IMPLEMENTATION OF DIVERSITY GAIN TECHNIQUES ALAMOUTI SCHEME IN A MIMO NETWORK

JAYPEE INSTITUTE OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

SUPERVISED BY : Mrs. JUHI

SUBMIITTED BY : PRATEEK AGGARWAL (09102297) GAGANDEEP OBEROI (9102188)

TABLE OF CONTENTS
CERTIFICATE FROM THE SUPERVISOR ........ 3 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ... 4 CHAPTER 1 : INTRODUCTION .. 1.1 BASIC 1.2 WIRELESS COMMUNICATION CHAPTER 2 :MIMO ................................................................. 2.1 WIRELESS CHANNEL 2.1.1 Channel 2.1.2 Multipath and Fading 2.2 MIMO 2.2.1 Precoding 2.2.2 Spatial Multiplexing 2.2.3 Divesity coding Techinques 2.3 SPACE TIME PROCESSING 2.3.1 Array Gain 5 5 6 7 7 7 7 8 10 10 11 12 13

2.3.2 Interference Mitigation 14 CHAPTER 3 :DIVERSITY SCHEME .. 15 3.1 DIVERSITY DOMAIN AND MIMO 3.2 SPACE TIME CODE 3.3 ALAMOUTI CODE 15 17 18

CHAPTER 4 : OFDM ..... 21 4.1 INTRODUCTION 4.2 EVOLUTOIN OF OFDM 4.3 FFT AND IFFT 4.4 CYCLIC PRIFIX 4.5 RAYLEIGH FADING 21 22 23 23 24

REFERENCES ... 25 CONCLUSION ...... 26 CODE . 27 RESULT ..... 30

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the minor project, titled ENERY EFFICIENT

TRANSMISSION IN WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORK USING DIGITAL MODULATION TECHNIQUES , submitted by Prateek Aggarwal & Gagandeep Oberoi of
Jaypee Institute of Information Technology, Noida has been carried out under my supervision. This work has not been submitted partially or wholly to any university or institute for the award of this or any other degree or diploma.

Signature of Supervisor Name of Supervisor Designation Date . . .

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We are highly obliged and express great gratitude towards our project supervisor, Mrs JUHI , for giving me such suggestions , support and help . We are grateful to her for all his assistance and guidance which motivated us to work on this topic and pursue it as our minor project. We are also thankful to the authors of books and papers we refered . I would also like to thank to all who gave me support for project or in any other aspects.

Date: .. Name of Students:

PRATEEK AGGARWAL (09102297) GAGANDEEP OBEROI (9102188)

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 BASIC

A traditional communications link, which we call a single-in-single-out (SISO) channel, has one transmitter and one receiver. But instead of a single transmitter and a single receiver we can use several of each. The SISO channel then becomes a multiple-in-multiple-out, or a MIMO channel; i.e. a channel that has multiple transmitters and multiple receivers. In a Diversity Gain technique same data is transmitted on multiple transmit antennas and this increases the diversity of the system.Diversity means the same data has travelled through diverse paths to get to the receiver. It increases the reliability of communications. If one path is weak ,then a copy of the data received on another path maybe just fine. ALAMOUTI CODE: To transmit 2 bits/time, we transmit two different symbols, s1, and s2, one from each antenna. Now we get a multiplexing gain because we are transmitting two symbols in one symbol time, but we get no diversity. To make up for that, during the next symbol time, Antenna 1 transmits the negative of the complex conjugate of symbol s2: s2* and antenna 2 transmits s1* , the complex conjugate of symbol one. We sent two symbols in two symbol times, no multiplexing gain but we get diversity gain. Implementation of Alamouti Scheme in a MIMO network with a Rayleigh fading channel.

1.2

WIRELESS COMMUNICATION
Wireless networks are being deployed throughout the world to meet increasing consumer demand. These include (a) cellular mobile networks (b) digital cordless telephony (c) wireless LANS A cellular mobile network is primarily designed to maximize bandwidth efficiency and capacity in a macro and micro cellular environment. A cellular network uses cells with radii ranging from 2 to 20 kilometers. Each cell has a base- station (BTS) that services multiple users. In the forward link, the BTS transmits to the users, while in the reverse link, the users transmit to the BTS. The BTS is connected to the back-haul network through the Mobile Telephone Switching Office (MTSO). Cells are grouped in clusters. Each cluster has N cells , that are alloted distinct frequency blocks, where N is the cluster size or equivalently the frequency reuse factor. Reuse factor is an important measure of spectral efficiency in a wireless network. Wireless LANs provide all the functionality of wired LANs, without the physical constraints of the wire itself. Wireless LANs are easy to install, scalable and can have flexible configurations which range from simple peer-to-peer topologies to complex multiple access networks.

CHAPTER-2 : MIMO

2.1 Wireless Channel

Communicating over a wireless channel is highly challenging due to the complex, timevarying propagation medium. Numerous reports have been made to characterize the behavior of wireless channel, to help better design wireless systems. First, we will review the scalar channel, that captures the time and frequency selective nature of the channel, path loss and cochannel interference. Scalar channels are applicable to wireless links with one transmit and one receive antenna. Next, we will discuss the matrix channel, which builds upon the scalar channel model, and is applicable to wireless links with multiple antennas at the transmitter and receiver. The matrix channel model adds several new parameters. 2.1.1 The Scalar Channel Consider a wireless link with a transmitter (Tx) and a receiver (Rx). The transmitted signal that is launched into the wireless environment arrives at the receiver along a number of distinct paths, referred to as multipaths. These paths arise from scattering and rejection of radiated energy from objects such as buildings, hills and trees. Each of these paths has a distinct and time-varying path delay, angle of arrival, and signal amplitude. Due to constructive and destructive interference of these multipaths, the received signal can vary as a function of frequency and time. These variations are collectively referred to as fading and cause deterioration in linkquality. We now describe fading across time and frequency, in a scalar channel. 2.1.2 Multipath and Fading: In wireless communications, fading is deviation of the attenuation affecting a signal over certain propagation media. The fading may vary with time, geographical position or radio frequency, and is often modeled as a random process. A fading channel is a communication channel comprising fading. In wireless systems, fading may either be due to multipath propagation, referred to as multipath induced fading, or due to shadowing from obstacles affecting the wave propagation, sometimes referred to as shadow fading.

2.2 MIMO
MIMO offers higher data rates as well as spectral efficiency. So clear is this advantage that many standards have already incorporated MIMO. ITU uses MIMO in the High Speed Downlink Packet Access (HSPDA), part of the UMTS standard. MIMO is also part of the 802.11n standard used by your wireless router as well as 802.16 for Mobile WiMax used by your cell phone. The LTE standard also incorporates MIMO. What is MIMO as compared to a traditional communications channel? A traditional communications link, which we call a single-in-single-out (SISO) channel, has one transmitter and one receiver. But instead of a single transmitter and a single receiver we can use several of each. The SISO channel then becomes a multiple-in-multiple-out, or a MIMO channel; i.e. a channel that has multiple transmitters and multiple receivers. What does MIMO offer over a traditional SISO channel? To examine this question, we will first look at the capacity of a SISO link, which is specified in the number of bits that can be transmitted over it as measured by the very important metric, (b/s/Hz). The capacity of a SISO link is a function simply of the channel SNR . This capacity relationship was of course established by Claude Shannon and is also called the information-theoretic capacity. The SNR in this equation is defined as the total power divided by the noise power. The capacity is increasing as a log function of the SNR, which is a slow increase. Clearly increasing the capacity by any significant factor takes an enormous amount of power in aSISO channel. Wouldnt it be nice if we can increase the capacity instead by a linear function ofpower; 10 times increase in power, 10 times increase in capacity! Perhaps we can do this with MIMO. With MIMO, we move to a different paradigm of channel capacity. To give you a feel for what is possible, if we add six antennas on both transmit and receive side, we can achieve the same capacity as using 100 times more power than in the SISO case.We just made the transmitter and receiver more complex, with no increase in power at all. We got the same performance as increasing the power 100 times. Quite amazing, and worth examining closely. In Figure, we see the comparison of SISO and MIMO systems using the same power. MIMO capacity increases linearly with the number of antennas, where SISO/SIMO/MISO systems all increase only logarithmically.

We can write the input/output relationship of a SISO channel as r = h s +n where r is the received signal, s the sent signal and h, the impulse response of the channel and n, the noise. The term h, the impulse response of the channel, can be a gain or a loss, it can be phase shift or it can be time delay, or all of these together. The quantity h can be considered an enhancing or distorting agent for the signal SNR.

Using the same model as SISO, MIMO channel can now be described as R = HS + N In this formulation, both transmit and receive signals are vectors. The channel impulse response h, is now a matrix, H. This channel matrix H is called Channel Information in MIMO literature. When a channel uses a multiple of receive antennas, NR, and multiple transmit antennas, NT, it is called a multiple-input, multiple output (MIMO) system. When NT = NR = 1, a SISO system. When NT > 1 and NR = 1, called a MISO system, When NT = 1 and NR > 1, called a SIMO system. When NT > 1 and NR > 1, is a MIMO system. MIMO can be sub-divided into three main categories, precoding, spatial multiplexing or SM, and diversity coding. 2.2.1 PRECODING Precoding is multi-stream beamforming, in the narrowest definition. In more general terms, it is considered to be all spatial processing that occurs at the transmitter. In (singlelayer) beamforming, the same signal is emitted from each of the transmit antennas with appropriate phase (and sometimes gain) weighting such that the signal power is maximized at the receiver input. The benefits of beamforming are to increase the received signal gain, by making signals emitted from different antennas add up constructively, and to reduce the multipath fading effect. In the absence of scattering, beamforming results in a well defined directional pattern, but in typical cellular conventional beams are not a good analogy. When the receiver has multiple antennas, the transmit beamforming cannot simultaneously maximize the signal level at all of the receive antennas, and precoding with multiple streams is used. Note that precoding requires knowledge ofchannel state information (CSI) at the transmitter. 2.2.2 SPATIAL MULTIPLEXING Spatial multiplexing requires MIMO antenna configuration. In spatial multiplexing, a high rate signal is split into multiple lower rate streams and each stream is transmitted from a different transmit antenna in the same frequency channel. If these signals arrive at the receiver antenna array with sufficiently different spatial signatures, the receiver can separate these streams into (almost) parallel channels. Spatial multiplexing is a very powerful technique for increasing channel capacity at higher signal-to-noise ratios (SNR). The maximum number of spatial streams is limited by the lesser of the number of antennas at the transmitter or receiver. Spatial multiplexing can be used with or without transmit channel knowledge. Spatial multiplexing can also be used for simultaneous transmission to multiple receivers, known as space-division multiple access. The scheduling of receivers with different spatial signatures allows good separability.

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We have been assuming that the each of the links in a MIMO system transmit the same information. This is an implicit assumption of obtaining diversity gain. Multicasting provides diversity gain but no data rate improvement. If we could send independent information across the antennas, then there is an opportunity to increase the data rate as well as keep some diversity gain. The data rate improvement in a MIMO system is called Spatial Multiplexing Gain (SMG). The data rate improvement is related to the number of pairs of the RCV/XMT antennas, and when these numbers are unequal, it is proportional to smaller of the two numbers, NT, NR. This easy to see, we can only transmit only as many different symbols as there are transmit antennas. Thisnumber is then limited by the number of receive antennas, if the number of receive antennas is less than the number of transmit antennas. Spatial multiplexing means the ability to transmit higher bit rate when compared to a system where we only get diversity gains because we transmit the same symbol from each transmitter. The multiplexing gain is maximum only when diversity gain is 0. When these diversity gains are achieved, no multiplexing gain is possible; hence these values are shown on the y-axis. However, we can use each of these systems in a way that we obtain some combination of diversity gain and multiplexing gain without trying to achieve the maximum of each of these. The design goal is to operate on an optimum front, to obtain a certain diversity gain as well as multiplexing gain. This optimum front is the piece-wise curve shown in Figure 27.19. There are three possibilities for case 1 and 4 for case 2. Which one is optimum? It depends on the system goals. Space Time Codes Space Time coding is a field that brings together various techniques for obtaining SMG for a link. There are several techniques that makes it possible to achieve spatial multiplexing gains (SMG), all grouped under the category of Space-Time Coding (STC). The goal of spacetime coding is to achieve the maximum possible gain on the optimum gain front based on system goals. Space- Time codes can generally be sub-classified as Space Time Block Codes (STBC) and Space Time Trellis Codes (STTC). Where Trellis coding is similar to the well-known trellis and convolutional coding of SISO channels, block coding here is different. By block coding we are using space (which means the number of antennas) as one dimension and time as the other.

2.2.3 DIVERSITY CODING TECHNIQUES Diversity Coding techniques are used when there is no channel knowledge at the transmitter. In diversity methods, a single stream (unlike multiple streams in spatial multiplexing) is transmitted, but the signal is coded using techniques called space-time coding. The signal is emitted from each of the transmit antennas with full or near orthogonal coding. Diversity coding exploits the independent fading in the multiple antenna links to enhance signal diversity. Because there is no channel knowledge, there is no beamforming or array gain from diversity coding. Spatial multiplexing can also be combined with precoding when the channel is known at the transmitter or combined with diversity coding when decoding reliability is in tradeoff.

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2.3 Space-Time Processing

Communicating over a wireless channel is highly challenging due to the complex, timevarying propagation medium. Consider a wireless link with one transmitter (Tx) and one receiver (Rx). The transmitted signal that is launched into the wireless environment arrives at the receiver along a number of distinct paths, referred to as multipaths . These paths arise from scattering and rejection of radiated energy from objects such as buildings, hills and trees. Each of these paths has a distinct and time-varying path delay, angle of arrival, and signal amplitude. Due to constructive and destructive interference of these multipaths, the received signal can vary as a function of frequency, time and space. These variations are collectively referred to as fading and cause deterioration in link quality. Figure shows the typical received signal amplitude variation across time, frequency and space. As seen from the figure, the signal amplitude can experience deep nulls leading to a highly unreliable wireless link.

Links suffer from cochannel interference (CCI) from cells that share the same frequency channel. Interference distorts the desired signal and hence leads to low system performance. Wireless systems must be designed to mitigate fading and interference to ensure a reliable link. Space-time processing is a useful tool to provide reliable communication over wire- less channels. In this technology, multiple antennas and spacetime modems are employed at the transmitter (Tx) and/or at the receiver (Rx) for array gain, interference cancellation, diversity gain and multiplexing. These will be explained in the following sections. The concepts of array gain, diversity gain, and interference reduction have been studied for many decades. These schemes typically require channel knowledge at
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the receiver. In a typical setting, a known training symbol sequence is periodically transmitted to the receiver. The receiver uses the transmitted training sequence and the received signal to estimate the channel. In a fading environment, the channel changes over time and hence the receiver must be trained periodically. For a detailed survey on receive space-time processing techniques. In the past decade, the concepts of transmit diversity and spatial multiplexing have attracted wide-spread attention. Both schemes do not require channel knowledge at the transmitter, but assume perfect channel knowledge at the receiver.

2.3.1 Array Gain Figure shows a mobile transmitting a signal that is received by two receive antennas. The signals (S1 and S2) received on the two antennas have different amplitudes and phases due to multipath propagation. These signals are appropriately combined by the receiver so that the resultant power of the output signal is enhanced. The output signal to noise ratio (SNR) is the sum of the signal to noise ratios (SNR1 and SNR2) on the receive antennas, leading to an improvement in signal quality. Array gain is proportional to the number of receive antennas used.

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2.3.2 Interference Mitigation Cochannel interference adds to the overall noise of the system and deteriorates performance. Interference reduction allows use of aggressive reuse factors and improves the system capacity.Figure illustrates the desired signal S and interference I from an adjacent cell, that is received by a receiver with two antennas. Typically, the desired signal (S) and interference (I) arrive at the receive antennas with different spatial signatures (S1, S2 and I1, I2), since they are coming from two different geographical locations. Interference mitigation algorithms can cancel or reduce the interference, boost the desired signal power and reduce the desired signal amplitude variability. The signal to interference ratio at the receiver output is thus enhanced, as shown in Figure . Interference reduction can also be implemented in the transmitter, where the goal is to enhance the signal power at the intended receiver and minimize the interference energy sent towards cochannel users (users that communicate over the same frequency block as the intended user).

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CHAPTER-3 DIVERSITY SCHEME

Diversity technique, same data is transmitted on multiple transmit antennas and hence this increases the diversity of the system. Diversity means that the same data has traveled through diverse paths to get tothe receiver. Diversity increases the reliability of communications. If one path is weak, then a copy of the data received on another path maybe just fine.

3.1 Diversity Domains and MIMO Systems

In order to provide a fixed quality of service, a large amount of transmit power is required in a Rayleigh or Rican fading environment to assure that no matter what the fade level, adequate power is still available to decode the signal. Diversity techniques that mitigate multipath fading , both slow and fast are called Micro-diversity, whereas those resulting from path loss, from shadowing due to buildings etc. are an order of magnitude slower than multipath, are called Macro-diversity techniques. MIMO design issues are limited only to micro-diversity. Macrodiversity is usually handled by providing overlapping base station coverage and handover algorithms and is a separate independent operational issue. In time domain, repeating a symbol N times is the simplest example of increasing diversity. Interleaving is an another example of time diversity where symbols are artificially separated in time so as to create time-separated and hence independent fading channels for adjacent symbols. Error correction coding also accomplishes time-domain diversity by spreading the symbols in time. Such time domain diversity methods are termed Temporal diversity. Frequency diversity can be provided by spreading the data over frequency, such as is done by spread spectrum systems. In OFDM frequency diversity is provided by sending each symbol over a different frequency. In all such frequency diversity systems, the frequency separation must be greater than the coherence bandwidth of the channel in order to assure independence. The type of diversity exploited in MIMO is called Spatial diversity. The receive side diversity, is the use of more than one receive antenna. SNR gain is realized from the multiple copies received (because the SNR is additive). Various types of linear combining techniques can take the received signals and use special combining techniques such are Maximal Ratio Combining, Threshold Combing etc. The SNR increase possible via combining results in a power gain. The SNR gain is called the array gain. Transmit side diversity similarly means having multiple transmit antennas on the transmit side which create multiple paths and potential for angular diversity. Angular diversity can be understood as beam-forming. If the transmitter has information about the channel, as to where the fading is and which path is best, then it can concentrate its power in a
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particular direction. This is an additional form of gain possible with MIMO. Another form of diversity is Polarization diversity such as used in satellite communications, where independent signals are transmitted on each polarization. The channels, although at the same frequency, contain independent data on the two polarized hence orthogonal paths. The following classes of diversity schemes can be identified:

Time diversity: Multiple versions of the same signal are transmitted at different time instants. Alternatively, a redundant forward error correction code is added and the message is spread in time by means of bit-interleaving before it is transmitted. Thus, error bursts are avoided, which simplifies the error correction. Frequency diversity: The signal is transmitted using several frequency channels or spread over a wide spectrum that is affected by frequency-selective fading. Middlelate 20th century microwave radio relay lines often used several regular wideband radio channels, and one protection channel for automatic use by any faded channel. Later examples include:

OFDM modulation in combination with subcarrier interleaving and forward error correction Spread spectrum, for example frequency hopping or DS-CDMA.

Space diversity: The signal is transmitted over several different propagation paths. In the case of wired transmission, this can be achieved by transmitting via multiple wires. In the case of wireless transmission, it can be achieved by antenna diversity using multiple transmitter antennas (transmit diversity) and/or multiple receiving antennas (reception diversity). In the latter case, a diversity combining technique is applied before further signal processing takes place. If the antennas are far apart, for example at different cellular base station sites or WLAN access points, this is called macrodiversity or site diversity. If the antennas are at a distance in the order of one wavelength, this is called microdiversity. A special case is phased antenna arrays, which also can be used for beamforming, MIMO channels and Spacetime coding (STC). Polarization diversity: Multiple versions of a signal are transmitted and received via antennas with different polarization. A diversity combining technique is applied on the receiver side. Multiuser diversity: Multiuser diversity is obtained by opportunistic user scheduling at either the transmitter or the receiver. Opportunistic user scheduling is as follows: the transmit selects the best user among candidate receivers according to the qualities of each channel between the transmitter and each receiver. In FDDsystems, a receiver must feed back the channel quality information to the transmitter with the limited level of resolution. Cooperative diversity: Achieves antenna diversity gain by using the cooperation of distributed antennas belonging to each node.

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3.2 Space Time Code

A spacetime code (STC) is a method employed to improve the reliability of data transmission in wireless communication systems using multiple transmit antennas. STCs rely on transmitting multiple, redundant copies of a data stream to the receiver in the hope that at least some of them may survive the physical path between transmission and reception in a good enough state to allow reliable decoding. Space time codes may be split into two main types:

Spacetime trellis codes (STTCs) distribute a trellis code over multiple antennas and multiple time-slots and provide both coding gain and diversity gain. Spacetime block codes (STBCs) act on a block of data at once (similarly to block codes) and provide only diversity gain, but are much less complex in implementation terms than STTCs.

STC may be further subdivided according to whether the receiver knows the channel impairments. In coherent STC, the receiver knows the channel impairments through training or some other form of estimation. These codes have been studied more widely because they are less complex than their non-coherent counterparts. In noncoherent STC the receiver does not know the channel impairments but knows the statistics of the channel. Indifferential spacetime codes neither the channel nor the statistics of the channel are available. Spacetime block coding is a technique used in wireless communications to transmit multiple copies of a data stream across a number of antennas and to exploit the various received versions of the data to improve the reliability of data-transfer. The fact that the transmitted signal must traverse a potentially difficult environment with scattering, reflection, refraction and so on and may then be further corrupted by thermal noise in the receiver means that some of the received copies of the data will be 'better' than others. This redundancy results in a higher chance of being able to use one or more of the received copies to correctly decode the received signal. In fact, spacetime coding combines all the copies of the received signal in an optimal way to extract as much information from each of them as possible.

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3.3

Alamouti Code

The first code that defined the space-time block category was discovered by Siavash Alamouti and is known famously as the Alamouti Code. This seemingly simple idea is considered one of the most significant advances in MIMO. In fact it was this code that basically set the whole block and trellis coding for MIMO in motion. We will now consider a Alamouti block code with NT = 2 and NR = 1 or a (21) system. To transmit 2 bits/time, Alamouti got the brilliant idea to transmit two different symbols, s1, and s2, one from each antenna. Now we get a multiplexing gain because we are transmitting two symbols in one symbol time, but of course we get no diversity. To make up for that, during the next symbol time, Antenna 1 transmits the negative of the complex conjugate of symbol S2 : S2* and antenna 2 transmits S1* , the complex conjugate of symbol one. Of course all we accomplished is that we sent two symbols in two symbol times, no multiplexing gain.

The decoding for the Alamouti (2 X 1) system proceeds as follows: Because there is one receive antenna in this example, the leftmost index of hi j is always 1. Neglecting noise, the received signals , where k is a time index, are

Note that the receiver (but not the transmitter) needs channel state information, namely h11 and h12. The receiver multiplies the received waveform by the conjugated weight of that signal. Thus, to form an estimate for s1, we start by multiplying r1 by h*11 and r2 by h*12 yielding

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Then the estimate for s1 is found by adding the above Equation , and dividing by

We similarly estimate s2 by multiplying r1 by h*12 and r2 by h*11 and so forth, resulting in:

Of course, you see from above Equation that to estimate or recover the transmitted symbols, the receiver needs to know the channel coefficients. You should also note that so far this scheme has not provided any data rate or multiplexing gain, only diversity. Thats because we sent just two symbols in two time periods. But we do get diversity gains that are substantial, with the Alamouti scheme using one receive antenna yields a gain over the corresponding SISO channel . If a second receive antenna is added, the code achieves an additional gain at the same PB. This simple scheme is very popular because it can be introduced to existing systems for providing link-quality improvements without any major system modifications. The key diversity-creating feature in the Alamouti scheme is the orthogonality between sequences generated by the two transmit antennas. The codes success has led to a wave of generalized developments for an arbitrary number of transmit antennas. Such a generalized STBC is defined by a matrix C whose entries are transmission symbols (possibly encoded with other codes, and possibly complex). The columns p of the matrix represents time slots, and the rows (designed to be orthogonal) represent transmit antennas. Equation below depicts such a C matrix for NT = 4. At time 1, the first column of four code symbols are transmitted from antennas 1-4, respectively. At each successive time, the next column is sent from antennas 1-4 respectively, and so forth. Space-time codes can provide a maximum diversity less than or equal to NT X NR. Thus, for NR = 1, the encoder provides a diversity of 4 (maximum possible with 4 transmit antennas and 1 receive antenna). For this code, there are 4 symbols sent during each block of 8 time slots. We see in Equation , a rate r = code. The scheme provides a 3-dB received power gain that stems from 8 slots used to send 4 symbols. This compensates for the rate loss.

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Alamouti invented the simplest of all the STBCs in 1998, although he did not coin the term "spacetime block code" himself. It was designed for a two-transmit antenna system and has the coding matrix:

, where * denotes complex conjugate. It is readily apparent that this is a rate-1 code. It takes two time-slots to transmit two symbols. Using the optimal decoding scheme discussed below, the bit-error rate (BER) of this STBC is equivalent to -branch maximal ratio combining (MRC). This is a result of the perfect orthogonality between the symbols after receive processing there are two copies of each symbol transmitted and copies received. This is a very special STBC. It is the only orthogonal STBC that achieves rate1.[4] That is to say that it is the only STBC that can achieve its full diversity gain without needing to sacrifice its data rate. Strictly, this is only true for complex modulation symbols. Since almost all constellation diagrams rely on complex numbers however, this property usually gives Alamouti's code a significant advantage over the higher-order STBCs even though they achieve a better error-rate performance. See 'Rate limits' for more detail. The significance of Alamouti's proposal in 1998 is that it was the first demonstration of a method of encoding which enables full diversity with linear processing at the receiver. Earlier proposals fortransmit diversity required processing schemes which scaled exponentially with the number of transmit antennas. Furthermore, it was the first open-loop transmit diversity technique which had this capability. Subsequent generalizations of Alamouti's concept have led to a tremendous impact on the wireless communications industry.

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CHAPTER-4 OFDM
4.1 INTRODUCTION
The word orthogonal indicates that there is a precise mathematical relationship between the frequencies of the carriers in the system. In a normal frequency-division multiplex system, many carriers are spaced apart in such a way that the signals can be received using conventional filters and demodulators. In such receivers, guard bands are introduced between the different carriers and in the frequency domain, which results in a lowering of spectrum efficiency. It is possible, however, to arrange the carriers in an OFDM signal so that the sidebands of the individual carriers overlap and the signals are still received without adjacent carrier interference. To do this, the carriers must be mathematically orthogonal. The receiver acts as a bank of demodulators, translating each carrier down to dc, with the resulting signal integrated over a symbol period to recover the raw data. If the other carriers all beat down the frequencies that, in the time domain, have a whole number of cycles in the symbol period T, then the integration process results in zero contribution from all these other carriers. Thus, the carriers are linearly independent (i.e., orthogonal) if the carrier spacing is a multiple of 1/T.

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The OFDM transmission scheme has the following key advantages: 1. Makes efficient use of the spectrum by allowing overlap 2. By dividing the channel into narrowband flat fading sub channels, OFDM is more resistant to frequency selective fading than single carrier systems are. 3. Eliminates ISI and IFI through use of a cyclic prefix. 4. Using adequate channel coding and interleaving one can recover symbols lost due to the frequency selectivity of the channel. 5. Channel equalization becomes simpler than by using adaptive equalization techniques with single carrier systems. 6. It is possible to use maximum likelihood decoding with reasonable complexity, as discussed in OFDM is computationally efficient by using FFT techniques to implement the modulation and demodulation functions. 7. In conjunction with differential modulation there is no need to implement a channel estimator. 8. Is less sensitive to sample timing offsets than single carrier systems are. 9. Provides good protection against co channel interference and impulsive parasitic noise.

In terms of drawbacks OFDM has the following characteristics: 1. The OFDM signal has a noise like amplitude with a very large dynamic range, therefore it requires RF power amplifiers with a high peak to average power ratio. 2. It is more sensitive to carrier frequency offset and drift than single carrier systems are due to leakage of the DFT.

4.2

Evolution of OFDM

Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) has been used for a long time to carry more than one signal over a telephone line. FDM divides the channel bandwidth into sub channels and transmits multiple relatively low rate signals by carrying each signal on a separate carrier frequency. To ensure that the signal of one sub channel did not overlap with the signal from an adjacent one, some guard-band was left between the dierent sub channels. Obviously, this guard-band led to ineciencies. Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) In order to solve the bandwidth eciency problem, orthogonal frequency division multiplexing was proposed, where the dierent carriers are orthogonal to each other. With OFDM, it is possible to have overlapping subchannels in the frequency domain, thus increasing the transmission rate. The basis functions are represented in Figure 2.3. This carrier spacing provides optimal spectral eciency.

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4.3

FFT and IFFT

The key components of an OFDM system are the inverse FFT at the transmitter and FFT at the receiver. These operations performing linear mappings between N complex data symbols and N complex OFDM symbols result in robustness against fading multipath channel. The reason is to transform the high data rate stream into N low data rate streams, each experiencing a at fading during the transmission. Suppose the data set to be transmitted is X (1), X(2), ..., X(N) where N is the total number of sub-carriers. The discrete-time representation of the signal after IFFT is:
( ) (

( )

At the receiver side, the data is recovered by performing FFT on the received signal, ( ) (

( )

An N-point FFT only requires Nlog(N) multiplications, which is much more computationally ecient than an equivalent system with equalizer in time domain.

4.4

Cyclic Prex

For the purpose to eliminate the effect of ISI, the guard interval could consist of no signals at all. Guard interval (or cyclic extension) is used in OFDM systems to combat against multipath fading.

In that case, however, the problem of intercarrier interference (ICI) would arise. The reason is that there is no integer number of cycles subcarriers within the FFT interval.
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difference between

 To eliminate ICI, the OFDM symbol is cyclically extended in the guard interval. This ensures that delayed replicas of the OFDM symbol always have an integer number of cycles within the FFT interval, as long as the delay is smaller than the guard interval.

4.5

Rayleigh Fading

In wireless telecommunications, multipath is the propagation phenomenon that results in radio signals reaching the receiving antenna by two or more paths. Causes of multipath include atmospheric ducting, ionospheric reflection and refraction, and reflection from water bodies and terrestrial objects such as mountains and buildings. The effects of multipath include constructive and destructive interference, and phase shifting of the signal. This causes Rayleigh fading. The standard statistical model of this gives a distribution known as the Rayleigh distribution.

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 Muhammad Sana Ullah* et al. / (IJAEST) INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ADVANCED ENGINEERING SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGIES Vol No. 8, Issue No. 1, 019 - 024 Charan Langton, Bernard Sklar, FINDING MIMO , IEEE Wireless Communications ,December 2004. S. M. Alamouti, "A simple transmit diversity technique for wireless communications", IEEE(R) Journal on Selected Areas in Communications, Vol. 16, No. 8, pp. 1451-1458, October 1998. G. G. Raleigh and J. M. Cioffi, Spatio-Temporal Coding for Wireless communication, IEEE Transaction on Communication, Vol. 46, No. 3, pp. 357-366, March 1998. Charan Langton, Intuitive Guide to Principles of comunication(OFDM Tutorial),2004.

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We implemented the ALAMOUTI SCHEME by using diversity scheme in MIMO and computed the BER for different Eb/N0 and snr values for BPSK modulation in a rayleigh fading channel with Alamouti Space Time Block Coding in a network having two transmit antennas and two Receive antennas.

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% Computing the BER for BPSK modulation in a % Rayleigh fading channel with Alamouti Space Time Block Coding % Two transmit antenna, Two Receive antenna clear % number of bits or symbols N = 10^6; % multiple Eb/N0 values Eb_N0_dB = [0:25]; nRx = 2; for i = 1:length(Eb_N0_dB) % Transmitter % generating 0,1 with equal probability ip = rand(1,N)>0.5; % BPSK modulation 0 -> -1; 1 -> 1 s = 2*ip-1; % Alamouti STBC salam = 1/sqrt(2)*kron(reshape(s,2,N/2),ones(1,2)) ; % channel % Rayleigh channel h = 1/sqrt(2)*[randn(nRx,N) + j*randn(nRx,N)]; % white gaussian noise n = 1/sqrt(2)*[randn(nRx,N) + j*randn(nRx,N)]; y = zeros(nRx,N); yMod = zeros(nRx*2,N); hMod = zeros(nRx*2,N); for k = 1:nRx hMod = kron(reshape(h(k,:),2,N/2),ones(1,2)); % repeating the same channel for two symbols hMod = kron(reshape(h(k,:),2,N/2),ones(1,2)); temp = hMod; hMod(1,[2:2:end]) = conj(temp(2,[2:2:end])); hMod(2,[2:2:end]) = -conj(temp(1,[2:2:end])); % Channel and noise addition y(k,:) = sum(hMod.*salam,1) + 10^(-Eb_N0_dB(i)/20)*n(k,:); % Receiver yMod([2*k-1:2*k],:) = kron(reshape(y(k,:),2,N/2),ones(1,2)); % forming the equalization matrix hEq([2*k-1:2*k],:) = hMod; hEq(2*k-1,[1:2:end]) = conj(hEq(2*k-1,[1:2:end])); hEq(2*k, [2:2:end]) = conj(hEq(2*k, [2:2:end])); end

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% equalization hEqPower = sum(hEq.*conj(hEq),1); % [h1*y1 + h2y2*, h2*y1 -h1y2*, ... ] yHat = sum(hEq.*yMod,1)./hEqPower; yHat(2:2:end) = conj(yHat(2:2:end)); % receiver - hard decision decoding ipHat = real(yHat)>0; % counting the errors nErr(i) = size(find([ip- ipHat]),2); end simBer = nErr/N; % simulated ber EbN0Lin = 10.^(Eb_N0_dB/10); %Eb/N0 is snr/bit snr = EbN0Lin.*N; snr_db = 10.*log10(snr); theoryBer_nRx1 = 0.5.*(1-1*(1+1./EbN0Lin).^(-0.5)); theoryBer_nRx1sn = 0.5.*(1-1*(1+1./snr).^(-0.5)); p = 1/2 - 1/2*(1+1./EbN0Lin).^(-1/2); theoryBerMRC_nRx2 = p.^2.*(1+2*(1-p)); p1 = 1/2 - 1/2*(1+1./snr).^(-1/2); theoryBerMRC_nRx2sn = p1.^2.*(1+2*(1-p1)); pAlamouti = 1/2 - 1/2*(1+2./EbN0Lin).^(-1/2); theoryBerAlamouti_nTx2_nRx1 = pAlamouti.^2.*(1+2*(1-pAlamouti)); pAlamouti1 = 1/2 - 1/2*(1+2./snr).^(-1/2); theoryBerAlamouti_nTx2_nRx1sn = pAlamouti1.^2.*(1+2*(1-pAlamouti1)); close all figure(1) %plotting with logarithmic scales of 10 on y axis semilogy(Eb_N0_dB,theoryBer_nRx1,'bp-','LineWidth',2); hold on semilogy(Eb_N0_dB,theoryBerMRC_nRx2,'kd-','LineWidth',2); semilogy(Eb_N0_dB,theoryBerAlamouti_nTx2_nRx1,'c+-','LineWidth',2); semilogy(Eb_N0_dB,simBer,'mo-','LineWidth',2); %choosing min and max values on x and y axis axis([0 25 10^-5 0.5]) grid on legend('theory (nTx=1,nRx=1)', 'theory (nTx=1,nRx=2, MRC)', 'theory (nTx=2, nRx=1, Alamouti)', 'sim (nTx=2, nRx=2, Alamouti)'); xlabel('Eb/No, dB'); ylabel('Bit Error Rate'); title('BER for BPSK modulation with 2Tx, 2Rx Alamouti STBC (Rayleigh channel)'); figure(2)

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semilogy(snr_db,theoryBer_nRx1sn,'bp-','LineWidth',2); hold on semilogy(snr_db,theoryBerMRC_nRx2sn,'kd-','LineWidth',2); semilogy(snr_db,theoryBerAlamouti_nTx2_nRx1sn,'c+-','LineWidth',2); semilogy(snr_db,simBer,'mo-','LineWidth',2); %choosing min and max values on x and y axis grid on legend('theory (nTx=1,nRx=1)', 'theory (nTx=1,nRx=2, MRC)', 'theory (nTx=2, nRx=1, Alamouti)', 'sim (nTx=2, nRx=2, Alamouti)'); xlabel('snr, dB'); ylabel('Bit Error Rate'); title('BER for BPSK modulation with 2Tx, 2Rx Alamouti STBC (Rayleigh channel)');

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