Lecture 1 - Introduction to Geology GEOLOGY - study of the earth, its origin, history, materials, processes and resources Geology

as a discipline: a) relevance of time b) issue of scale c) complexity of replicating natural systems in the laboratory Main Branches: 1. Physical - study of Earth materials and processes > Volcanology, Seismology, Environmental Geology, Engineering Geology, Mining Geology, Petroleum Geology, Mineralogy, Petrology, Geomorphology, Geophysics, Geochemistry, Planetary Geology 2. Historical - study of Earth origin and evolution > Paleontology, Stratigraphy, Geochronology Basic Concepts: 1. Catastrophism sudden, worldwide catastrophes are the agents of change that alter the physical features of the Earth over time widely accepted by theologians in the early 1800s due to similarity with Biblical events such as Noahs Flood 2. Uniformitarianism proposed by James Hutton (The Father of Modern Geology) The present is the key to the past. advocates the idea that the Earth is continuously modified by geologic processes that have always operated throughout time (at different rates), and that by studying them we can understand how the Earth has evolved through time Lecture 2 The Planet Earth FORMATION OF THE EARTH Formation of the Universe: Big Bang Theory Formation of the Solar System: Nebular Hypothesis THE BIG BANG THEORY contends that the Universe originated from a cosmic explosion (origin unknown) that hurled matter in all directions 15 and 20 billion years ago first proposed by the Belgian priest Georges Lematre in the 1920s Edwin Hubble justified Lematres theory through observations that the Universe is continuously expanding; galaxies are moving away from each other THE NEBULAR HYPOTHESIS the solar system originated from a single rotating cloud of gas and dust, starting 4.6 billion years ago, which contracted due to gravity the idea was first proposed by Immanuel Kant and Pierre Simon de Laplace in the 18th century THE NEBULAR MODEL The Big Bang produced enormous amount of matter: rotating cloud of gas and dust. The rotating gas-dust cloud began to contract due to gravity. Most of the mass became concentrated at the center, forming the SUN. The remaining matter condensed to form the planets. THE SUN mostly made up of hydrogen, the principal product of the Big Bang suns center became compressed enough to initiate nuclear reactions, consequently emitting light and energy (sun became a star) a middle-aged star THE PLANETS composition depended on distance from the sun planets nearest the sun contained high-temp minerals (e.g. iron) while those that are far away contained lower-temp materials (e.g. methane and ammonia, and some that contained water locked in their structures) Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars - inner or terrestrial planets (nearest the sun) - rocky composition: largely silicate rocks and metals (Si, Fe, O)

Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune - giant or Jovian planets (outer planets; far from the sun) - lack solid surfaces: in gaseous or liquid form - composition: light elements (H, He, Ar, C, O, Ni) Pluto - neither a terrestrial or Jovian planet - similar to the icy satellites of the Jovian planets SOME INTERESTING FACTS 1. Planets revolution = counterclockwise direction. 2. Planets rotation direction the same as direction of revolution except for Venus, which rotates in a retrograde direction. 3. Uranus and Pluto rotate about axes that are tipped nearly on their sides. 4. Orbital Speed of the Earth = 30 km/s THE EARTH - started as dust ball from the nebular gas and dust brought together by gravity (accretion), which was heated (heating) and eventually segregated into layers (differentiation) as it cooled - when cooling set in, the denser elements (e.g., iron) sank while the lighter ones floated out into the surface, creating a differentiated Earth CONSEQUENCES OF THE HEATING & DIFFERENTIATION OF THE EARTH 1. formation of atmosphere (mostly gases from volcanic activity) 2. formation of oceans (water released from crystal structure) * Life started when atmosphere was modified due to the appearance of the blue-green algae. THE EARTHS VITAL STATISTICS Equatorial Radius = 6378 km Polar Radius = 6357 km Equatorial Circumference = 40076 km Polar Circumference = 40008 km Volume = 260,000,000,000 cu. miles Density = 5.52 g/cm3 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION (by mass) - 34.6% Iron, 29.5% Oxygen, 15.2% Silicon, 12.7% Magnesium SHAPE - Oblate spheroid (flattened at the poles and bulging at the equator) External Features of the Earth 1. Continents 2. Ocean basins Prominent Features of Continents 1. Mountainselevated features of continents 2. Mountain rangeschains of mountains 3. Mountain beltsmountain ranges that run a cross a vast area OCEAN BASINS - Oceanic ridges, Trenches, Seamounts/guyots, Abyssal hills/plains Internal Structure of the Earth >Crust 1. Oceanic basaltic composition (SiMa); 3 to 15 km thick; density: ~3.0 g/cm3 2. Continental granitic composition (SiAl); 20 to 60 km thick; density: ~2.7g/cm3 >Mantle extends to a depth of ~2900 km (Fe, Mg) 1. Upper mantleextends from the base of the crust 2. Mesospherelower mantle; from 660km depth to the core- mantle boundary > Core iron rich sphere with small amounts of Ni and other elements 1. Outercore2270kmthick;liquid 2. Innercoresolidspherewitharadiusof1216km *Discontinuities/Boundaries 1. Mohoroviciccrustmantle 2. Gutenbergcoremantle 3. Lehmannoutercoreinnercore

Mechanical layers 1. Lithosphere a. Upper crust brittle; 4-15 km depth b. Lower crust/uppermost mantle ductile; 15 to 100 or 200 km depth 2. Asthenosphere weak sphere; beneath the lithosphere and within the upper mantle 3. Mesosphere solid, rocky layer ISOSTASY from a Greek word meaning same standing basically concerned with the buoyancy of the blocks of the Earths crust as they rest on the mantle changes in the load over certain regions causes the lithosphere to make adjustments until isostatic equilibrium (i.e., neither rising or sinking) is reached AIRYS THEORY Mountains have roots which extend down into the mantle. Thus, elevation is proportional to the depth of the underlying root. PRATTS THEORY Elevation is inversely proportional to density. Thus, the higher the mountain, the lower is its density; that is, light rocks float higher. HOW OLD IS THE EARTH? 1. Cooling through conduction and radiation (Lord Kelvin, 1897): ~2440m.y. 2. rate of delivery of salt to oceans (JohnJoly,1901):~90100m.y. 3. thickness of total sedimentary record divided by average sedimentation rates (1910): ~1.6 b.y. 4. Amount of evolution of marine mollusks (CharlesLyell,1800s):~80m.y.for the Cenozoic 5. radioactivity (Henri Becquerel,1896):~500m.y. 6. Radiometricdating: 4.54.6b.y. Lecture 3 - MINERALS DEFINITION: Naturally occurring, Inorganic, Homogeneous, Solid, Definite chemical composition, Ordered internal structure MINERALOID - naturally occurring, inorganic material that is amorphous Ex. glass, opal POLYMORPHISM - ability of a specific chemical substance to crystallize in more than one configuration, which is dependent upon changes in temperature, pressure, or both PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS >Color - caused by the absorption, or lack of absorption, of various wavelengths of light >Streak - the color of a mineral in powdered form; not always identical to the color >Hardness resistance of mineral to abrasion or scratching Mohs Scale of Hardness 1. Talc; 2. Gypsum; 3. Calcite; 4. Fluorite; 5. Apatite; 6. Orthoclase; 7. Quartz; 8. Topaz; 9. Corundum; 10. Diamond >Crystal Form - the shapes and aggregates that a certain mineral is likely to form >Cleavage - the tendency of a mineral to break in particular directions due to zones of weakness in the crystal structure *Fractures or irregular breakages occur when bond strengths in a crystal structure is equal in all directions. >Luster - the ability of minerals to reflect light (e.g. vitreous, pearly, dull, metallic, etc) >Specific gravity - Ratio of volume of a substance and the weight of the same volume of water Other properties 1. Magnetismex. Magnetite (Fe3O4) 2. Fluorescenceex. CaF2 3. Reaction to chemicalsex.CaCO3 4. Tasteex. NaCl

5. Odorex. S CLASSIFICATION OF MINERALS 1. Silicates 2. Non-silicates Bases for Classification 1. Composition Single element (e.g. Cu, Au, S) 2 elements (e.g. halite, pyrite) Greater number of different kinds of atoms 2. Crystal Structure Relative Abundance of the Most Common Elements in the Crust The Silicate Group ---largest group of minerals compounds containing silicon and oxygen building block: silicon tetrahedron (SiO4)-4 - structure possessing isolated silicate tetrahedra is called a nesosilicate. derived from the Greek word (nesogaean) that means "island". (e.g. olivine) - structure possessing double island silicate tetrahedra is called a sorosilicate. derived from a Greek word that means "group". - structure possessing parallel single chains of silicate tetrahedra is called an inosilicate (single chain or double chain). derived from a Greek word that means "chain". (e.g. pyroxene and amphibole) - structure possessing isolated rings of silicate tetrahedra, is called a cyclosilicate. derived from a Greek word that means "ring". - structure possessing parallel sheets of silicate tetrahedra is a phyllosilicate. derived from a Greek word that means "sheet". (e.g. micas) - structure possessing a three-dimensional framework of silicate tetrahedra is called a tectosilicate. (e.g. feldspar and quartz) The Non-Silicates 1. Native metalsgold, platinum, iron 2. Oxidesoxygen is combined with one or more metals (e.g. hematite, magnetite) 3. Sulfidesopaque with distinct colors (e.g. pyrite, galena) 4. SulfatesSO4 (e.g. barite, anhydrite) 5. Carbonatescarbonate ion plus metal 6. PhosphatesPO4 (e.g. apatite) plus metal 7. HydroxidesOH plus metal THE MOST COMMON ROCK-FORMING MINERALS Silicates: Quartz, feldspar (orthoclase and plagioclase), mica (biotite and muscovite), amphibole, pyroxene, olivine Non-silicates: Clay and Calcite Economic importance Non-renewable resource processes that create the resources are so slow (takes millions of years to accumulate) Ores useful metallic (and some nonmetallic) minerals that can be extracted and which contain useful substances 1. Mineral resources sources of metals and other materials 2. Gemstones