar dome

Figure 1.1: NATO E-3A

Aviation Studies Powerplant 2A2J

1.2.1 Laws of Thermodynamics

First Law of Thermodynamics

Second Law of Thermodynamics

1.2.2 Brayton Process

Theoretic Brayton Process

1-2 2-3 3-4 4-5 5-6

Inlet Compression Combustion Expansion Exhaust

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Inlet Compression Combustion Expansion Exhaust

Figure 1.3: Gas turbine Brayton process

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Real Brayton Process

1. Real process 2. Theoretic process 1 2 S

1. Real temperature 2. Theoretic temperature

1.2.3 Gas Turbine Efficiency

1.3 Theory engines

1.3.1 Engine components

Aviation Studies Powerplant 2A2J

Figure 1.6: Engine sections

Figure 1.7: Centrifugal compressor

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Impeller Radial diffuser Axial diffuser

Figure 1.9: Diffuser Ad 2 Axial compressor

Figure 1.11: Compressor stage

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Figure 1.12: Combustion chamber

Swirl vanes Dilution holes

Figure 1.13: Turbines Hogeschool van Amsterdam - AHT

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Figure 1.14: Turbine vanes

Figure 1.15: Nozzle

1.3.2 Types of aircraft gas turbines

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Figure 1.16: Single-spool axial flow turbojet

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Figure 1.17: Triple-spool high bypass ratio turbofan

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Aviation Studies Powerplant 2A2J

1 Figure 1.18 reverse thrust system.

1.3.4 Materials of the Engine

Aviation Studies Powerplant 2A2J

1.3.5 Forces on an Engine

Propulsion Gravity Drag