PAPER OF QUANTUM PHYSICS

Arranged by:
Fengky Adie Perdana
K2309025


PHYSICS DEPARTMENT
TEACHER TRAINING AND EDUCATION FACULTY
SEBELAS MARET UNIVERSITY
SURAKARTA
2012

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Quantum mechanics (QM also known as quantum physics, or quantum
theory) is a branch of physics dealing with physical phenomena where the action
is on the order of the Planck constant. Quantum mechanics departs from classical
mechanics primarily at the quantum realm of atomic and subatomic length scales.
QM provides a mathematical description of much of the dual particle-like and
wave-like behavior and interactions of energy and matter.
In advanced topics of quantum mechanics, some of these behaviors are
macroscopic and only emerge at extreme (i.e., very low or very high) energies or
temperatures. The name quantum mechanics derives from the observation that
some physical quantities can change only in discrete amounts (Latin quanta), and
not in a continuous (cf. analog) way. For example, the angular momentum of an
electron bound to an atom or molecule is quantized. In the context of quantum
mechanics, the waveparticle duality of energy and matter and the uncertainty
principle provide a unified view of the behavior of photons, electrons, and other
atomic-scale objects.
The mathematical formulations of quantum mechanics are abstract. A
mathematical function called the wavefunction provides information about the
probability amplitude of position, momentum, and other physical properties of a
particle. Mathematical manipulations of the wavefunction usually involve the bra-
ket notation, which requires an understanding of complex numbers and linear
functionals. The wavefunction treats the object as a quantum harmonic oscillator,
and the mathematics is akin to that describing acoustic resonance. Many of the
results of quantum mechanics are not easily visualized in terms of classical
mechanics for instance, the ground state in a quantum mechanical model is a non-
zero energy state that is the lowest permitted energy state of a system, as opposed
a more "traditional" system that is thought of as simply being at rest, with zero
kinetic energy. Instead of a traditional static, unchanging zero state, quantum
mechanics allows for far more dynamic, chaotic possibilities, according to John
Wheeler.
The earliest versions of quantum mechanics were formulated in the first
decade of the 20th century. At around the same time, the atomic theory and the
corpuscular theory of light (as updated by Einstein) first came to be widely
accepted as scientific fact; these latter theories can be viewed as quantum theories
of matter and electromagnetic radiation, respectively. Early quantum theory was
significantly reformulated in the mid-1920s by Werner Heisenberg, Max Born,
Wolfgang Pauli and their collaborators, and the Copenhagen interpretation of
Niels Bohr became widely accepted. By 1930, quantum mechanics had been
further unified and formalized by the work of Paul Dirac and John von Neumann,
with a greater emphasis placed on measurement in quantum mechanics, the
statistical nature of our knowledge of reality, and philosophical speculation about
the role of the observer. Quantum mechanics has since branched out into almost
every aspect of 20th century physics and other disciplines, such as quantum
chemistry, quantum electronics, quantum optics, and quantum information
science. Much 19th century physics has been re-evaluated as the "classical limit"
of quantum mechanics, and its more advanced developments in terms of quantum
field theory, string theory, and speculative quantum gravity theories.









CHAPTER II
DISCUSSION

The first postulate of Quantum Mechanics
To every state of a physical system there is a function ascribed to and
defining the state. First of all: there is a function described to doesnt mean
that there is a one-to-one correspondence function state. As we will see, a state
may have more than one function if certain conditions are fulfilled. To define
means to limit according to the English writer, Oscar Wilde, so our definitions
will be closer to the usual vocabulary in order to make the book more accessible,
but it doesnt mean that any accuracy is lost.
A physical system is (from the quantum point of view) a free particle, a
particle moving in some potential, a hydrogen atom, a hydrogen molecule, or an
atom (or molecule) of whatever kind, or many particles of the same kind or
different. As we can see, by a physical system we can understand a finite region of
space having certain characteristics which make that region different from others.
If there are certain physical quantities, or parameters, which at least in principle
can be measured, and they remain constant for a finite time interval, then we can
speak about the state of the physical system. It should be noted that there is a
difference between a state from the classical point of view and the quantum point
of view:
a. let us say we have a thermodynamic state of an ideal gas, meaning that we
know (for sure) the pressure, the temperature and the volume. It is understood
that we have to do with a maximum specification when we speak of state;
b. things are different from the quantum point of view when we speak of state,
because the verb to know does not have the meaning of we know for sure,
but, as we shall see, we know with certain probabilities.
(x,y,z,t) depending of the usual space coordinates (x, y, z) and
time t, is called a wavefunction. When we speak about the state of a physical
system, then depends of space coordinates only, and when we speak about
evolution, the time dependence of must be taken into account. Generally, the
wave-function is a complex function, which means that we have to do with its
complex conjugate
*
, as well, obtained by changing the imaginary number i into
-i.

The significance of the wave-function
Max Born has the merit of clarifying the meaning of the wave-function as
being the probability amplitude. Let us consider the simplest atom consisting of
one proton and one electron the hydrogen atom. Taking the proton as the centre
of a reference system, the hydrogens electron must be somewhere around the
proton at, say the distance r. The wave.-function will be (x,y,z)= (r,,), if we
work in spherical coordinates. The probability to find the electron somewhere at a
distance r from the proton is:

| |

||

||

..(1)
And the probability density is:

||

...(2)
If we take the integral of expression (1), from zero to infinity, we are sure
that the electron will be in this sphere, and, as a consequence the probability will
be 1.
Considering x = {x
1
,x
2
,x
3
,x
n
}the generalized coordinates [1],[28], or
Lagrangean parameters, the probability to find the particle in the entire space must
be 1, so:

||

.(3)
Where dV = dx
1
,dx
2
,dx
3
..dx
n
is the elementary volume in the configuration
space (the space of generalized coordinates).
An expression like (3) defines a special class of functions of unit norm,
meaning that all s have a modulus of one.
How does one work with the probability amplitude ?
Let us see Fig. 1, with electrons leaving the source EG and reaching the
detector D. The probability amplitude for this process is

.

The particle can take the path through slit 1, or through slit 2 and the
probability amplitude for these processes is
(EG)1D
= (
EG)1

1D
respectively

(EG)2D
=
(EG)2

2D
with:

(EG)1D
= (
EG)1

1D
+
(EG)2

2D..
(4)
And the probability:
||

| |

.(5)
Another way of writing the probability amplitude is to use Diracs bra andket
and ket vectors.
First of all, why vectors? Because there is another name for the wave-
function, or probability amplitude, namely state vector. Let us have a vector of
modulus 1, and

the unit vectors of Ox, Oy and Oz axes. Let also

z y x
u u u , , ,
be the angles made by with Ox, Oy and Oz, see Fig. 2.

..(6)
with r
2
= x
2
+y
2
+ z
2
and r having modulus 1 we will get:
1 cos cos cos
2 2 2
= + +
z y x
u u u
.(7)


A straightforward generalization of expression (6) is to consider an n
dimensional space spanned over the base unit
Vectors
1
,
2
,
3
, .
n
. Then each other vector of modulus 1 can be
written as:

..(8)
With c
k
being complex coefficients satisfying a condition similar to (7)
|

...(9)
Actually, the expression (8) is the mathematical formulation of a general physical
principle, namely, the superposition principle stating that if
1
,
2
,
3
, .

n
represent physically realizable processes, then any linear combination of the
form (8) is also a physical realizable process.
A system of functions allowing the expression (8) and the closure relation (9) is
called complete and closed.

Diracs writing.
Splitting the word bracket in two: bra and ket, Dirac invented a special
form of writing, generally used today in Quantum Theories. Here is Diracs
writing: a physical process starting from an initial state and reaching a final state
is described by the probability amplitude
|(10)
The vector | | is the ket vector, observing
that the bra vector | |
What we have in the right part of the vertical line is always the initial state, and
what we have in left part is the final state. For instance
(EG)D
. the probability
amplitude describing the process of a particle leaving the source EG and reaching
the detector D is now written as:
EG D =
(EG)D

..(11)


The second postulate of Quantum Mechanics
If
1
is the Hilbert space associated with the physical system S
1
, and
2
is
the Hilbert space corresponding to the other physical system S
2
, then the
composite system S
1
+ S
2
will be associated with the tensor product of the two
Hilbert vector spaces
1

2
.
As a summary, the second postulate of Quantum Mechanics defines the
word and, as Roger Penrose suggests. Let us consider the non-null vectors
1
2

1

and
1
,
2

2
. The state vector

is going to tell us the following:

the system S
1
is in state
1
and, at the same time, the system S
1

is in state

.
This is similar for
2

. We have to note that the concept of tensor product,

allowing the presence of both S
1
and S
2

at the same time, it is completely different
from the linear superposition where if, say, | o and are two possible states for
one particle, then a linear combination of the form (8) will also a possible state for
the same particle, but not for two particles. Having in mind the second postulate,
the state for two particles is described by the tensor product. Now, the vectors

2
,
1

1
are of unit length, and they are orthogonal. This also holds for

.
What about the new unit vector ?

...(12)
is a vector in
1

2
describing a state of the composite system S
1

+ S
2
. When
the composite system S
1

+ S
2

is in the state , can we say in what state S
1

is in,
and what state S
2
is in? Definitely not! Neither S
1
, nor S
2

are in a definite state.

The third postulate of Quantum Mechanics
To every observable of a physical system is associated a self-adjoint (or
Hermitian) operator allowing a complete set of eigenfunctions. An observable is
any physical quantity which can be measured by an experimental procedure, such
as: position, momentum, angular momentum, energy, etc.
An operator is an instruction showing us how to obtain a function g(x) if
we know another function f(x), or the operator maps a function f(x) into another
function g(x). From now on the operators will be written with capital bold letters.
Let O be an operator and f(x) a certain function of coordinate x. Applying the
operator O to the function f(x) we will get the function g(x):
(13)
Being in the frame of Quantum Mechanics, our functions are the wave-
functions, s, so that the operators will map a function from Hilbert space into
another function from Hilbert space.
The physical equivalent of an operator is some device changing something
in a particles state. For instance: an electron moves along a straight line. If the
electron enters the electric field of a parallel-plate capacitor, its path will be
curved, so the electron is in another state. In this case, the parallel-plate capacitor
is the physical operator.
Let be an observable, B the corresponding operator and , two vector
states from Hilbert space; then according to (13) we can write:
......(14)
If can be written as b , with b a number, then the equation:
(15)
is the eigenvalue equation of the operator B, being eigenfunctions and b the
eigenvalues of B.
Let b and f be constants and , two wave-functions.
B is a linear operator if:
) .(16)
Since we deal with linear operators only, as a general rule, we shall omit the word
linear.
The theory of linear operators is the mathematical apparatus of Quantum
Mechanics.

Eigenvalues spectra
Regarding the eigenvalues, the ensemble of the b values we have got as
solutions of the linear operator equation makes up the eigenvalues spectrum. If b
can take only certain values, we say that the eigenvalues spectrum is discrete. If b
can take any value, then the spectrum is continuous. For example, the position of
a particle can take any value along the axis of real numbers, so its eigenvalues
spectrum is a continuous one.
For some details of continuous spectra,
A few necessary definitions
a) If we have two operators A and B, then their sum A + B is also an operator:
.....(17)
b) If we have two operators A and B, then their product A B is also an operator:
...(18)
c) If we have two operators A and B, then:
...(19)
is also an operator and if
(20)
then we say that the two operators A and B commute and [A,B] is called the
commutator of A and B
d) If A is an operator and if there is an operator A
-1
, such that

...(21)
Self-adjoint operator
While studying a physical process, we are interested in values: values of
energy, values of angular momentum, etc., namely in real numbers. The
corresponding operators dealing with real numbers (as eigenvalues) are self-
adjoint or Hermitian operators. Lets see how it works!
Let A be an operator and , two state vectors. If the following equality takes
place:
||

|||
then A
+
is called the adjoint operator of A. If
A=A
+
...(22)
then A is a self-adjoint, or Hermitian operator.
The eigenvalues of self-adjoint operators are real numbers.
Let A be a Hermitian operator and one of its eigenfunctions, then according to
(22) we can write:
| |......(23)
With A ,equation becomes:
| |
|

| |

(34).....(24)

The momentum and position eigenvalue problems
Momentum and position are two observables and, according to the third
postulate, two Hermitian operators are associated with them.
Momentums eigenvalue problem
Let us, for the beginning, consider that pr is the particles momentum, P
x

the operator for the momentum corresponding to the x-axis, P
x

its eigenvalue and
the corresponding eigenfunction. The eigenvalue equation is:

...(25)
If we solve this equation, then we will know the eigenfunctions and
eigenvalues, but, first we must know the form of the operator P
x
. The third
postulate does not explain how to find the operators corresponding to observables.
So? The answer is similitude. One of the solutions of the differential equation of
electromagnetic waves (and not only) is the plane wave. Let be such a
monochromatic plane wave :

(26)
with i the imaginary number i
2
= -1 , ,
, , , ,
. Looking at the phase , we see that the derivative of phase with
respect to coordinates gives the wave vector kr. According to
, a wave will be associated to each particle, and the
wave vector is connected to the momentum, so the momentum operator can be
associated to derivatives with respect to coordinates. Knowing that e ,
k
h
p = =

, where h is Plancks constant (6.6260710

-34
Js),
t 2
h
= , v t e 2 =
is the angular frequency ( usually named frequency) and k is the wave number
(modulus of the wave vector), ,
2

t
= k (x ,y ,z )can be written as:
) ( ) (
z y x
zp yp xp
i
Et r p
i
ae ae
+ +
= =

....(27)

Lets take the derivatives with respect to coordinates:
( )

x
a Et zp yp xp
i
x
p
i
ae p
i
x
z y x

= =
c
c
+ + +

( )

y
a Et zp yp xp
i
y
p
i
ae p
i
y
z y x

= =
c
c
+ + +

( )

z
a Et zp yp xp
i
z
p
i
ae p
i
z
z y x

= =
c
c
+ + +
...(28)
Writing:

z y x
p
z
i p
y
i p
x
i =
c
c
=
c
c
=
c
c
, , and comparing with
, , ,
z z y y x x
p P p P p P = = =
We get:
x
i P
x
c
c
=
y
i P
y
c
c
=
(29)

z
i P
z
c
c
=
Or generally
V = i P
(30)

We have obtained the momentum operator, as derivatives with respect to
coordinates.
Let ) (x
x
p
be the wave-function corresponding to the P
x
operator. Then, the
eigenvalue equation for is:
) (
) (
x p
x
x
i
x
x
p x
p

=
c
c

(31)

Admitting momentum conservation and integrating equation (41), we will get:
x
x
xp
i
p
Ne x

= ) (
..(32)

with N the norm constant.
What about eigenvalues? Momentum being the product of mass and velocity, the
eigenvalue spectrum is continuous, because the velocity can take any value
between -c and +c, (c light speed in vacuum), and mass can be any positive real
number. Now, the momentum eigenfunction can be written as:
x
xp
i
x
Ne p x

= ) , (
..(33)

because p
x

is a real variable like x. What about N? It will be determined very soon.
The wavefunctions for P
x
and P
y
will be corresponding coordinates and momenta.
How does one norm eigenfunctions corresponding to continuous spectra of
eigenvalues?
Let us recall the direct product and consider that we are dealing with a one-
dimensional problem. It means that and can be written as:
+ = + u = u x x x x ) ( , ) (
..(34)

And (12) becomes:
}
+ u = + u
allx
dx x x
...(35)

Now, let us consider that uis just ' x , x and x being particles positions on a
straight line. (35) becomes:
}
+ = +
allx
dx x x x x ' '
...(36)

Recalling (34), we have:
}
+ = +
allx
dx x x x x ) ( ' ) (
..(37)

An expression like (37) is valid if and only if x x' is Diracs , ) ' ( x x o function.
By definition, Diracs function is:
}

= ) ( ) ( ) ( a f dx a x x f o
(38)

With 0 ) ( x f when x and a a real number.
A usual function with such property does not exist. The integral, in the Riemann
sense, of a function identical to zero excepting one point equals zero. By ) ( a x o
we have to understand a limiting process, meaning that there are functions
depending on a parameter , so that
) ( ) , (
0
x x f
Lim
o c
c
=

...(39)

Important properties:
}

=1 ) ( dx x o
(40)

With a a constant
) (
1
) ( x
a
ax o o =
..(41)

}

= o
t
o
o
d e x
x i
2
1
) (
...(42)

Fourier expansion,
) ( ) ( x x = o o
.(43)

So, if ) , (
x
p x + and ) ' , (
x
p x + are wave functions corresponding to the
momentum continuous eigenvalue spectrum, then:
}

= + + ) ' ( ) ' , ( ) , (
*
x x x x
p p dx p x p x o
.(44)

Expression (44) is valid for any wavefunction corresponding to the continuous
eigenvalue spectrum.
Using (33) in the above expression, we have:
}

= ) ' (
) ' (
*
x x
p p x
i
p p dx e N N
x x
o

(45)

With properties (42) and (41), we have:
) ' ( ) ' ( 2
2
x x x x
p p p p N = o o t
(46)

Taking the integral of (46) and using the property (40) we get:
t 2
1 2
= N
..(47)

If N is real then:
t 2
1
= N
..(48)

The momentum wavefunction will be:
x
xp
i
x
e p x

t 2
1
) , ( = +
...(49)

And similarly
y
yp
i
y
e p y

t 2
1
) , ( = +
..(50)

z
zp
i
z
e p z

t 2
1
) , ( = +
...(51)

The general solution for P must be of the same type, namely an exponential of ,
and this can be done multiplying (49), (50), (51).
( )
p r
i
z y x
e p p p z y x

2 / 3
2
1
) , , , , , (
t
= +
..(52)

The positions eigenvalue problem
To find the position operator we will use the similitude again. From Classical
Mechanics we know the Poisson brackets. Let f and g be two functions of
coordinates (x,y,z) and momenta (p
x
,p
y
,p
z
). The Poisson bracket corresponding to
these two functions is:

=
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
c
c

c
c
c
c
=
z y x j j j j j
p
g
x
f
x
g
p
f
g f
, ,
} , {
...(53)

Taking f = p
x
and g = x, their Poisson bracket is:
{p
x
,x}=1.(54)
If we multiply the expression (54) by a function (x), we have:
{p
x
,x}=.(55)
Now, lets take the derivative with respect to x of the product x.
x
x x
x c
+ c
+ + = +
c
c
) (
.(56)

Subtracting
x
x
c
+ c
from both sides of (56), we get:
+ =
c
+ c
+
c
c
x
x x
x
) (
(57)

This expression (56), seems to be related to (55) if we can find something which
is closed to Poisson bracket.
Now, let (x) be the wavefunction of the position operator X. The eigenvalue
equation of X is:
X=x..(58)
Then, equation (57) can be written:
+ = +
|
.
|

\
|
c
c

c
c
+ =
c
+ c
+
c
c
x
X X
x
or
x
X X
x
) (
(59)

The transition from (57) to (59) can be made only if the action of the position
operator consists in multiplying a function. In the expression (59) the bracket
seems to play a similar role with the Poisson bracket. Has it any significance?
Yes, it is also an operator, more precisely the commutator of the operators X and
x c
c
, and perhaps Dirac followed a similar way to introduce the operators
commutativity and the corresponding properties. The eigenvalues of the position
operator make up a continuous spectrum because the position of a particle can be
any real number.
The angular momentums eigenvalue problem
Classical Mechanics told us that there is a physical quantity called angular
momentum, which is a vector, defined as:
z y x
z y x
p p p
z y x
k j i
p r k L j L i L L



= = + + =
.(60)

Where r

is the particles vector position with respect to a reference system whose

basis are the unit vectors i

, j

, k

and p

is the particles momentum. From (60)

we get:
y z x
zp yp L =

z x y
zp yp L =

x y z
zp yp L = (61)
Knowing that to the observables position and momentum correspond Hermitian
operators X, Y, Z, and, P
x
,P
y
,P
z

respectively, we can get the angular momentum
operators, by replacing the classical observables by corresponding operators
according to the third postulate.
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c

c
c
= =
z
y
y
z i zp yp L
y z x


|
.
|

\
|
c
c

c
c
= =
x
z
z
x i zp yp L
z x y


|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c

c
c
= =
y
x
x
y i zp yp L
x y z
..(62)
Note. In (62) i is the imaginary number i
2
= -1
Also,
L
2
=L
2
x
+L
2
y
+L
2
z
................................................................................................(63)
To find the angular momentums operators it is easier to pass to spherical system
of coordinates. Let f (x,y,z) be a certain function of coordinates. In spherical
coordinates we have:
0cos sin r x =

0sin sin r y =

0 cos r z = ..(63)
In (72) we have to replace the derivatives with respect to x, y, z with u, , r
derivatives.
Connection
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
c
c
c
c

|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
c
c
c
c
z y x r
, , , ,
u
will be found solving the following
system of algebraic equation with respect to the unknowns
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
c
c
c
c
z
f
y
f
x
f
, , :
z
f
y
f
x
f
r
f
c
c
c
c
+
c
c
=
c
c
0 0 0 cos sin sin cos sin

z
f
r
y
f
r
x
f
r
f
c
c

c
c
+
c
c
=
c
c
0 0 0
0
sin sin cos cos cos

y
f
r
x
f
r
f
c
c
+
c
c
=
c
c
0 0

cos sin sin sin (64)

After some calculations, we get:
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
c
c
=

0
0
tan cos sin c i L
x


|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c

c
c
=

0
0
tan cos sin c i L
y


c
c
= i L
z
(65)
With (75) and (73) we, also, will get:
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
c
c
=
2
2
2
2 2
sin
1
sin
sin
1
0 0
0
0 0
L
..(66)

An important result we have got: the angular momentums operators act upon the
angular coordinates and only.
L
z
eigenvalue problem
Because L
z
acts upon the variable only, lets consider the corresponding
eigenfunctions (). The L
z
s eigenvalue equation will be:
) ( ) (
2
u = u L
.(67)

With L
x
done by (65) the eigenvalue equation takes the form:
) (
) (

|

u =
u

d
d
i
...(68)

(68) is a simple differential equation with separable variables, and recalling the
angular momentum conservation law ( constant), the solution is:

i
Ne = u ) (
...(69)

Now, we have to determine the eigenvalues and the norm constant N. The
uniformity condition of the wave-functions claims.
) 2 ( ) ( t + u = u
.(70)

Which gives:
with m , = ,. 2 , 1 , 0 = m
.(71)

So, the eigenvalue spectrum of the angular momentum operator L
z
is a discrete
one: the eigenvalue can be (in principle) any whole multiple of , including zero
too. Because the eigenvalue spectrum is discrete, the norm condition:
1 ) (
2
0
*
2
2
0
= = u
} }



t

t
d e Ne N d
im im
gives (if N is a real constant):
t 2
1
= N . So, the angular momentums Lz eigenfunction is:

im
m
e
2
1
) ( = u
..(72)

What is the significance of m? We will find out soon.
L
2
eigenvalue problem
Lets have:
2
2
2
sin
1
sin
sin
1
0 0
0
0 0 c
c
+
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
c
c
= O
(73)

Then:
O =
2 2
i L
(74)

Because L
2
acts upon the angular variables only, let Y(,) be its eigenfunction.
The eigenvalue equation will be:
) , ( ) , (
2
0 e 0 Y Y L = or 0 ) , ( ) , (
2
= + O 0
e
0 Y Y

.(75)

The equation (75) is known as the spherical waves differential equation being
solved in any book of Special Functions, The solutions of (75) are the spherical
functions Y
1m
(,):
) ( ) (cos ) , (
1 1
0 0
m m m
P Y u =
.(76)

) (cos
1
0
m
P being the associated Legendre polynomials of the
first kind:
l
m l
m l
m l
m
d
d
l m
m l l
P ) cos 1 (
) cos ( ) cos 1 ( ! 2
1
)! 1 (
)! (
2
1 2
) 1 ( ) (cos
2
2 / 2
1
1
0
0 0
0

+ +
=

.(77)

With (72) we have:

t
0
0 0
0
im l
m l
m l
m l
m
e
d
d
l m
m l l
Y
2
1
) cos 1 (
) cos ( ) cos 1 ( ! 2
1
)! 1 (
)! (
2
1 2
) 1 ( ) , (
2
2 / 2
1
1


+ +
=

.(78)

From (78) we see that for ) , ( , 0
lm
Y l m) vanish, so, there is no solution of (75).
Hence m, for fixed l can take the values:
l l l l m , 1 .. ,......... 1 , 0 , 1 .. ,......... 1 , + =
(79)

The L
2
eigenvalues are with l l ) 1 (
2
+ l = 0,1,2,3,.. (80)
What are these numbers l and m ? As one can see, l and m are connected to the
eigenvalues of the angular momentum operators L
2
and L
z
. They are called
quantum numbers: l is the orbital quantum number and m is the magnetic
quantum number. Why are these numbers called orbital and magnetic
respectively? I think there are historical reasons: the first application of Quantum
Mechanics was the simplest atom, namely, hydrogen, so, the electron orbiting the
nucleus has an angular momentum

, and L
z
its projection onto the z-axis (an
external magnetic field, e.g.), hence we have got l as orbital quantum number and
m as magnetic quantum number which has nothing magnetic in itself.

The forth postulate of Quantum Mechanics
The time evolution of a quantum state is governed by a unitary transformation.
If is the probability amplitude of a quantum state at time t , then ) ( t t A + + is its
probability amplitude at a later time t t A + so that ) ( ) , ( ) ( t t t t U t t + A + = A + +
, where U is a unitary linear operator.
U is unitary if UU
+
=U
+
U=1, where U
+
is Us adjoint operator.
To find out something about U we will proceed in a similar way with Feynmans
[2], and let us consider
n
the basis vectors, so the expression
) ( ) , ( ) ( t t t t U t t + A + = A + + can be written as:
( )

+ + + A + + = A + + +
k
k k n n
t t t t U t t ) , ( ) (
...(81)

With
) , ( ) , ( t t t U t t t U
nk k n
A + = + A + +
...(82)

What do we know about the matrix ) , ( t t t U
nk
A + ?
Well, first of all, when 0 At we have to reach the initial state, which means
that 1 ) , ( t t U
nn
and 0 ) , ( t t U
nn
, k n = therefore U
nk
can be written as:
t H
i
U
nk nk nk
A =

o
...(84)

Indeed, (84) (constants i and are introduced for convenience) satisfy the
above conditions, when 0 At ,
nk
o being the Kronecker symbol and
nk
H
another matrix whose significance will be clarified soon. With (84), (83) becomes:
( ) ( ) t H t
i
t t t
k
k
nk n n
+ + A + + = A + + +

) (
.(85)

( ) ( ) t H t
i
t t t
k
k
nk n n
+ + A = + + A + + +

) (
( )
( ) t H
i
t
t t t
k
k
k n
n n
+ + + + =
A
+ + A + + +

) (

( ) t H
i
t
t t t
k
k
k n
n
+ + + + =
A
+ A + + +

) ( ) (

( ) t H
i
t
t t t
k
k
k
+ + + =
A
+ A + +

) ( ) (

Passing the limit 0 At in the above expression, we get:
) (
) (
t H
dt
t d
i
+ =
+

.(86)

In the above equation H is going to play a major role. What is it? Lets find out!
Firstly, if H doesnt depend on time, starting from (86), we will get
t something
i
e t
.
) (

+ . What can be that something? Lets come back to classical

Physics..
Then, we get:
) (
) (
) (
) (
t E
t
t
i t E
i
t
t
+ =
c
+ c
+ =
c
+ c

(87)

For convenience, the above expression can be written as:
) ( ) ( t e t t
i
+ = A + +
o
, which gives
o i
e U =
..(88)

Here S is a Hermitian operator.

The Schrdinger equation
Classical Physics tells us that the total energy of a physical system is the sum of
the kinetic energy and potential energy:
p p
E
m
P
E
v m
E + = + =
0
2 2
0
2 2
(89)

Here, and everywhere else (unless it is explicitly said), by m we will understand
the particles (or physical systems) mass in the sense of Einsteins Theory of
Relativity, namely, the particles mass in the reference system where the particle
(or the physical system) is at rest.
Hence, the total energys operator will be found by replacing the classical
quantities with quantum corresponding operators.
U
m
U
m
H + A = + V =
0
2
2
0
2
2 2

.(90)

Where
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
z y x c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
= A = V is Laplaces operator, or Laplacean, and U is
the multiplicative operator corresponding to potential energy. From Classical
Physics, we know that the total energy of a physical system is just Hamiltons
function, hence H will be called Hamiltonian. H may be, or may not be dependent
on time.
) , , , ( ) , , ( ) , , , (
2
) , , , (
0
2
t z y z z y x U t z y x
m dt
t z y x d
i + + A+ =
+

(91)

This is the fundamental equation of Quantum Mechanics and is called the
Schrdinger equation.
Can we split the function ) , , , ( t z y z + into a function, then we can write:
Et
i
e z y z t z y z

+ = + ) , , ( ) , , , (
..(92)

we have:
) , , ( ) , , , ( ) , , ( ) , , , (
2
0
2
z y x E t z y z z y x U t z y x
m
+ = + + A+

..(93)

Observation. It is necessary to outline that the operator H in the time-dependent
Schrdinger equation (93) is the Hamiltonian of the system, and H from the
stationary Schrdinger equation is the operator energy . The two H are identical
only if the Hamiltonian doesnt depend on time.
An important property
If and are two solutions of the time dependent Schrdinger equation, then
their inner product is constant. The Schrdinger equations for these functions and
the inner product are:

t
i
t
i
c
+ c
= H+
c
u c
= Hu , , + u
...(94)

Taking the time derivative of the inner product and making use of the fact that
and u satisfy the time dependent Schrdinger equations, and also, that H is the
Hermitian we will have:
H+ u + + Hu = H+ u + + Hu =
+
u + +
u
=
+ u
i i i i dt
d
dt
d
dt
d
1 1 1 1
( ) ( ) 0
1 1
= H+ u H+ u = + Hu H+ u
i i

The result is
+ u =constant..(95)
If
+ u ,
enttime anysubsequ e initialtim
+ + = + +
..(96)

Measurements

The fifth postulate of Quantum Mechanics
The fifth postulate outlines the statistical nature of Quantum Mechanics and
bridges the mathematical apparatus introduced by the first four postulates and the
experimental results of a measuring process.
Let f be an observable and F the corresponding Hermitian operator. With
) , , ( z y z + the eigenfunctions, the eigenvalue equation can be written as:
+ = + f F
(97)

Considering the general case of a joint (discrete + continuous) eigenvalue
spectrum, the superposition principle may be written as:
Where .......) 3 , 2 , 1 ( = + k
k
are the eigenfunctions corresponding to the discrete
spectrum, and ( ) z y x z y z , , ) , , , (
o
o + + the eigenfunctions corresponding to the
continuous spectrum ( any real number). We already know that the expansion
coefficients are:
+ + =
k k
c
...(98)

+ + =
o
o) ( c
Question. If we arrange an experimental set-up to measure the observable f, then
what are the values we will expect to get? The answer is given by the fifth
postulate:
As a result of a measuring process performed upon an observable f, we will
obtain only the eigenvalues of the Hermitian operator, F, associated to the
observable. The probability of getting an eigenvalue f
k
corresponding to the
discrete spectrum is
2
k
c , and the probability of getting an eigenvalue
corresponding to the continuous spectrum within an interval d is o
o
d c
2

Over the years, the measuring process in Quantum Mechanics gave rise to a lot of
discussions, not only concerning physics, but also philosophy. As we have seen
before, there are entangled states, so if we have two separate particles being (each
one of them) in definite states, then the system of both particles is in an indefinite
state. Furthermore, if we measure a physical quantity for one particle, then
Quantum Mechanics predicts the correct value of the same physical quantity for
the second particle without measurements, as we shall see soon.
The expected value of an observable
Let a be a random variable taking (along a measuring process) the values
a
1
,a
2
,a
n
. By definition its expected value < a > is:

=
k
k k
P a a
..(99)

Where P
k
is the probability of getting the value a
k
.
Now, let us choose an observable f whose corresponding operator, according to the
third postulate, is F. The fifth postulate says that during the measuring process we
will get the eigenvalues f of this operator only. Let, also, ) , , ( z y z
k
+ be the
eigenfunctions corresponding to the discrete spectrum and ) , , , ( o z y z + the
eigenfunctions from the continuous spectrum.
o o
o
d c f c f f
k
k k
2
2
) (
}

+ =
(100)

The complex conjugates being
k k
c + + =
*
and
o
o + + = ) (
*
c , we will get:
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ + + |
.
|

\
|
+ +
}

o
o
o o d c F c F
k
k k
) (
+ + =
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ + + +
}

F d c c F
k
k k
o
o
o o) (
So, the expected value of f is an inner product:
+ + = F f
.(101)






























CHAPTER III
ENCLOSURE
CONCLUSION
The following summary of the mathematical framework of quantum
mechanics can be partly traced back to von Neumann's postulates.
- Each physical system is associated with a (topologically) separable
complex Hilbert space H with inner product | | . Rays (one-
dimensional subspaces) in H are associated with states of the system. In
other words, physical states can be identified with equivalence classes of
vectors of length 1 in H, where two vectors represent the same state if they
differ only by a phase factor. Separability is a mathematically convenient
hypothesis, with the physical interpretation that countably many
observations are enough to uniquely determine the state.
- The Hilbert space of a composite system is the Hilbert space tensor
product of the state spaces associated with the component systems. For a
non-relativistic system consisting of a finite number of distinguishable
particles, the component systems are the individual particles.
- Physical symmetries act on the Hilbert space of quantum states unitarily or
antiunitarily due to Wigner's theorem (supersymmetry is another matter
entirely).
- Physical observables are represented by densely-defined self-adjoint
operators on H. The expected value (in the sense of probability theory) of
the observable A for the system in state represented by the unit vector H is
| | A
By spectral theory, we can associate a probability measure to the values of
A in any state . We can also show that the possible values of the
observable A in any state must belong to the spectrum of A. In the special
case A has only discrete spectrum, the possible outcomes of measuring A
are its eigenvalues.
One can in this formalism state Heisenberg's uncertainty principle and
prove it as a theorem, although the exact historical sequence of events, concerning
who derived what and under which framework, is the subject of historical
investigations outside the scope of this article.
Furthermore, to the postulates of quantum mechanics one should also add
basic statements on the properties of spin and Pauli's exclusion principle, see
below.
Superselection sectors. The correspondence between states and rays needs
to be refined somewhat to take into account so-called superselection sectors.
States in different superselection sectors cannot influence each other, and the
relative phases between them are unobservable.




















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- R. P. Feynman, The Feynman lectures on Physics, Addison- -Wesley,
Reading, Massachusetts,
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New Physics, Ed. by Paul Davis, Cambridge University Press, 1989,
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Mechanics Ed. Politehnica, Timioara, 2003 (in Romanian),
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- http://arxiv.org/ftp/physics/papers/0602/0602145.pdf
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F%20QM.PDF
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tml
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mechanics
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lecture.pdf